Erosion Principles

January 2009
www.ew.govt.nz
Guidelines for Soil Disturbing Activities
erosion
sediment control
erosion & sediment control Guidelines for Soil Disturbing Activities
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erosion & sediment control
Erosion & Sediment Control
January 2009
Environment Waikato Technical Report No.2009/02
ISSN 1172-4005 (Print)
ISSN 1177-9284 (Online)
Acknowledging the use of Auckland Regional Council Technical
Publication Number 90: Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines
for Land Disturbing Activities in the Auckland Region.
Environment Waikato
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1. Principles 9
1.1 Types of Erosion 9
1.1 Factors Influencing the Erosion Process 11
1.2 The Ten Commandments of Erosion and Sediment Control 12
1.3 Types of Land Disturbing Activities Undertaken 14
2. Erosion Control Practices 17
2.1 Runoff Diversion Channel/Bund 19
2.2 Contour Drain 21
2.3 Watertable Drains 23
2.4 Water Cut-offs 25
2.5 Watertable Culverts 27
2.6 Sediment Pits 29
2.7 Berm bunds 31
2.8 Benched Slope 33
2.9 Rock Check Dam 35
2.10 Topsoil 37
2.11 Revegetation Techniques 39
2.11.1 Seeding 39
2.11.2 Hydroseeding 41
2.11.3 Mulching 43
2.11.4 Turfing 45
2.12 Geosynthetic Erosion Control Systems (GECS) 47
2.13 Stabilised Construction Entrance 49
2.14 Pipe/Flume Drop Structure 51
2.15 Level Spreader 55
2.16 Surface Roughening 57
3. Sediment Control Practices 59
3.1 Sediment Retention Pond 61
3.2 Silt fence 75
3.3 Super Silt Fence 79
3.4 Hay Bale Barrier 83
3.5 Stormwater Inlet Protection 85
3.6 Decanting Earth Bund 87
3.7 Sump/Sediment Pit 89
Table of contents
Environment Waikato
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4. Works Within A Watercourse 91
4.1 Temporary Watercourse Crossings 93
4.2 Temporary Watercourse Diversion 95
4.3 Permanent Watercourse Crossings 99
4.3.1 Bridges 101
4.3.2 Culvert Crossings 103
4.4 Rock Outlet Protection 107
5. Quarries 109
6. Vegetation Removal 111
7. Glossary 115
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These guidelines have two main objectives:
a) To provide users, ranging from those directly
associated with various soil disturbing
activities to interest groups, with a series of
comprehensive guidelines for erosion and
sediment control by:
outlining the principles of erosion and
sediment control and the sediment transfer
process;
providing a range of erosion and sediment
control practices to be implemented on
various soil disturbing activities.
b) To minimise adverse environmental effects of
soil disturbing activities through appropriate
use and design of erosion and sediment control
techniques.
How These Guidelines Work
These guidelines are based on the Auckland
Regional Councils Technical Publication
Number 90, titled Erosion and Sediment Control
Guidelines for Land Disturbing Activities.
These guidelines focus on the principles and
practices of erosion and sediment control for
various soil disturbing activities. They should be
used during planning for earthworks projects.
They should also be used during the development
of an Erosion and Sediment Control Plan for
a project and during development of consent
applications for earthworks projects. The erosion
and sediment control measures and criteria
outlined in these guidelines are minimum
standards and in many cases higher standards
may be required.
The introduction to these guidelines describes the
need for erosion and sediment controls in the
Waikato Region. Section 1 describes the basic
principles of erosion and sediment control. This
section describes basic types of erosion, factors
that influence the erosion process, the Ten
Commandments of erosion and sediment control,
and common types of land disturbing activities
undertaken in the Waikato Region. Section 2
describes practices designed to prevent erosion
from occurring. Section 3 describes practices for
removing sediment from water once erosion and
sediment transport have occurred. Specific erosion
and sediment control practices are sometimes
required for works in watercourses, for quarries
and during vegetation removal, and these are
described in Sections 4, 5 and 6 respectively.
Finally, a glossary and references complete the
guidelines.
Environment Waikato staff are available
for further advice and can be contacted on
Environment Waikatos Freephone
0800 800 401.
Environment Waikato
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Erosion and Sediment Control in the
Waikato Region
Significant areas of land are stripped of
vegetation or laid bare each year in the Waikato
Region for construction of subdivisions, roads,
cleanfills and other developments. Without
protection measures, transformation of this land
can result in accelerated on-site erosion and
greatly increased sedimentation of waterways,
lakes, estuaries and harbours.
Significant quantities of sediment are discharged
from bare earth surfaces where appropriate
erosion and sediment control measures are not
implemented.
Various studies indicate there is a 10 to 100 times
increase in sediment yield from construction sites
compared with that produced from pastoral land,
while data from the United States suggests that
there may be up to 1000 times the sediment yield
from disturbed sites during construction compared
with permanent forest cover.
The adverse ecological effects caused by sediment
in waterways include:
Modified or destroyed in-stream values.
Modified estuarine and coastal habitats.
Smothering and abrading of fauna and flora.
Changes in food sources and interruption of
lifecycles.
There is often a total change to in-stream
communities. Recovery times from the effects
of sediment deposition are more likely to be
measured in years rather than months. In addition
to ecological changes, there may be damage
to water pumps and other structures, the quality
of water supplies usually diminishes, localised
flooding can occur and there is a loss of aesthetic
appeal.
Current Legislation
The Resource Management Act 1991 (RMA)
establishes Environment Waikatos statutory
responsibilities for resource management. The
purpose of the RMA is to promote the sustainable
management of natural and physical resources.
Sustainable management is defined in Section 5
of the Act as:
managing the use, development and protection
of natural and physical resources in a way or at
a rate, which enables people and communities
to provide for their social, economic, and cultural
wellbeing and for their health and safety while:
a) sustaining the potential of natural and physical
resources (excluding minerals) to meet the
reasonably foreseeable needs of future
generations; and
b) safeguarding the life supporting capacity of air,
water, soil and ecosystems; and
c) avoiding, remedying or mitigating any adverse
effects of activities on the environment.
Consents and Permitted Activities for
Earthworks
Some earthworks activities require consents from
Environment Waikato. Consents may be required
where earthworks are near streams, lakes,
wetlands, or coastal waters, or where the works
are on steep land, or over large areas, or when
permitted activity discharge standards cannot be
met. Consents may be required for stormwater
discharges from earthworks sites. Large-scale
vegetation clearance (such as forest harvesting)
and quarry operations may also require consents.
Consent requirements are described in the
Waikato Regional Plan. A copy of this Plan can
be found on our website www.ew.govt.nz.
Activities that do not require consents are called
Permitted Activities. The Waikato Regional
Plan also has conditions for Permitted Activities
which may apply to earthworks projects. It is
very important that where earthworks are being
undertaken as Permitted Activities, the conditions
of the Permitted Activity Rules are complied with
at all times. The permitted activity rules have
stringent discharge standards which cannot be
easily met on larger sites. If the permitted activity
rules discharge standards cannot be met at all
times then resource consent/s should be obtained
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for the project. These Rules can be found on
our website. If there is any doubt about these
requirements, you should contact Environment
Waikato.
When is Erosion and Sediment Control
Required?
All projects involving soil disturbing activities in
the Waikato Region must incorporate erosion
and sediment controls as an integral part of
development. On all projects, erosion and
sediment controls should be in place before
earthworks commence and should be removed
only after the site has been fully stabilised to
protect it from erosion. The principles and
practices within these guidelines should be
referred to, and staff at Environment Waikato
contacted for further advice if required.
Works Within a Watercourse
Any works within a watercourse must be carefully
planned because controlling sediment generation
from these activities is difficult. These guidelines
include a number of erosion and sediment control
measures that can used for realignment, piping,
culverting and stabilisation works. Techniques for
minimising sediment generation and discharge
when undertaking works within a watercourse are
outlined in Section 4 of these guidelines. As stated
in the introduction, consents may be required
when undertaking such works, and contact should
be made with Environment Waikato staff to
discuss the specific details of the proposed activity.
Cleanfills
These guidelines do not include a specific section
on cleanfill operations, but standard earthworks
erosion and sediment control practices are
appropriate for cleanfill operations.
Soils of the Waikato Region
Soils vary considerably throughout the Region.
Soils in the south-east of the Region (Taupo and
the upper catchments of the Waikato River) are
formed from recent airfall tephra and can be
categorised as weakly weathered and of low
cohesion. These are highly erodible pumice and
raw volcanic soils which require a particular focus
on control of overland flow when being worked.
The Waikato Basin and the Hauraki Plains are
predominantly loamlands derived from well
weathered tephra, some of which are river sorted.
Although these soils are less erodible than the
recent soils the presence of a clay component can
cause visual effects and water quality degradation
as a result of sediment laden runoff. This also
applies to localised highly weathered soils which
can release high volumes of dispersive clay
resulting in significant downstream effects.
Organic soils (peats) are also a major soil group
in the Waikato Basin and Lower Hauraki Plains.
Working these soils does not normally result
in significant downstream effects apart from a
possible increase in staining and debris.
The north of the Region (Pukekohe - Pukekawa)
has much older Hamilton Ash soils which form
well structured, free draining, volcanic loamy
clays. These soils generally have low erodibility,
however because of the large ped size will entrain
readily in concentrated overland flow.
Clay soils, common in the Coromandel area,
contain fine soil particles that take a much longer
time to settle out of water than coarser silt sized
particles. Larger and more numerous sediment
control measures may not be very effective in
limiting the off-site transfer of sediment on clay
soils. As a result more emphasis may be required
on erosion control for clay soils compared to other
soil types.
The hill country of the Region has soils derived
from a variety of sedimentary parent material
ranging from limestone around Waitomo to
the shattered mudstones of the Mokauiti Valley.
