Lecture 5.

Complex Numbers and Euler’s Formula

University of British Columbia, Vancouver

Yue-Xian Li
March 2017

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Main purpose:

To introduce some basic knowledge of complex numbers to students so

that they are prepared to handle complex-valued roots when solving the
characteristic polynomials for eigenvalues of a matrix.

Eg: In high school, students learned that the roots of a quadratic equa-
tion ax2 + bx + c = 0 (a 6= 0) are given by
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x1,2 =
2a

where the sign of the discriminant ∆ = b2 −4ac determines the following

three outcomes

 ∆ > 0, 2 real roots;
If ∆ = 0, 1 (repeated) real root;
∆ < 0, no real root.


When complex-valued roots are allowed as in the case when solving

eigenvalues, however, a polynomial of degree n always has n roots
(Gauss’ Fundamental Theorem of Algebra), of which some or all of
them can be identical (repeated). Thus, a quadratic equation always
has 2 roots irrespective of the sign of ∆.

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5.1 Definitions and basic concepts

The imaginary number i:

√
i≡ −1 ⇐⇒ i2 = −1. (1)

Every imaginary number is expressed as a real-valued multiple of i:

√ √ √ √
−9 = 9 −1 = 9i = 3i.

A complex number:

z = a + bi, (2)

where a, b are real, is the sum of a real and an imaginary number.

The real part of z: Re{z} = a is a real number.

The imaginary part of z: Im{z} = b is a also a real number.

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A complex number represents a point (a, b) in a 2D space, called
the complex plane. Thus, it can be regarded as a 2D vector expressed
in form of a number/scalar. Therefore, there exists a one-to-one corre-
spondence between a 2D vectors and a complex numbers.

Im{z}
z=a+bi
b

Re{z}
a

−b
z=a−bi

Figure 1: A complex number z and its conjugate z̄ in complex space. Horizontal axis contains all real numbers,
vertical axis contains all imaginary numbers.

The complex conjugate:

z̄ = a − bi,

which is obtained by reversing the sign of Im{z}.

Notice that:
z + z̄ z − z̄
Re{z} = = a, Im{z} = = b.
2 2i

Therefore, both Re{z} and Im{z} are linear combinations of z and z̄.

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5.2 Basic computations between complex numbers

Addition/subtraction:

If z1 = a1 + b1i, z2 = a2 + b2i (a1, a2, b1, b2 ∈ R), then

z1 ± z2 = (a1 + b1i) ± (a2 + b2i) = (a1 ± a2) + (b1 ± b2)i.

Or, real parts plus/minus real parts, imaginary parts plus/minus imag-
inary parts.

Multiplication by a real scalar α:

αz1 = αa1 + αb1i.

Multiplication between complex numbers:

z1 z2 = (a1 +b1 i)(a2 +b2 i) = a1 a2 +a1 b2 i+a2 b1 i+b1 b2 i2 = (a1 a2 −b1 b2 )+(a1 b2 +a2 b1 )i.

All rules are identical to those of multiplication between real numbers,

just remember that i2 = −1.

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Length/magnitude of a complex number z = a + bi
√ p √
|z| = z z̄ = (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2,
which is identical to the length of a 2D vector (a, b).

Division between complex numbers:

z1 z1z̄2 (a1 + b1i)(a2 − b2i) (a1a2 + b1b2) + (a2b1 − a1b2)i

= = = .
z2 z2z̄2 |z2|2 a22 + b22

Eg 5.2.1 Given that z1 = 3 + 4i, z2 = 1 − 2i, calculate

1. z1 − z2;
z1
2. 2;

3. |z1|;
z2
4. z1 .

Ans:
1. z1 − z2 = (3 − 1) + (4 − (−2))i = 2 + 6i;
z1
2. 2= 32 + 24 i = 1.5 + 2i;
√ √ √
2 2
3. |z1| = z1z̄1 = 3 + 4 = 25 = 5;
z2 z2 z̄1 (1−2i)(3−4i) −5−10i
4. z1 = z1 z̄1 = 52
= 25 = − 15 − 25 i.

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5.3 Complex-valued exponential and Euler’s formula

Euler’s formula:
eit = cos t + i sin t. (3)

Based on this formula and that e−it = cos(−t)+i sin(−t) = cos t−i sin t:

eit + e−it eit − e−it

cos t = , sin t = . (4)
2 2i

Why? Here is a way to gain insight into this formula.

Recall the Taylor series of et:

∞ n
X t
et = .
n=0
n!

Suppose that this series holds when the exponent is imaginary.

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞
it
X (it)n X (it)n X (it)n X (it)2m X (it)2m+1
e = = + = +
n=0
n! n even
n! n! m=0
(2m)! m=0
(2m + 1)!
n odd

∞ 2m 2m ∞ 2m+1 2m+1 ∞ ∞
X i t X i t X (i2)mt2m X i(i2)mt2m+1
= + = +
m=0
(2m)! m=0
(2m + 1)! m=0
(2m)! m=0
(2m + 1)!

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 ∞ ∞
X (−1)mt2m X (−1)mt2m+1
= +i = cos t + i sin t.
m=0
(2m)! m=0
(2m + 1)!

