Definitions

Algebra of complex numbers

Polar coordinates form of complex numbers

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

Sections 13.1 & 13.2

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions Complex numbers and complex plane
Algebra of complex numbers Complex conjugate
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers Modulus of a complex number

1. Complex numbers

Complex numbers are of the form

z = x + iy , x, y ∈ R, i 2 = −1.

In the above definition, x is the real part of z and y is the

imaginary part of z. y

The complex number z=3+2i

z = x + iy may be 1

represented in the 0 1 x
complex plane as the
point with cartesian
coordinates (x, y ).
Chapter 13: Complex Numbers
 Definitions Complex numbers and complex plane
Algebra of complex numbers Complex conjugate
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers Modulus of a complex number

Complex conjugate

The complex conjugate of z = x + iy is defined as

z̄ = x − iy .

As a consequence of the above definition, we have

z + z̄ z − z̄
e(z) = , m(z) = , zz̄ = x 2 + y 2 . (1)
2 2i
If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then

z1 + z2 = z1 + z2 , z1 z2 = z1 z2 . (2)

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions Complex numbers and complex plane
Algebra of complex numbers Complex conjugate
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers Modulus of a complex number

Modulus of a complex number

The absolute value or modulus of z = x + iy is

√

|z| = zz̄ = x 2 + y 2 .

It is a positive number.
Examples: Evaluate the following
|i|
|2 − 3i|

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Algebra of complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers

2. Algebra of complex numbers

You should use the same rules of algebra as for real numbers,
but remember that i 2 = −1.
Examples:
# 13.1.1: Find powers of i and 1/i.
Assume z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −1 − 7i. Calculate z1 z2 and
(z1 + z2 )2 .

Get used to writing a complex number in the form

z = (real part) + i (imaginary part),

no matter how complicated this expression might be.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Algebra of complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers

Algebra of complex numbers (continued)

Remember that multiplying a complex number by its complex

conjugate gives a real number.
Examples: Assume z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −1 − 7i.
z1
Find .
z2
z1
Find .
z2
 
Find m 1
z1 3
.
# 13.2.27: Solve z 2 − (8 − 5i)z + 40 − 20i = 0.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

3. Polar coordinates form of complex numbers

In polar coordinates, y

x = r cos(θ), y = r sin(θ), z=x+iy

y
where θ

0 x x
r = x 2 + y 2 = |z|.

The angle θ is called the argument of z. It is defined for all

z = 0, and is given by
⎧ y 
⎨ arctan  x  if x ≥0
arg(z) = θ = arctan  yx  + π if x < 0 and y ≥ 0 ± 2nπ.
⎩
arctan yx − π if x < 0 and y < 0

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Principal value Arg(z)

Because arg(z) is multi-valued, it is convenient to agree on a

particular choice of arg(z), in order to have a single-valued
function.
The principal value of arg(z), Arg(z), is such that
y
tan (Arg(z)) = , with − π < Arg(z) ≤ π.
x
y
Note that Arg(z)
Arg(z)=π 1
jumps by −2π when
one crosses the 0 1 x
negative real axis Arg(z)–> - π
from above.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Principal value Arg(z) (continued)

Examples:
Find the principal value of the argument of z = 1 − i.
Find the principal value of the argument of z = −10.

0 1 x

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Polar and cartesian forms of a complex number

You need to be able to go back and forth between the polar

and cartesian representations of a complex number.

z = x + iy = |z| cos(θ) + i|z| sin(θ).

In particular, you need to know the values of the sine and

cosine of multiples of π/6 and π/4.
π π
Convert cos + i sin to cartesian coordinates.
6 6
What is the cartesian form of the complex number such that
|z| = 3 and Arg(z) = π/4?

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Euler’s formula

Euler’s formula reads

exp(iθ) = cos(θ) + i sin(θ), θ ∈ R.

As a consequence, every complex number z = 0 can be

written as

z = |z| (cos(θ) + i sin(θ)) = |z| exp(iθ).