Folded/ uplifted landforms in some cases has
resulted in soils on tilted parent material having
deep seated mass movement. Erosion of this form
may require engineering solutions, which might
include such measures as drainage to reduce slip
plane lubrication and buttress support.
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Environment Waikato
Principles
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Types of Erosion 1.1
Erosion is the process whereby the land surface
is worn away by the action of water, wind, ice
or other geological processes. The resultant
displaced material is known as sediment.
Sedimentation is the deposition of this eroded
material. Accelerated erosion, caused primarily by
human development activities, is generally much
more rapid than natural erosion.
The basic erosion process is detachment, transport
and deposition (sedimentation). Water is the usual
eroding agent and transport medium, through
raindrop impact and overland flow energy. Water
dislodges exposed soil particles and transports
them downslope. Runoff and streamflow transport
the eroded soil particles to the final receiving
environment where sedimentation occurs.
There are seven main types of erosion associated
with soil disturbing activities:
1. Splash erosion
2. Sheet erosion
3. Rill erosion
4. Gully erosion
5. Tunnel erosion
6. Channel erosion
7. Mass movement
Splash Erosion
Soil erosion is a mechanical process that requires
energy. Much of this energy is supplied by falling
raindrops.
The impact of a single raindrop on a soil surface
or on a thin film of water may break up the soil
aggregates and cause individual particles to be
thrown into the air. If this occurs on a slope then
some particles will move upslope, but the net
effect due to gravity will cause splashed particles
to move downslope. Splash erosion is directly
related to the size, distribution, shape, velocity and
direction of the raindrop.
The erosive ability of splash erosion is enhanced
by intense rainstorms.
Sheet Erosion
When rainfall intensity exceeds the infiltration
rate of a soil and the capacity of the available
surface detention, excess water moves downslope,
transporting soil particles detached by splash
erosion.
Sheet erosion or wash erosion is the uniform
removal of soil in thin layers by the forces of
raindrops and overland flow. It can be a very
significant erosive process because it can cover
large areas of sloping land and may go unnoticed
for some time. Sheet erosion can be recognised
by soil deposition at the bottom of a slope, or by
the appearance of light coloured subsoil material
on the surface. If left unattended, sheet erosion of
topsoils will gradually remove the nutrients and
organic matter important to re-vegetation, and
will eventually result in loss of soil productivity
on contributing slopes and elevated sediment
concentrations in receiving waters.
Rill Erosion
Rill erosion is the removal of soil by runoff moving
in concentrated flows. As the flow changes from
sheet flow to deeper flow in these channels, or rills,
the velocity and turbulence of the flow increases,
and the energy of this flow is able to both detach
and transport soil particles.
Rill erosion has been estimated to be the dominant
contributor to erosion on hill slopes.
Gully Erosion
Gully erosion is the removal of soil by running
water resulting in the formation of channels
greater than 300 mm deep. Gullies can be
distinguished from rills when normal agricultural
tillage operations cannot obliterate them.
The following are the processes which act in
forming gullies:
waterfall erosion at the head of the gully
channel erosion
raindrop splash
diffuse flow from the side of the gully or from
seepage
slides or mass movement of soil within the gully.
A gully may develop and grow rapidly and their
formation may generate a considerable amount
of erosion. Therefore, their prevention and
remediation is vital for erosion control.
Tunnel Erosion
Tunnel erosion, or piping is the removal of
subsurface soil by subsurface water while the
surface soil remains relatively intact. This produces
long cavities beneath the ground surface, which
may enlarge until the soil surface is no longer
Principles 1.
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Environment Waikato
supported, at which point the surface may
collapse forming a circular hole, sometimes
referred to as a tomo. Such erosion tunnels may
range in size from a few centimetres to several
metres in diameter and typically form a series
along the surface above a tunnel. Tunnel erosion
is uncommon within Environment Waikatos
Region.
Channel Erosion
The erosion of ephemeral or perennial channels
results from direct action of concentrated flow
when the velocity or volume of flow in a stream
increases. Natural channels adjust over time to
the volume and velocity of runoff that normally
occurs in the catchment. Channel erosion occurs
by scouring or undercutting of the stream bank
below the water surface and generally happens
during medium to high flows.
High flows in stream channels occur more
frequently once a catchment has been developed,
eroding stream banks and enlarging the channel.
Mass Movement
Mass movement is the erosion of soil or rock by
gravity-induced collapse. It is usually triggered
by ground water pressure after heavy rain, but
can also have other causes, notably streams
undercutting the base of a slope or earthworks.
Movement can be either rapid and near
instantaneous (landslides, avalanches, debris
flows), or slow and intermittent (earth flows and
slumps). Earth and soil slip movement are also
often noted after the removal of vegetation from
critical slopes associated with soil disturbing
activities. These slopes need to be identified
before development starts and should be avoided
wherever practicable.
Mass movement can cause major problems, and
geotechnical investigations should be undertaken
where possible to avoid critical slopes or allow for
the prevention of such erosion.
Figure 1: Types of erosion common in the Waikato region
Principles
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Factors Influencing the Erosion 1.1
Process
The main factors influencing soil erosion are
climate, soil characteristics, topography, ground
cover and evapotranspiration.
Climate
Climate affects erosion potential both directly and
indirectly. The direct relationship arises from the
action of rain - a driving force of erosion - where
raindrops dislodge soil particles and runoff carries
them away.
The annual pattern of rainfall and temperature
change, by and large, determines the extent and
growth rate of vegetation. This is critical, because
vegetation is one of the most important forms of
erosion control.
Soil Characteristics
Four soil characteristics are important in
determining soil erodibility:
Soil texture refers to the particle sizes
making up a particular soil and their relative
proportions. Sand, silt and clay are the three
major soil particle classes.
Organic matter improves soil structure and
increases permeability, water holding capacity
and soil fertility.
Soil permeability refers to the ability of the soil
to allow air and water to move through the
soil. Soils with a higher permeability produce
less runoff at a lower rate than soils with low
permeability. Engineered fills have a very low
permeability, resulting in increased levels of
potentially erosive runoff.
Soil structure is the degree that soil particles
are arranged into aggregates (peds). A
granular structure is the most desirable in both
agricultural and erosion control terms. When
the soil surface is compacted or crusted, water
tends to runoff rather than infiltrate. Erosion
potential increases with increased runoff.
Topography
Slope length and slope angle are critical factors
in erosion potential because they play a large
part in determining the velocity of runoff. Long
continuous slopes allow runoff to build up velocity
and to concentrate flow. This produces rill and
gully erosion.
The shape of a slope also has a major bearing
on erosion potential. The base of a slope is
more susceptible to erosion than the top because
runoff arriving there is moving faster and is more
concentrated. However, deposition may occur at
the base of concave slopes where slope angle
diminishes.
Ground Cover
Ground cover includes vegetation and surface
treatment such as mulches and geotextiles.
Vegetation is one of the most effective long term
forms of erosion control for protecting surfaces
that have been disturbed. Vegetation shields the
soil surface from the impact of falling rain, slows
the velocity of runoff, holds soil particles in place
and maintains the soils capacity to absorb water.
Evapotranspiration
Due to high evapotranspiration and reduced
rainfall in the summer period, soil moisture levels
are often so low that irrigation or watering is
needed to achieve the moisture levels needed for
plant growth. Evapotranspiration rates and the
number of days of soil moisture deficit vary across
the Region. Careful consideration needs to be
given to evapotranspiration when attempting to
establish a vegetative cover and prevent erosion.
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Environment Waikato
The Ten Commandments of 1.2
Erosion and Sediment Control
1. Minimise Disturbance
Fit land development to land sensitivity.
Some parts of a site should never be worked and
others need very careful working. Watch out for
and avoid areas that are wet (streams, wetlands,
springs), have steep or fragile soils or are
conservation sites or features.
Adopt a minimum earthworks strategy (low impact
design) - ideally only clear areas required for
structures or access.
Show all Limits of Disturbance on the Erosion and
Sediment Control Plan (E&SCP). On site, clearly
show Limits of Disturbance using fences, signs
and flags.
2. Stage Construction
Carrying out bulk earthworks over the whole
site maximises the time and area of soil that is
exposed and prone to erosion. Construction
staging, where the site has earthworks
undertaken in small units over time with
progressive revegetation, limits erosion.
Careful planning is needed. Temporary stockpiles,
access and utility service installation all need to
be planned. Construction staging differs from
sequencing. Sequencing sets out the order of
construction to contractors.
Detail both construction staging and sequencing
in the E&SCP.
3. Protect Steep Slopes
Existing steep slopes should be avoided. If
clearing is absolutely necessary. runoff from
above the site can be diverted away from the
exposed slope to minimise erosion. If steep slopes
are worked and need stabilisation, traditional
vegetative covers like topsoiling and seeding
may not be enough - special protection is often
needed.
Highlight steep areas on the E&SCP showing
Limits of Disturbance and any works and areas for
special protection.
4. Protect Watercourses
Existing streams, watercourses, and proposed
drainage patterns need to be mapped. Clearing
may not be permitted adjacent to a watercourse
unless the works have been approved.
Where undertaken, works that cross or disturb
the watercourse are also likely to require resource
consents.
Map all watercourses and show all Limits of
Disturbance and protection measures. Show all
practices to be used to protect new drainage
channels. Indicate crossings or disturbances and
associated construction methods in the E&SCP.
5. Stabilise Exposed Areas Rapidly
The ultimate objective is to fully stabilise disturbed
soils with vegetation after each stage and at
specific milestones within stages. Methods are site
specific and can range from conventional sowing
through to straw mulching. Mulching is the most
effective instant protection.
Clearly define time limits for grass and mulch
covers, outline grass species and define conditions
for temporary cover in the case of severe erosion
or poor germination in the E&SCP.