Remarks:
• Sine and cosine functions are actually linear combinations of expo-
nential functions with imaginary exponents.
• Similarly, hyperbolic sine and cosine functions are linear combina-
tions of exponential functions with real exponents.
et − e−t et + e−t
sinh(t) = , cosh(t) = .
2 2

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5.4 Polar representation of complex numbers

For any complex number z = x + iy (6= 0), its length and angle w.r.t.
the horizontal axis are both uniquely defined.

Im{z}
z=x+yi = ρ ei θ
y
2
2 +y
x
ρ= Re{z}
θ
x

p
Figure 2: A complex number z = x + iy can be expressed in the polar form z = ρeiθ , where ρ = x2 + y 2 is its
length and θ the angle between the vector and the horizontal axis. The fact x = ρ cos θ, y = ρ sin θ are consistent
with Euler’s formula eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.

One can convert a complex number from one form to the other by using
the Euler’s formula:

z = x + iy ⇔ z = ρeiθ , where
p y
x = ρ cos θ, y = ρ sin θ; ρ = x2 + y 2, θ = tan−1 ;
x

where we often restrict 0 ≤ θ ≤ 2π or −π ≤ θ ≤ π. Otherwise,

the conversion from Cartesian to polar coordinates is not unique, θ can
differ by an integer multiple of 2π.

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Eg 5.4.1 Convert the following complex numbers from one form to the
other.
1. z = 3i;
2. z = 1;
√
3. z = 1 + i 3;
4. z = −2 − 2i;
π
5. z = e−i 6 ;
π
6. z = 5ei 4 ;
π
7. z = −5e−i 3 .

Ans:
π
1. z = 3i = 3ei 2 ;
2. z = 1 = ei0 = 1, (for a positive real number, there is no change!);
√ q √ −1
√
3 π
3. z = 1 + i 3 = 12 + ( 3)2ei tan 1 = 2ei 3 ;
p −1 −2 √ 5π √ 3π
4. z = −2 − 2i = (−2)2 + (−2)2ei tan ( −2 ) = 2 2ei 4 = 2 2e−i 4 ;
√
−i π6
5. z = e = cos(− 6 ) + i sin(− 6 ) = 23
π π
− i 12 ;
i π4 π π
√ √ √
6. z = 6e = 6 cos 4 + i6 sin 4 = 3 2 + 3 2i = 3 2(1 + i);
π
h √ i
7. z = −4e−i 3 = (−4) cos(− 3 ) + i sin(− 3 ) = (−4) 2 − i 22 =
π π 1
 
√
−2 + 2 2i.

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Remark: It is important to know that the collection of all complex
numbers of the form z = eiθ form a circle of radius one (unit circle) in
the complex plane centered at the origin. In other words, the equation
for a unit circle centered at the origin in complex plane is z = eiθ (see
figure).
Im{z}

iθ
z=e
ρ =1
θ

Re{z}

Figure 3: The collection of all complex numbers of the form z = eiθ form a unit circle centered at the origin in
the complex plane.

Remark: Rotation of a vector represented by a complex number z =

ρeiθ counter-clockwise by angle φ is achieved by multiplying eiφ to it:

eiφz = eiφρeiθ = ρei(θ+φ).

Remark: The product between z1 = ρ1eiθ1 and z2 = ρ2eiθ2 yields

z1z2 = ρ1eiθ1 ρ2eiθ2 = (ρ1ρ2)ei(θ1+θ2)

which is a vector of length ρ1ρ2 and an angle θ1 + θ2.

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 √
3
Eg 5.4.2 Find all roots of 1, complex and real.

Ans:

1 = e0 = ei(0) = e(2πn)i, for any integer n.

Therefore,

√
3 1

(2πn)i
 13 2πn i
1=1 = e
3 =e 3 , for any integer n.

Often, the angle θ for a complex number expressed in form of eθi is

restricted in the range 0 ≤ θ < 2π.

√ √
3 2π 4π
If so, 3
1 has only three roots in this range: 1 = 1, e 3 i, e 3 i.
Im{z}

2π i
3
1 = e3

3
1 =1
Re{z}

4π i
3
1 = e3

Figure 4: The cubic roots of number 1 in complex plane.

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5.5 Polynomials of degree n must have n roots!

Eg 5.5.1 Find all roots of z 2 + 2z + 10 = 0.

Ans: Notice that

z 2 + 2z + 10 = z 2 + 2z + 1 + 9 = (z + 1)2 + 9 = 0.

There is no real root! But there are two complex-valued roots forming
a pair of complex conjugates.

√
(z + 1)2 + 9 = 0 ⇒ (z + 1)2 = −9 ⇒ z + 1 = ± −9 ⇒ z = −1 ± 3i.

Final remarks:

(a) Any polynomial of degree n can always be factored into the product
of n terms in which zi, (i = 1, . . . , n) are the n roots.

Pn(z) = anz n+an−1z n−1+· · ·+a1z+a0 = an(z−zn)(z−zn−1) · · · (z−z1).

(b) Complex roots of a polynomial always occur as a pair of complex

conjugates: z± = a ± bi.
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