This formula is extremely useful for calculating powers and

roots of complex numbers, or for multiplying and dividing
complex numbers in polar form.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Integer powers of a complex number

To find the n-th power of a complex number z = 0, proceed as
follows
1 Write z in exponential form,

z = |z| exp (iθ) .

2 Then take the n-th power of each side of the above equation

z n = |z|n exp (inθ) = |z|n (cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)) .

3 In particular, if z is on the unit circle (|z| = 1), we have

(cos(θ) + i sin(θ))n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ).

This is De Moivre’s formula.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers
 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Integer powers of a complex number (continued)

Examples of application:
Trigonometric formulas
⎧
⎨ cos(2θ) = cos2 (θ) − sin2 (θ),
(3)
⎩
sin(2θ) = 2 sin(θ) cos(θ).

Find cos(3θ) and sin(3θ) in terms of cos(θ) and sin(θ).

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Product of two complex numbers

The product of z1 = r1 exp (iθ1 ) and z2 = r2 exp (iθ2 ) is

z1 z2 = (r1 exp (iθ1 )) (r2 exp (iθ2 ))

= r1 r2 exp (i (θ1 + θ2 )) . (4)

As a consequence,

arg(z1 z2 ) = arg(z1 ) + arg(z2 ), |z1 z2 | = |z1 | |z2 |.

We can use Equation (4) to show that

cos (θ1 + θ2 ) = cos (θ1 ) cos (θ2 ) − sin (θ1 ) sin (θ2 ) ,
(5)
sin (θ1 + θ2 ) = sin (θ1 ) cos (θ2 ) + cos (θ1 ) sin (θ2 ) .

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Ratio of two complex numbers

z1
Similarly, the ratio is given by
z2
z1 r1 exp (iθ1 ) r1
= = exp (i (θ1 − θ2 )) .
z2 r2 exp (iθ2 ) r2

As a consequence,

 
z1  z1  |z1 |
= arg(z1 ) − arg(z2 ),  =
arg
z2  z2  |z2 | .
 
 z1 
Example: Assume z1 = 2 + 3i and z2 = −1 − 7i. Find  .
z2

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Roots of a complex number

To find the n-th roots of a complex number z = 0, proceed as
follows
1 Write z in exponential form,

z = r exp (i(θ + 2pπ)) ,

with r = |z| and p ∈ Z.
2 Then take the n-th root (or the 1/n-th power)

√ θ + 2pπ √ θ + 2pπ
n
z =z 1/n
=r 1/n
exp i = r exp i
n
.
n n
3 There are thus n roots of z, given by

√ θ + 2kπ θ + 2kπ
zk = r cos
n
+ i sin , k = 0, · · · , n−1.
n n

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Roots of a complex number (continued)

√
The principal value of z is the n-th root of z obtained by
n

taking θ = Arg(z) and k = 0.

The n-th roots of unity are given by

√ 2kπ 2kπ
= ωk ,
n
1 = cos + i sin k = 0, · · · , n − 1
n n

where ω = cos(2π/n) + i sin(2π/n).

In particular, if w1 is any n-th root of z = 0, then the n-th
roots of z are given by

w1 , w1 ω, w1 ω 2 , · · · , w1 ω n−1 .

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Roots of a complex number (continued)

Examples:
Find the three cubic roots of 1.

√
Find the four values of 4
i.

Give a representation in the complex plane of the principal

value of the eighth root of z = −3 + 4i.

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers

 Definitions
Euler’s formula
Definitions
Integer powers of a complex number
Algebra of complex numbers
Product and ratio of two complex numbers
Polar coordinates form of complex numbers
Roots of a complex number
Triangle inequality

Triangle inequality

If z1 and z2 are two complex numbers, then

|z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |.

This is called the triangle inequality. Geometrically, it says

that the length of any side of a triangle cannot be larger than
the sum of the lengths of the other two sides.

More generally, if z1 , z2 , . . . , zn are n complex numbers, then

|z1 + z2 + · · · + zn | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 | + · · · + |zn | .

Chapter 13: Complex Numbers