6. Install Perimeter Controls
Perimeter controls above the site keep clean
runoff out of the worked area - a critical factor for
effective erosion control. Perimeter controls can
also retain or direct sediment laden runoff within
the site. Common perimeter controls are diversion
drains, silt fences and earth bunds.
Detail the type and extent of perimeter controls in
the E&SCP along with design parameters.
Principles
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7. Employ Detention Devices
Even with the best erosion and sediment practices,
earthworks will discharge sediment-laden
runoff during storms. Along with erosion control
measures, sediment retention structures are
needed to capture runoff so sediment generated
can settle out. The presence of fine grained soils
means sediment retention ponds are often not
highly effective. Ensure the other control measures
used are appropriate for the project and
adequately protect the receiving environment.
Include sediment retention structure design
specifications, detailed inspection and
maintenance schedules of structures in the E&SCP.
8. Experience and Training
A trained and experienced contractor is an
important element of an E&SCP. These people
are responsible for installing and maintaining
erosion and sediment control practices. Such staff
can save project time and money by identifying
threatened areas early on and putting into place
correct practices.
At each earthworks site, there should be a person
whose responsibility it is to oversee the erosion
and sediment control practices. It is often useful
for Environment Waikato monitoring staff to meet
with this person for a pre-construction meeting,
for regular inspection visits (including a pre-
wintering meeting), and a final inspection. For
details about available erosion and sediment
control courses, contact Environment Waikato.
9. Make Sure the Plan Evolves
An effective E&SCP is modified as the project
progresses from bulk earthworks to project
completion. Factors such as weather, changes
to grade and altered drainage can all mean
changes to planned erosion and sediment control
practices.
Update the E&SCP to suit site adjustments in
time for the pre-construction meeting and initial
inspection of installed erosion and sediment
controls, and make sure it is regularly referred to
and available on site.
10. Assess and Adjust
Inspect, monitor and maintain control measures.
Assessment of controls is especially important
following a storm. A large or intense storm will
leave erosion and sediment controls in need of
repair, reinforcement or cleaning out. Repairing
without delay reduces further soil loss and
environmental damage.
Assessment and adjustment is an important
erosion and sediment control practice - make sure
it figures prominently in the E&SCP.
Assign responsibility for implementing the E&SCP
and monitoring control measures as the project
progresses.
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Environment Waikato
Types of Land Disturbing 1.3
Activities Undertaken
The following are the main types of soil disturbing
activities undertaken in the Waikato Region, which
may require the use of erosion and sediment
controls, and these are discussed in these
guidelines:
1. trenching
2. watercourse works
3. cleanfills
4. small sites (such as house lots)
5. earthworks/projects (major cut to fill)
6. roading/tracking
7. quarries and vegetation removal.
The following is a brief summary of key
considerations for minimising adverse
environmental effects of these activities that are
not found in the detailed description of erosion
and sediment control measures in sections 2 and
3 of the guidelines.
Trenching
Trenching, usually for installing utility services,
often happens towards the end of the bulk
earthworks phase of a project. The following
points need to be considered when trenching.
The project needs to be undertaken in
appropriately sized stages such that the area
exposed can be fully stabilised within an
acceptable timeframe.
If trenching affects existing erosion and
sediment control measures that are part of the
overall development, those measures should
be reinstated as soon as possible. Contingency
measures should be put in place until the
original measures are reinstated or replaced.
All trenching operators working within a larger
site must be familiar with the overall Erosion
and Sediment Control Plan for the site and
must comply with this approved plan.
Independent erosion and sediment control
measures detailed in these guidelines should
be employed for the trenching operation.
Topsoil and subsoils should be stockpiled
separately adjacent to the trench so that at
the completion of the operation, these soils
can be replaced in the appropriate order and
vegetation established.
When trenching through overland flow paths,
give special consideration to the diversion of
any flows, which may occur during trenching,
as well as reinstating and stabilising the
overland flow path.
Works Within a Watercourse
Works within a watercourse should be avoided
wherever possible, with all alternatives considered
beforehand. Where watercourse works are
unavoidable, they will create sedimentation
downstream, so the following points should be
carefully considered when undertaking these
works.
Have all alternatives been considered?
Install a stabilised diversion so that works can
be undertaken in the dry and reinstate the
stream flow only after these areas have been
appropriately stabilised. If a diversion is not
a viable option, then ensure the alternative
options are fully considered.
Carry out works during a dry time of the year
when stream flows are low and the likelihood
of a storm is low.
Keep the duration of works short.
Identify in-stream values so as to avoid critical
periods such as fish spawning periods and the
whitebait season.
Consider the direct short and long term
impacts of culverts or in-stream structures
and install appropriately designed fish-pass
provisions.
Be sure to inform all downstream users, for
example water-users, of potential downstream
sediment discharges.
Principles
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Cleanfills
Cleanfills dispose of unwanted fill material.
Soil disturbing activities associated with cleanfills
range from haul roads and access areas to tip
faces and dumping areas. Several controls are
needed for adequate erosion and sediment
control on such sites and the following points
should be carefully considered when undertaking
such operations:
Erosion and sediment controls should be
installed in accordance with these guidelines
and appropriate maintenance undertaken.
Staging of cleanfill operations is critical and a
programme of progressive stabilisation of all
cleanfill sites should be part of each operation.
Small Sites
The cumulative impact from small sites can be
considerable and in some areas may cumulatively
discharge as much sediment as large earthworks
sites. Often, stormwater systems are in place but
there are no, or minimal, erosion and sediment
controls on the site. This results in sediment
discharging through an efficient conveyance
system (the stormwater system) directly to the
receiving environment.
The following points need to be considered when
undertaking small site development:
Erosion and sediment controls should be
installed either on an individual site-by-
site basis or a combination of the sites, in
accordance with these guidelines.
Stormwater runoff from small sites needs
careful planning in terms of the location of
roof down pipes so that runoff across bare sites
does not scour soils.
Areas of exposed soils should be stabilised
upon completion of earthworks, including
topsoil and subsoil stockpiles, lawn areas and
accessways.
Earthworks
Earthworks include a wide range of activities from
cleanfilling operations (defined above) through to
earthworks associated with industrial, commercial
and residential developments. Earthworks have
a major potential to generate large amounts of
sediment, and if not controlled appropriately,
can lead to large sediment discharges. Planning
of these developments is critical to ensure that
the activity is undertaken appropriately, and
in a controlled manner to avoid unnecessary
impacts on receiving environments. The Ten
Commandments outline the critical features of an
earthworks operation.
The following are further key points contractors
need to be aware of when undertaking earthworks
operations.
Emphasis should be placed on erosion
control, rather than sediment control, because
preventing sediment generation is the best
means of preventing sediment discharge from
earthworks sites.
Always produce an Erosion and Sediment
Control Plan (E&SCP) for an earthworks
operation. Be sure that all parties involved with
the operation, including subcontractors, are
familiar with and have access to a current copy
of this Plan.
Always update the E&SCP with major variations
on the site. Keep this up-to-date version in the
site office at all times.
Plan ahead and undertake consultation with
necessary parties as required.
Install appropriate controls in accordance
with the E&SCP and be sure that the design
specifications are appropriate for the
operation.
Install subsurface drainage as required (to
an agreed methodology) to divert subsurface
clean water past control structures and areas of
disturbance as appropriate.
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Environment Waikato
Roading/Tracking
Like trenching, the linear nature of roading poses
challenges for erosion and sediment control.
Measures need to be carefully planned to ensure
controls are successful. Often the operation can
be undertaken sequentially, stabilising worked
areas as they are completed. This minimises the
total sediment generating area of the proposal
and helps prevent unnecessary road maintenance.
The following are some key points to consider
when working through a roading proposal.
Provide enough room for effective erosion and
sediment control measures. Often the road
corridor itself can involve the whole designation
area and no room remains for such controls.
Where space is a constraint, make sure that
the erosion and sediment controls will give the
necessary protection to downstream receiving
environments.
Incorporate stormwater design into the E&SCP.
This removes the need to revisit the area to
install stormwater systems and the unnecessary
extra earthworks that their construction would
require.
Keep the areas of road corridor exposed at
any one time to a limit that can be practically
stabilised with hardfill or by vegetative means,
to minimise the exposed area at risk.
When crossing watercourses, look for
alternative routes and alternative designs and
implement the option which provides the best
environmental alternative.
Control all upslope catchment runoff, diverting
clean water around or safely through the area
of disturbance.
Quarries and Vegetation Removal
Measures in these guidelines are suitable for
quarry and vegetation removal operations.
However, the long term nature of many quarries
and the clear felling of whole catchments during
vegetation removal operations mean that some
special erosion and sediment control measures
need to be implemented. Careful planning of
such operations is thus critical. The key areas
where attention is required are discussed in detail
in sections 5 and 6 of these guidelines and should
be read in conjunction with the other erosion and
sediment controls also detailed.
Erosion Control Practices
17
Sections 2 and 3 outline minimum criteria for the
design, construction and implementation of a
range of erosion and sediment control measures
commonly used on earthworks sites and on other
soil disturbing activities. These measures form one
aspect of erosion and sediment control on any
site, and should always be used in conjunction
with the measures outlined in the Ten Principles
of Erosion and Sediment Control in Section 1 of
these guidelines.
The most effective form of erosion control is to
minimise the area of disturbance, retaining as
much existing vegetation as possible. This is
especially important on steep slopes or in the
vicinity of watercourses, where no single measure
will adequately control the erosion and transport
of sediment, and where receiving environments
may be highly sensitive.
The criteria outlined are the minimum standard
for each measure. Each soil disturbing activity
must be assessed on an individual basis, and in
many cases higher standards may be required.
For every practice, these guidelines outline the
following:
definition
purpose
application
design/construction specifications
comments
maintenance.
Symbols shown alongside controls are listed in
Appendix 1.
Erosion Control Practices 2.
18
Environment Waikato
19
Definition
A non-erodible channel or bund for the
conveyance of runoff constructed to a site-specific
cross section and grade design.
Purpose
To either protect work areas from clean upslope
runoff (clean water diversion), or to divert
sediment-laden water to an appropriate sediment
retention structure.
Application
Runoff diversion channels/bunds are used in the
following situations:
To divert clean upslope water away from areas
to be worked (clean water diversion).
To divert sediment-laden runoff from disturbed
areas into sediment treatment facilities.
At or near the perimeter of the construction
area to keep sediment from leaving the site.
In either temporary or permanent situations.
Keep permanent diversions in place until the
disturbed area is permanently stabilised against
erosion.
Stabilise runoff diversion channels/bunds
(where necessary) before use.
Runoff Diversion Channel/Bund 2.1
Design
There are many designs for runoff diversion
channels/bunds. The following outlines minimum
design criteria requirements.
Design the runoff diversion channel/bund to
carry the flow from the critical 20 percent AEP
rainfall event,1 in 5 year return period storm
(plus 300 mm freeboard after settling).
Restrict use to grades no more than 2 percent
unless armoured with geotextile or suitably
sized rock.
Cleanwater diversion channels must be
armoured with geotextile and/or rock sufficient
to prevent any erosion of the channel.
Cleanwater diversion bunds must be rapidly
vegetated unless they are armoured with
geotextile sufficiently to prevent erosion.
Achieve rapid vegetative stabilisation of
cleanwater diversion bunds by hydro-seeding
and mulching the exposed bund surface.
Alternative methods of stabilising cleanwater
diversion bunds may be used if Environment
Waikato approval has been obtained.
Incorporate stabilisation measures (such as
geotextile, vegetative stabilisation or rock
armouring) to prevent erosion.
Construct with a trapezoidal cross sectional
shape with internal side slopes no steeper than
3:1, and external slopes no steeper than 2:1.
Plate 1: Runoff Diversion Channel
20
Environment Waikato
Figure 3: Runoff Diversion Channel
Construct runoff diversion bunds with side
slopes no steeper than 3:1.
Survey all gradients on the site.
Ensure earth embankments used to construct
runoff diversion channels/bunds are
adequately compacted.
Flow velocities greater than 1 m/s will cause
the runoff diversion channel/bund to erode.
Incorporate a stable erosion-proof outfall (such
as a level spreader) to reduce water velocities
and prevent scour at the outlet.
Ensure the runoff diversion channel/bund
outlet:
- functions with a minimum of erosion
- directs clean runoff onto an undisturbed/
stabilised area
- directs flows containing sediment into a
sediment retention structure
- is located in such a position that ideally suits
the field conditions.
Considerations
Consider designing an emergency overflow
section or bypass area to limit damage from
storms that exceed the design storm.
Avoid abrupt changes in grade which can lead
to sediment deposition and overtopping, or
erosion.

Maintenance
Runoff diversion channels/bunds need regular
maintenance to keep functioning throughout
their life. Regular maintenance consists of the
following:
Inspect after every rainfall and during periods
of prolonged rainfall for scour and areas where
they may breach.
Repair immediately if required to ensure that
the design capacity is maintained.
Remove any accumulated sediment deposited
in the runoff diversion channel/bund due to low
gradients and velocities.
Carefully check outlets to ensure that these
remain free from scour and erosion.
Figure 2: Clean Water Diversion Channel
Compuclod Embunkmonl
3.T or
lullor
Criginul Grudo
Cross 5ection
Dosign low
doplh
T m
2 . T or
lullor
300mm
21
Definition
A temporary ridge or excavated channel, or
combination of ridge and channel, constructed to
convey water across sloping land on a minimal
gradient.
Purpose
To break overland flow down disturbed slopes by
limiting slope length and thus the erosive power
of runoff, and to divert sediment laden water to
appropriate controls or stable outlets.
Application
Use contour drains in the following situations:
At intervals across disturbed areas to shorten
overland flow distances.
As temporary or daily controls.
To split and direct flow from disturbed areas to
runoff diversion channels/bunds.
Design (refer to Figure 4)
Ensure gradients are no greater than 2 percent
and the contour drains are kept as short as
practicable in order to minimise erosion. The
Contour Drain 2.2
Plate 2: Contour Drain
22
Environment Waikato
positioning of contour drains is often determined
by the necessity for stable outfalls, but in general
the following spacing applies:
Table 1: Positioning of Contour Drains
Slope of Site Spacing of Contour
Drains
(%) (m)
5 50
10 40
15 30
Maintenance
Install contour drains at the end of each day.
Inspect contour drains after every rainfall and
during periods of prolonged rainfall.
Immediately carry out any maintenance that is
required.
Figure 4: Contour Drain
23
Definition
A channel excavated parallel to a road or track.
Purpose
To provide permanent underfill drainage of the
carriageway and/or to provide a conveyance
channel for stormwater.
Application
This practice applies primarily to permanent
roading where it is necessary to provide a degree
of underfill drainage of the carriageway to ensure
road stability and/or where upslope storm flows
and storm flows arising from the carriageway itself
are required to be conveyed to an erosion proof
outfall.
The following outlines design criteria
requirements.
Design the watertable drain to carry the flow
from the critical 10 percent AEP rainfall event.
Watertable drains with greater than 2 percent
gradient may need to be armoured (refer
Table 2).
Armouring is normally done with appropriately
sized aggregate compacted into the invert of
the drain and laid at an appropriate depth.
Alternatives are site concrete and corrugated
fluming or a series of check dams.
Construct with a cross sectional shape with as
large an invert width as practicable to minimise
flow velocities - refer Figure 3.
Position rock check dams along steep sections
to provide additional armouring.
Table 2: Watertable Drain Amouring
Slope (%) Aggregate size D50 mm
0-5 Controlled using appropriately
spaced culvert outfalls
5-10 Standard basecourse
10-15 80mm
15-20 120mm
Considerations
Consider armouring the area adjacent to the
drain by vegetative means. This can assist in
the long-term stability of the drain edges and
vegetative growth within the watertable drain
itself can assist in stabilising the drain invert.
If possible, avoid the use of watertable
drains on low-cohesive soils to minimise the
concentration of overland flow. If constructing
farm tracks in these soils provide a slight fall
away from the slope to shed runoff evenly
along the length of the track.
Avoid abrupt changes in grade that can be
difficult to armour.
Make the invert of the watertable drain is as
wide as practicable to minimise flow velocities.
Maintenance
Check the watertable drain after the first major
storm event for weak points in the armouring
and strengthen accordingly.
Excessive weed growth can be controlled
using appropriate herbicides. However, if
the drain is sized correctly in the first place a
total grass cover should not interfere with the
proper operation of the drain, and herbicide
application should not be necessary.
Removal of accumulated sediment generated
from the upslope catchment is generally
undertaken using an excavator, shaping the
drain to the original profile and re-armouring.
Watertable Drains 2.3
24
Environment Waikato
Compacted Earth Fill
Cut
5% Crown or slope
towards the inside
water table drain
Culvert
Stabilised outfall ie:
Flume
Culvert pit
Cut face stabilised by
vegetation
Carriageway
Buried culvert
Stabilised outfall
Flow
Culvert
pit
Plan View
Culvert Pit Cross Section XX
Flow
0.5m dead storage
Culvert
Berm
Carriageway Crown
Rock amouring
Rock Check Dam to
increase head above
culvert thereby
increasing culvert
flows
Figure 5: Watertable Drain
25
Definition
An excavated channel combined with a
compacted earth bund extending more or less at
right angles across the carriageway and berm, to
a stable outfall.
Purpose
To provide temporary or permanent drainage
of surface water off the carriageway at regular
intervals to prevent the concentration of overland
flow.
Application
This practice applies primarily to low use roading
and tracking where storm flows arising from
upslope of the road and the carriageway itself
are required to be conveyed to an erosion proof
outfall.
requirements.
Construct the water cut-offs out of compacted
competent material and make them sufficiently
large to prevent overtopping. Modification of
the standard design detailed may be required
depending on the type of vehicles.
The channel invert may require armouring with
aggregate to prevent scour.
The channel invert should have a gradient of
2-5 percent to prevent build up of sediment.
This may necessitate angling the cut-off up to
30 degrees downslope to get sufficient fall on
low gradient sections of carriageway.
Construct with a cross sectional shape of
the channel with as large an invert width as
practicable to minimise flow velocities.
Compact fill material into the inside berm area
to prevent outflanking.
Considerations
Consider vegetating the track and the cut-off to
minimise erosion.
Avoid placing cut-offs on steep short sections
where braking of vehicles can cause stability
problems, particularly if cut-offs can be placed
on lesser gradient immediately above the
section.
Endeavour to outfall the cut-offs onto stable
well vegetated in situ ground.
Maintenance
Check the water cut-off after the first major
storm event for weak points and strengthen
accordingly.
Install additional cut-offs as required.
Regular maintenance may be required if stock
tracking occurs.
Water Cut-offs 2.4
26
Environment Waikato
Table 3: Typical Water Cut-off Spacing check
Slope (%)
Soil Type:
Spacing (m)
Cohesive
Low Cohesion
0-5 50 60
5-10 40 50
10-15 30 40
15-20 20 30
20-30 10 20
>30 <10 10
S
e
e
ta
b
le
b
e
lo
w
fo
r c
u
to
ff
s
p
a
c
in
g
s
Stable level outfall
onto vegetated
batter
Watertable drain
Cutoff Humps extend across the track and
watertable drain to separate catchments
Water Cutoff Spacing
Slope% Spacing
Cohesive soils Low cohesion soils
0-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-30
>30
50 60
40 50
30 40
20 30
10 20
<10 10
Figure 6: Water Cut-offs
27
Definition
A surface flow conveyance structure connecting
the watertable drain to a stable outfall.
Purpose
To provide a permanent flow conveyance structure
under a carriageway.
Application
roading where it is necessary to prevent the
concentration of overland flow in the watertable
drain by providing regular drainage points to an
erosion proof outfall.
requirements:
Design the watertable culvert to carry the flow
from the critical 10 percent AEP rainfall event.
The efficiency of the culvert will depend on the
inlet geometry so every effort should be made
to ensure a smooth entry into the culvert inlet.
Watertable culverts should be placed with a
gradient of 5-8 percent to ensure self cleaning.
Generally watertable culverts (pipes) should not
be smaller than 300 mm diameter to minimise
entrance blockage.
A culvert pit up to 1m deep is generally
constructed at the entrance to the watertable
culvert. The culvert inlet should be about 0.5 m
above the invert of this pit.
The spacing of watertable culverts will depend
on the surface area of the carriageway, the
upslope catchment and the erodibility of the
in situ soils. Spacing will also depend on the
location of stable outfalls ie well vegetated
spurs or ridges where flows can be dissipated.
Consider constructing rock check dams in the
watertable drain immediately below the culvert
inlet to improve culvert inlet efficiency.
Considerations
Define stable outfall points and install culverts
to these points first.
If possible, avoid discharges to fill areas as
these will require armouring or drop structures.
Surface fluming (tanalised 150 x 50) can be
used on farm tracks however debris build-up is
generally high, requiring regular maintenance.
Grading a farm track to have a series of hump
and hollows can provide a low cost alternative
to regularly spaced culverts.
The increased gradient into the culvert pit.
Maintenance
Check the watertable culvert after the first
major storm event for blockage and the
stability of the outfall.
Check the culvert pit for sediment/debris and
remove.

Table 4: Typical Watertable Culvert
Spacing
Slope (%) Spacing (m)
Soil Type: Low Cohesion Cohesive
0-5 50 60
5-10 40 50
10-15 30 40
15-20 20 30
20-30 10 20
>30 <10 10
Watertable Culverts 2.5
28
Environment Waikato
Cut face
(hydroseeding
recommended)
Overland
flow
Fill face
stabilised by
topsoiling,
grassing and
mulching
Watertable
drain
Flume
Culvert buried with
a 5-8 deg fall
Carriageway
Stabilised
Outfall
Rock Check
Dam
Watertable Drain invert
Table 4: Typical Watertable Culvert Spacing
Slope (%)
Soil Type:
Spacing (m)
Low Cohesion
Cohesive
0-5 50 60
5-10 40 50
10-15 30 40
15-20 20 30
20-30 10 20
>30 <10 10
Figure 7: Watertable Culverts
29
Definition
An excavation that acts as a soakage bay,
whereby stormwater runoff is collected and left to
soak into the ground.
Purpose
To provide temporary or permanent drainage
control of stormwater runoff from roads and
tracks, constructed on non-cohesive soils, by
retaining water for ground soakage and trapping
sediment on site.
Application
Sediment pits can be used in the following
situations:
To drain watertables on the edges of roads or
tracks.
On free-draining soils such as alluvium pumice
or ash.
On natural ground as long as slopes are not
too steep.
In conjunction with water cut-offs.
Design
requirements:
Excavate sediment pits to at least one metre
depth.
Always install sediment pits in undisturbed
(natural) soil.
The slope of the inlet should be reasonably flat
(1H:5V) to avoid erosion problems.
Generally, sediment pits are located to suit
the terrain. As a guideline: for slopes <12
percent, have sediment pits every 40 m and for
slopes
>12 percent, have sediment pits every 30 m to
10 m.
Considerations
Do not place sediment pits on blind areas of
the road where they might be a safety hazard
for vehicles.
Ensure overtopping flows discharge over level,
well-vegetated in situ ground.
Maintenance
Sediment pits require regular cleaning to maintain
storage volume and to prevent the floor of the
sediment pit from sealing with the settlement of
fine sediments over time.
Topsoil 8unds (grussod} lo
onsuro ull lows oxil ovor lovol lip
\ogolulod lovol lip lo
sproud ovorlows ovonly
Cvorlow low
diroclion
Sodimonl pil cul inlo lovol
in silu soil Evon slopo inlo sodimonl pil
Flow
Flow
Poud/Truck
Figure 8: Sediment pits
Sediment Pits 2.6
30
Environment Waikato
31
Definition
An aggregate bund constructed on the outside
berm parallel to the carriageway.
Purpose
To provide permanent diversion of stormwater
away from erosion prone fill batters.
Application
roading where it is necessary to direct
carriageway runoff to an erosion proof outfall. It
normally applies to the conveyance of flows along
the berm of an inside bend, however can also be
used effectively on both sides of a culvert crossing
where carriageway flows tend to concentrate.
Design
requirements.
Design the berm bund to carry the flow from
the critical 10 percent AEP rainfall event.
Outfall flows to a level area of berm if possible
where flows can dissipate over a wide area.
Considerations
If possible, avoid the use of berm bunds on low-
cohesive soils to minimise the concentration of
overland flow. If constructing farm tracks in these
soils provide a slight fall away from the slope to
shed runoff evenly along the length of the track.
Avoid abrupt changes in grade that can be
difficult to armour.
Maintenance
Check the berm bund after the first major storm
event and periodically for weak points in the
armouring and strengthen accordingly.
Berm bunds 2.7
32
Environment Waikato
33
Definition
Modification of a slope by benching to divert
runoff to an appropriate conveyance system.
Purpose
To limit the velocity and volume, and hence the
erosive power, of water moving down a slope and
therefore minimising erosion of the slope face.
Application
Benched slopes are primarily used on long slopes
and/or steep slopes where rilling may be expected
as runoff travels down the slope. . The spacing
of the benched slopes and the specific conditions
for which they apply depend on slope height and
angle, and the nature of the soil/material being
benched. The primary purpose is to prevent the
concentration of runoff which, in turn, increases
erosion.
Benched Slope 2.8
Plate 3: Benched Slope
Table 5: Benched Slope Design
Slope Angle Vertical Height Between
Benches
(%) (m)
50 10
33 15
25 20
34
Environment Waikato
Design
Provide benched slopes for slopes exceeding
25 percent - see Table 5.
Locate benched slopes to divide the slope face
as equally as possible and convey the water from
each bench to a stable outlet. Soil types, seeps
and location of rock outcrops need to be taken
into consideration when designing benched
slopes.
Ensure benched slopes are a minimum of 2 m
wide for ease of maintenance.
Design benched slopes with a reverse slope of
15 percent or flatter to the toe of the upper slope
and with a minimum depth of 0.3 m. Keep the
gradient of each benched slope to its outlet
below 2 percent, unless design, stabilisation
and calculations demonstrate that erosion risk is
minimised.
Keep the flow length along a benched slope to
less than 250 m unless design and calculations
can demonstrate that erosion risk is minimised.
Divert surface water from the face of all cut and/
or fill slopes of benched slopes by the use of
runoff diversion channels/bunds except where:
- the face of the slope is not subject to any
concentrated flows of surface water such as
from natural drainage, channels or other
concentrated discharge points, and
- the face of the slope is protected by special
erosion control materials including, but not
limited to, approved vegetative stabilisation
practices, rip-rap, or other approved
stabilisation methods.
Provide subsurface drainage where necessary
to intercept seepage that would otherwise
adversely affect slope stability or create
excessively wet site conditions. Check the
requirements of the city or district council.
Do not construct benched slopes close to
property lines where they could endanger
adjoining properties without adequately
protecting such properties against
sedimentation, erosion, slippage, settlement,
subsidence or other related damages. Check
the requirements of the city or district council.
Stabilise all disturbed areas.
Construction Specifications
Compact all fills to reduce erosion, slippage,
settlement, subsidence, or other related
problems.
Keep all benched slopes free of unconsolidated
sediment during all phases of development.
Permanently stabilise all graded areas
immediately on completion of grading.
Figure 9: Benched Slope
35
Plate 4: Rock Check Dam
Definition
Small temporary dam constructed across a
channel usually in series, to reduce flow velocity.
May also help retain sediment.
Purpose
To reduce the velocity of concentrated flows,
thereby reducing erosion of the channel. While
trapping some sediment, they are not designed to
be used as a sediment retention measure.
Application
This practice applies primarily to earthworks sites
where it is necessary to slow velocity of flows
in order to prevent erosion. Do not use rock
check dams in a perennial watercourse. Specific
applications include the following.
Temporary channels which, because of their
short length of service, are not suitable for non-
erodible lining but still need some protection to
reduce erosion.
Permanent channels which for some reason
cannot receive a permanent non-erodible
lining for an extended period of time.
Temporary or permanent channels which
need protection during the establishment of a
vegetative cover.
Rock Check Dam 2.9
Design
Ensure the catchment in question has a
contributory drainage area of less than 1 ha.
Direct all flows over the centre of the rock
check dam.
Construct each rock check dam with a
maximum centre height of 600 mm. Build the
sides 200 mm higher than the centre to direct
flows to the centre. Do not use rock check
dams as a primary sediment trapping facility.
Ensure that any sediment laden runoff passes
through a sediment trapping device or devices
before being discharged from the site.
Supply specific design and calculations if rock
check dams are to be used on catchments
greater than 1 ha.
Place a mix of 100 mm to 300 mm diameter
washed rock to completely cover the width of
the channel. In steeper catchments use larger
sized rock (0.5 - 1.0 m) on the downstream
side of the rock check dam.
Ensure rock batter slopes are 2:1.
Locate rock check dams at a spacing so that
the toe of the upstream dam is equal in height
elevation to the crest of the downstream one.
Ensure the toe of the upstream dam is never
higher than the crest of the downstream dam.
36
Environment Waikato
Table 6: Rock Check Dam Design
Slope Spacing Between Dams (m)
450 mm
Centre Height
600 mm
Centre Height
2% or less 24 30
2% to 4% 12 15
4% to 7% 8 11
7% to 10% 5 6
Over 10% Utilise stabilised
channel
Utilise Stabilised
Channel
Maintenance
While this measure is not intended to be used
primarily for sediment trapping, some sediment
can accumulate behind the rock check dams.
Remove this sediment when it has accumulated to
50 percent of the original height of the dam.
When temporary channels are no longer needed,
remove rock check dams and fill in the channel.
In permanent channels, remove rock check dams
when a permanent lining can be installed. In the
case of grass lined ditches, rock check dams may
be removed when grass has matured sufficiently
to protect the channel. The area beneath the rock
check dams needs to be seeded and mulched or
stabilised with appropriate geotextile immediately
after removing the dams.
Figure 10: Rock Check Dam
1.635
300mm min
450mm min
600mm max
SPACING (SEE TABLE BELOW)
SLOPE / FLOW
Elevation
Cross Section xx
Standard Rock Check Dam
Slope
2% or less
2% to 4%
4% to 7%
7% to 10%
over 10%
Spacing (m) Between Dams
(450mm centre height)
24
12
8
5
Use Stabilised Channel
Spacing (m) Between Dams
(600mm centre height)
30
15
11
6
Use Stabilised Channel
Downstream face at a slope of 2:1
Rock size to be 100mm to 300mm mix
200mm min
37
Definition
The placement of topsoil over a prepared subsoil
prior to the establishment of vegetation.
Purpose
To provide a suitable soil medium for vegetative
growth for erosion control while providing some
limited short term erosion control capability by
protecting subsoils and absorbing water.
Application
Top soiling is recommended in the following
situations:
Where the texture and/or the organic
component of the exposed subsoil or parent
material can not produce adequate vegetative
growth.
Where the soil material is so shallow that the
rooting zone is not deep enough to support
plants or furnish continuing supplies of
moisture and plant nutrients.
Where high quality turf and landscape
plantings are to be established.
Generally top soiling is combined with vegetation
establishment and is not seen as an erosion
control measure in itself. Top soiling as a short
term stand alone erosion control measure is
limited to sites with an average slope of less than
5 percent with contour drains installed as per
these guidelines and for periods of less than two
weeks only.
Top soiling alone will not provide sufficient erosion
protection to allow sediment control measures to
be removed.
When staging within an earthworks operation, top
soiling as a treatment in itself is not acceptable
and other means of stabilisation such as re-
vegetation will also be required.
Design
Not applicable.
Once site shaping work has been completed,
evenly spread a minimum of 100 mm of topsoil
before re-vegetating. On steeper sites (over
25 percent), scarify the subsoils to a depth of a
least 100 mm to ensure bonding between topsoil
and subsoil before applying topsoil.
Incorporate surface roughening into all top soiling
operations in accordance with these guidelines.
In general topsoil has a beneficial effect in light
rain because it can hold more moisture than the
underlying clay material. However, during heavy
rain, topsoil will become saturated and rill erosion
and slumping can result. For this reason it is
important to establish a full vegetative cover as
soon as possible and retain all sediment retention
facilities on the site until a vegetative cover is fully
established.
Maintenance
Check the condition of the topsoil on a regular
basis and re-grade and/or replace where
necessary so as to always maintain the 100
mm minimum depth of topsoil and surface
roughening.
Topsoil 2.10
38
Environment Waikato
39
Definition
The planting and establishment of quick growing
and/or perennial vegetation to provide temporary
and/or permanent stabilisation on exposed areas.
Purpose
Seeding is designed to stabilise soil on disturbed
areas to reduce sediment and runoff to
downstream or off-site areas.
Application
Seeding
This practice applies to any site where
establishing vegetation is important to protect
bare earth.
Design
Not applicable.
Site Preparation
Before seeding, install all required erosion and
sediment control practices such as diversion
channels and sediment retention structures.
Grade the site as necessary to permit the use
of conventional equipment for soil preparation,
seeding and maintenance.
Seed Bed Preparation
Prepare a good seed bed to ensure successful
establishment of vegetation. Take care to
ensure that the seed bed is free of large clods,
rocks and other unsuitable material. Apply
topsoil at a minimum depth of 100 mm to
allow for a loose and friable soil surface.
Soil Amendments
Apply fertiliser as outlined in Table 7 of these
guidelines. This fertiliser application rate can
be varied with the approval of Environment
Waikato. For large sites or unusual site
conditions it is advisable to have soil fertility
tests done. Some soils may require the addition
of lime to
improve pH.
Seeding
Apply seed at a mixture and rate as in Table
7 of these guidelines. This seeding rate can
be varied with approval from Environment
Waikato. Apply the seed uniformly and sow at
the recommended rate. Seed that is broadcast
must be covered by raking and then lightly
compacted into place. If hydroseeding is
required, then it can be utilised in accordance
with Section 2 of these guidelines.
Mulching
When working on steep sites (greater than
20 percent) or during the winter period
(between May 1 and September 30) mulching
will need to be applied in accordance with
Section 2 of these guidelines immediately
following seeding.
Irrigation
Adequate moisture is essential for seed
germination and plant growth. Irrigation can
be very helpful in establishing vegetation
during dry or hot weather conditions or on
adverse site conditions. Irrigation must be
carefully controlled to prevent runoff and
subsequent erosion. Inadequate or excessive
irrigation can do more harm than good.
Maintenance
Re-seed where seed germination is unsatisfactory
or where erosion occurs. In the event of
unsatisfactory germination after May 1, the area
will also require the application of mulch in
accordance with Section 2 of these guidelines.
Depending on site conditions it may be necessary
to irrigate, fertilise, oversow or re-establish
plantings in order to provide vegetation for
adequate erosion control. See Table 7 of these
guidelines for details of maintenance fertiliser
applications.
Protect all re-vegetated areas from traffic flows
and other activities such as the installation of
drainage lines and utility services.
Revegetation Techniques 2.11
Seeding 2.11.1
40
Environment Waikato
Table 7: Grass Seed and Fertiliser Application Rates
Mix Rate (kg/ha)
Seeding types Perennial Ryegrass
Brown Top with a
Red/White Clover mix
Perennial - 90
Brown Top - 30
Clover - 30
Fertiliser
Application
D.A.P. (Di-Ammonium Phosphate)
or similar
240
41
Definition
The application of seed, fertiliser and paper or
wood pulp with water in the form of a slurry,
sprayed over the area to be re-vegetated.
Purpose
To establish vegetation quickly while providing a
degree of instant protection from raindrop impact.
Application
This practice applies to any site where vegetation
establishment is important for the protection of
bare earth surfaces. For example:
Critical areas on the site prone to erosion such
as steep slopes and sediment retention pond
batters.
Critical areas on the site that cannot be
stabilised by conventional sowing methods.
Around watercourses or runoff diversion
channels where rapid establishment of a
protective vegetative cover is required before
introducing flows.
Design
Not applicable.
The seed generally adheres to the pulp which
improves the microclimate for germination and
establishment. This method allows vegetation
to establish on difficult sites and can extend into
cooler winter months provided it is utilised with
mulching.
Site Preparation
Before hydroseeding, install any needed
erosion and sediment control practices such
as runoff diversion channels. Scarify any steep
or smooth clay surfaces to improve retention
of the hydroseeding slurry. Hydroseeding
specifications need to be verified by
Environment Waikato prior to implementation,
with recommended seeding and fertiliser
application rates outlined in Table 7 of these
guidelines.
Watering
Hydroseeding requires moisture for
germination and growth. Because
hydroseeding is often used for difficult sites,
the timing of the application to get favourable
growing conditions is an important factor.
Maintenance
Heavy rainfall can wash hydroseeding
away, particularly from smooth clay surfaces
and overland flowpaths. Where vegetation
establishment is unsatisfactory the area may
require hydroseeding again. In the event of
unsatisfactory germination after May 1, the
area will also require mulching in accordance
with Section 2 of these guidelines.
Protect all re-vegetated areas from traffic flows
and other activities such as the installation of
drainage lines and utility services.
Hydroseeding 2.11.2
42
Environment Waikato
43
Definition
The application of a protective layer of straw or
other suitable material to the soil surface.
Purpose
To protect the soil surface from the erosive forces
of raindrop impact and overland flow. Mulching
also helps to conserve moisture, reduce runoff
and erosion, control weeds, prevent soil crusting
and promote the establishment of desirable
vegetation.
Application
This practice applies to any site where vegetation
establishment is important for the protection
of bare earth surfaces. Mulching provides a
microenvironment creating suitable conditions for
germination and rapid growth.
Mulching can be used at any time where the
instant protection of the soil surface is desired.
Mulching can be used in conjunction with seeding
to establish vegetation, or by itself to provide
temporary protection of the soil surface.
Mulching is also used during the winter months
to provide immediate stabilisation because grass
Mulching 2.11.3
germination will be too slow to establish effective
grass cover using conventional sowing methods.
Design
Not applicable.
Site Preparation
Before mulching install any erosion and
sediment control practices such as runoff
diversion channels and sediment retention
structures.
Mulching
When mulching using a machine, use unrotted
small grain straw applied at a minimum rate
of 4000 kg per ha. Hand application of mulch
will require a higher rate as the application is
not as even. If straw is difficult to source hay
can be used, however the application rate is
likely to be higher.
Ensure the material is free of any noxious
plants. Mulching needs to be spread uniformly
and secured to the soil surface. For smaller
areas hand spreading of mulch material can
be adequate. For larger sites, apply mulch
Plate 5: Mulching
44
Environment Waikato
mechanically to ensure even spread and
appropriate application.
Apply fertiliser with mulching as outlined in
Table 7 of these guidelines.
Alternatives such as wood chips and chemical
soil binders can be utilised where appropriate.
Wood chips are suitable for areas that will not
be closely mowed around such as ornamental
plantings. They do not require the application
of a tackifier and if readily available can be
a relatively inexpensive mulch. They are slow
to break down and normally require nitrogen
application to prevent nutrient deficiency
in plants. Do not use wood chips around
watercourses or in areas where water can
pond.
To avoid water contamination, any alternative
to straw mulch must be approved by
Environment Waikato.
A wide range of synthetic mulching compounds
are available to stabilise and protect the soil
surface. These include emulsions, acrylimides
and dispersions of vinyl compounds. They do
not insulate the soil or retain moisture when
used alone and therefore do little to aid seed
establishment. They are also easily damaged
by traffic, decompose relatively quickly and can
be quite expensive in comparison to organic
mulches.
Anchoring Mulch
Anchor mulch in place immediately after
application to avoid or minimise loss by wind
or water. Numerous methods are available.
Generally, although the mulch is settled in
place by the first rainfall. Some reapplication
may be required because of wind blow.
Spraying a tackifier with the mulch can avoid
this.
Plate 6: Mulch Crimping
45
Definition
The establishment and permanent stabilisation of
disturbed areas by laying a continuous cover of
grass turf.
Purpose
To provide immediate vegetative cover to stabilise
soil on disturbed areas such as. For example:
Critical erosion prone areas on the site.
Critical areas on the site that cannot be
stabilised by conventional sowing methods.
Runoff diversion channels and other areas
of concentrated flow where velocities will not
exceed the specifications for a grass lining.
Application
Turfing is the preferred method for disturbed
areas that must be immediately stabilised. It is
particularly useful for:
Watercourses and channels carrying
intermittent flow.
Areas around drop inlets.
Residential or commercial lawns to allow
prompt use and for aesthetic reasons.
Steep areas.
Turfing 2.11.4
Design
While there are no specific design criteria
for turfing, turf reinforced with geosynthetic
matting should be considered for areas of high
erosion potential; for example, steep slopes or
concentrated overland flow paths.
Site Preparation
Before turfing, properly prepare the site
to ensure the successful establishment of
vegetation. This includes applying fertiliser as in
Table 7 of these guidelines, uniformly grading
the area, clearing all debris, removing stones
and clods and scarifying hard packed surfaces.
Turf Installation
During periods of high temperatures, lightly
irrigate soil immediately before laying turf.
Lay the first row of turf in a straight line, with
subsequent rows placed parallel to and tightly
wedged against each other. Stagger lateral
joints in a brick-like pattern. Do not stretch or
overlap turf and make sure all joints are butted
tight to prevent voids, which can cause drying
of the grass roots.
Plate 7: Turfing
46
Environment Waikato
On sloping areas or channels where erosion
may be a problem, lay turf downslope with the
ends of the turf material overlapped such that
the upslope turf overlaps the downslope turf by
at least 100 mm. It may be necessary to secure
the turf with pegs or staples. Ensure the turf at
the top of the slope is appropriately trenched in
to prevent runoff moving underneath it.
As turfing is completed in one area, roll or
tamp the entire area to ensure solid contact
of the grass roots with the soil surface. After
rolling, immediately water the turf until the
underside of the new turf and soil surface
below the turf are thoroughly wet.
Maintenance
- Water daily during the first week of laying
unless there is adequate rainfall.
- Do not mow the area until the turf is firmly
rooted.
- Apply fertiliser regularly as in Table 7 of
these guidelines uniformly.
47
Definition
The artificial protection of channels and erodible
slopes utilising artificial erosion control material
such as geosynthetic matting, geotextiles or
erosion matting.
Purpose
To immediately reduce the erosion potential of
disturbed areas and/or to reduce or eliminate
erosion on critical sites during the period
necessary to establish protective vegetation. Some
forms of artificial protection may also help to
establish protective vegetation.
Application
On short steep slopes.
On areas that have highly erodible soils.
In situations where conventional mulches are of
limited effectiveness in withstanding high runoff
velocities.
In channels (both perennial and ephemeral)
where the design flow is greater than in-situ
soil can withstand.
In areas where there is not enough room to
install adequate sediment controls.
In critical erosion-prone areas such as sediment
retention pond outlet and inlet points.
In areas that may be slow to establish an
adequate permanent vegetative cover.
In areas where the downstream environment is
of high value and rapid stabilisation is needed.
Design
There are two categories of GECS: temporary
degradable and permanent non-degradable.
Temporary Degradable GECS
These are used to prevent loss of seedbed
and to promote vegetation establishment
where vegetation alone will be sufficient for
site protection once established. Common
temporary GECS are erosion control blankets,
open weave meshes/matting and organic
erosion control netting (fibre mats factory
bonded to synthetic netting).
Permanent Non-Degradable GECS
These are used to extend the erosion control
limits of vegetation, soil, rock or other
materials. Common permanent GECS are
three-dimensional erosion control and re-
vegetation mats, geocellular confinement
systems, reno mattresses and gabions.
Geosynthetic Erosion Control Systems (GECS) 2.12
The selection of an appropriate GECS is a
complex balancing of the relative importance of
the following requirements.
Endurance: durability, degree of resistance to
deformation over time and ultraviolet radiation
and to chemicals (natural or as pollutants).
Physical: thickness, weight, specific gravity and
degree of light penetration. Generally a thicker,
heavier material will provide better protection.
Hydraulic: ability of the system to resist tractive
shear strength and protect against channel
erosion, erosion of underlying soils or slope
erosion from rainfall impact.
Mechanical: deformation and strength
behaviour. Tensile strength and elongation,
stiffness (how well it will conform to the
subgrade) and how well it will resist tractive
shear forces.
When a geotextile is to be used for temporary
channel or spillway protection, consider
combining a high strength, low permeability cloth
over a soft pliable needle punch cloth pinned to
ensure the cloth is in contact with the entire soil
surface. Trench and pin all flow entry points such
that the upslope geotextile edge overlaps the
downslope geotextile mat. Toe in the upslope end
of the downslope mat.
In high risk areas such as spillways and
diversions, pin geotextiles down on a 0.5 m
grid or in accordance with the manufacturers
specifications, whichever provides the greatest
number of contact points.
There is a large number of products available
for all situations and depending on the degree
of protection needed, a product or combination
of products will be available to suit the situation.
It is vital that the product used is designed for
the intended use and installed and maintained
according to its specifications. Consideration in
using the various GECS available should be used
based on the following characteristics:
sediment yield (generally ranked highest)
stability under flow
vegetation enhancement
durability
cost.
48
Environment Waikato
When installing GECS within a channel, it is
important that the design velocity of the product is
considered and again that the product chosen is
appropriate for the use.
Many products provide for the combination of a
re-vegetation technique and an artificial erosion
control measure. Again, design specifications
need to be closely followed in all cases.
Maintenance
Inspect after every rainfall and undertake any
maintenance immediately.
Figure 11: Geotextile Laid on Slope
Figure 12: Geotextile at Culvert Outlet
49
Definition
A stabilised pad of aggregate on a filter cloth
base located at any point where traffic will be
entering or leaving a construction site.
Purpose
To prevent site access points from becoming
sediment sources and to help minimise dust
generation and disturbance of areas adjacent to
the road frontage by giving a defined entry/exit
point.
Application
Use a stabilised construction entrance at all
points of construction site ingress and egress,
with a construction plan limiting traffic to these
entrances only. They are particularly useful on
small construction sites but can be utilised for all
projects.
Design
Clear the entrance and exit area of all
vegetation, roots and other unsuitable material
and properly grade it.
Provide drainage to carry runoff from the
stabilised construction entrance to a sediment
control measure.
Stabilised Construction Entrance 2.13
Place aggregate to the specifications below and
smooth it.
Table 8: Stabilised Construction Entrance
Aggregate Specifications
Aggregate
Size
50-75 mm washed
aggregate
Thickness 150 mm minimum
Length 10 m minimum
Width 4 m minimum
Maintenance
Maintain the stabilised construction entrance in
a condition to prevent sediment from leaving the
construction site. After each rainfall inspect any
structure used to trap sediment from the stabilised
construction entrance and clean out as necessary.
When wheel washing is also required, ensure this
is done on an area stabilised with aggregate which
drains to an approved sediment retention facility.
Plate 8: Stabilised Construction Entrance
50
Environment Waikato
Figure 13: Stabilised construction entrance
51
Definition
A temporary pipe structure or constructed flume
placed from the top of a slope to the bottom.
Purpose
Drop structure is installed to convey surface runoff
down the face of unstabilised slopes in order to
minimise erosion on the slope face.
Application
Drop structures are used in conjunction with runoff
diversion channels/bunds. The runoff diversion
directs surface runoff to the drop structure which
conveys concentrated flow down the face of a
slope. If other forms drop structure are being
considered, approval of those structures may be
necessary on a case by case basis.
Design
Construct pipe drop structures and flumes from
watertight materials.
Extend the drop structure beyond the toe of the
slope and adequately protect the outlet from
erosion using riprap over a geotextile apron.
Pipe/Flume Drop Structure 2.14
Use of the following design criteria for pipe
drop structures, is shown in Figure 10.
Table 9: Design Criteria for Pipe Drop
Structure
Pipe Diameter
(mm)
Maximum Catchment
Area (ha)
150 0.05
300 0.2
450 0.6
500
Specific design is required for catchments
exceeding 1 hectare in area.
Ensure that the runoff diversion channel/bund
is at least twice the pipe diameter or height of
flume as measured from the invert.
Plate 9: Flume drop structure
52
Environment Waikato
Install a flared entrance section of compacted
earth. To prevent erosion, place impermeable
geotextile fabric into the inlet extended a
minimum of 1.0 m in front of and to the side
of the inlet and up the sides of the flared
entrance. Ensure this geotextile is keyed 150
mm into the ground along all edges and
pinned at 500 mm centres.

When the catchment area is disturbed, ensure
the drop structure discharges into a sediment
retention pond or a stable conveyance system
that leads to a pond. When the catchment area
is stabilised, ensure the drop structure outlets
onto a stabilised area at a non-erosive velocity.
The point of discharge may be protected by
rock riprap.
Ensure the drop structure has a minimum slope
of 3 percent.
Construction Specifications for Pipe Drop
Structures
A common cause of failure of pipe drop
structures is water saturating the soil and
seeping along the pipe where it connects to the
runoff diversion channel/bund. Backfill properly
around and under the pipe with stable material
in order to achieve firm contact between the
pipe and the soil at all points to eliminate this
type of failure. Pipe material used for the drop
structure can consist of rigid pipe material
or flexible pipe as required. If flexible pipe
material is utilised, it is vital that the material be
fixed to the slope at regular intervals to prevent
movement. Rigid pipe can generally be secured
at greater intervals.
Place pipe drop structures on undisturbed soil
or well-compacted fill at locations as detailed
within the Erosion and Sediment Control Plan
for the site.
Immediately stabilise all disturbed areas
following construction.
Secure the Pipe drop structure to the slope at
least every 4 m. Use no less than two anchors
equally spaced along the length of the pipe.
Ensure all pipe connections are watertight.
Construction Specifications for flumes
A common failure of flumes is outflanking
of the flume entrance or scouring of the
invert to the flume. This can be prevented
by waterproofing the entrance to the flume
by trenching in an appropriate impervious
geotextile or plastic liner so that all flows are
channelled directly into the flume. Alternatively
a piped entrance can be installed.
Flumes can be constructed from materials such
as corrugated steel, construction ply, sawn
timber or halved plastic piping.
Construct the flume to ensure there are no
leaks. For wooden or plywood flumes, or
flumes where leakage is likely, extend an
impervious liner down the full length of the
flume structure.
For slopes greater than 30 percent, a flume
can be constructed from a standard 1.2 m x
2.4 m x 22 mm plywood sheet (refer to Figure
14). This will be adequate for catchments up
to one hectare. Specific design is required for
larger catchments.
Fasten the flume to the slope using waratahs or
wooden stakes placed in pairs down the slope
at 1 - 4 m spacings depending on the flume
material used. Fasten the flume to the waratahs
or stakes using wire or steel strappings.
Place flumes on undisturbed soil or well
compacted fill at locations detailed in the sites
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan.
Maintenance
Inspect the pipe/flume drop structure
periodically and after each rain event.
Immediately carry out any maintenance
required.
Keep the inlet open at all times.
53
Figure 14: Pipe/flume drop structures
Figure 15: Flume design specifications (for catchments up to 0.5 ha)
54
Environment Waikato
55
Definition
A non-erosive outlet for concentrated runoff
constructed to disperse flows uniformly across a
slope.
Purpose
To convert concentrated flow to sheet flow and
release it uniformly over a stabilised area to
prevent erosion.
The level spreader provides a relatively low cost
option, which can release concentrated flow
where site conditions are suitable. Particular care
is needed to ensure the level spreader outlet lip is
completely level and is in stable, undisturbed soil
or is well armoured. Any depressions in the level
spreader lip will re-concentrate flows, resulting in
further erosion.
Application
Where sediment-free storm runoff can be
released in a sheet flow over a stabilised slope
without causing erosion.
Where sediment-laden overland flow can be
released in sheet flow across the inlet to a
sediment retention pond.
Where the area below the level spreader lip
is uniform with the slope of 10 percent or
less and/or is stable for the anticipated flow
conditions.
Where the runoff water will not re-concentrate
after release.
Where there will be no traffic over the level
spreader.
Level Spreader 2.15
Design
Determine the capacity of the level spreader by
estimating peak flow from the 20-year storm.
Where possible, choose a site for the level
spreader that has a natural contour that will
allow for the rapid spreading of flows, for
example, at the end of a knoll or ridge.
Select the appropriate length, width and depth
of the spreader from Table 10 below.
Construct a 6 m long transition section in the
runoff diversion channel leading up to the level
spreader so the width of the runoff diversion
channel will smoothly meet the width of the
level spreader to ensure uniform outflow. The
level spreader trench tapers down to 1 m at the
end of the level spreader.
Maintain a minimum inlet width of 3 m.
Ensure that the grade of the level spreader is
0 percent.
Construct the level spreader lip on undisturbed
soil, incorporating a 50 x 150 mm board
(spreader beam) levelled and positioned edge
on as shown below. An alternative is to armour
the level spreader to a uniform height and zero
grade over the length of the level spreader.
Use geotextile and ensure the disturbed
area is seeded and fertilised for vegetation
establishment.
Maintenance
Inspect level spreaders after every rainfall until
vegetation is established and promptly undertake
any necessary repairs. Ensure vegetation is kept in
a healthy and vigorous condition.
Table 10: Level Spreader Design Criteria
Design Flow
Length (m
3
/sec)
Inlet Width (m) Depth (mm) End Width (m) Length (m)
0-0.3 3 150 1 3
0.3-0.6 5 180 1 7
0.6-0.9 7 220 1 10
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Environment Waikato
Figure 16: Level spreader
57
Definition
Roughening a bare earth surface with horizontal
grooves running across the slope, or tracking with
construction equipment.
Purpose
To aid in the establishment of vegetative cover
from seed, to reduce runoff velocity, to increase
infiltration, to reduce erosion and assist in
sediment trapping.
Construction sites requiring slope stabilisation with
vegetation, particularly on slopes steeper than
25 percent.
Application
Apply surface roughening on all construction
sites requiring slope stabilisation with vegetation,
particularly on slopes steeper than 25 percent.
Design
Not applicable.
Surface Roughening 2.16
Surface roughening is promoted because it
aids the establishment of vegetation, improves
infiltration and decreases runoff velocity. Graded
areas with smooth, hard surfaces may be initially
attractive but such surfaces increase the potential
for erosion. A rough, loose soil surface gives a
mulching effect that protects fertiliser and seed.
Various methods are available for surface
roughening such as discing and forming grooves
by machinery tracking. Factors to be taken into
account when choosing a method are slope
steepness, mowing/maintenance requirements
and whether the slope is formed by cutting or
filling.
Machinery tracking up and down the slope is
the recommended method, with the cleats of the
machine tracks providing a series of mini contour
drains, slowing overland flow down the slope and
helping to keep the grass seed on the slope.
Maintenance
Periodically check the slopes for rills and washes.
Re-seed and/or rework the area as necessary.
Plate 10: Surface roughening
58
Environment Waikato
Figure 17: Tracking
Sediment Control Practices
59
Sediment Control Practices 3.
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Environment Waikato
61
Definition
A temporary pond formed by excavation into
natural ground or by the construction of an
embankment, and incorporating a device to de-
water the pond at a rate that will allow suspended
sediment to settle out.
Purpose
To treat sediment-laden runoff and reduce the
volume of sediment leaving a site, thus protecting
downstream environments from excessive
sedimentation and water quality degradation.
Application
Sediment retention ponds are appropriate where
treatment of sediment-laden runoff is necessary,
and are the appropriate control measure for
exposed catchments of more than 0.3 ha. It is vital
that the sediment retention pond is maintained
until the disturbed area is fully protected against
erosion by permanent stabilisation.
The location of the sediment retention pond
Sediment Retention Pond 3.1
Plate 11: Sediment retention pond showing decant systems
needs to be carefully considered in terms of the
overall project, available room for construction
and maintenance and the final location of any
permanent stormwater retention facilities that may
be constructed at a later stage. Another major
consideration is whether drainage works can be
routed to the sediment retention pond until such
time as the site is fully stabilised. This eliminates
the problem of installing and maintaining
stormwater inlet protection throughout the latter
stages of a development.
The general design approach is to create an
impoundment of sufficient volume to capture a
significant proportion of the design runoff event,
and to provide quiescent (stilling) conditions,
which promote the settling of suspended
sediment. The sediment retention pond design is
such that very large runoff events will receive at
least partial treatment and smaller runoff events
will receive a high level of treatment. To achieve
this, the energy of the inlet water needs to be low
to minimise re-suspension of sediment and the
decant rate of the outlet also needs to be low to
minimise water currents and to allow sufficient
detention time for the suspended sediment to
settle out.
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Environment Waikato
Specific design criteria are discussed below, but
can be summarised as the following.
Use sediment retention ponds for bare areas of
bulk earthworks of 0.3 ha or greater.
Restrict catchment areas to less than 5.0 ha
per sediment retention pond. This limits the
length of overland flowpaths and reduces
maintenance problems.
Locate sediment retention ponds so as to
provide a convenient collection point for
sediment laden flows from the catchment area.
This will require strategic use of cut-offs, runoff
diversion channels and contour drains.
Locate sediment retention ponds to allow
access for removing sediment from the pond.
Wherever possible, locate sediment retention
ponds to allow the spillway to discharge over
undisturbed, well vegetated ground.
Keep the sediment retention pond life to less
than two years. If a longer term is required
then further measures to ensure stability and
effectiveness are likely to be needed.
Do not locate sediment retention ponds within
watercourses.
Embankment and spillway stability are
generally the weak point in sediment retention
pond construction. Correct compaction,
particularly around emergency spillways,
discharge pipes and anti seep collars, will keep
the system robust.
Design - Size of the Pond
Calculate the volume of the sediment retention
pond using the depth measured from the base
of the sediment retention pond to the top of the
manhole riser. In the case of a pond which does
not incorporate a manhole riser measure the
depth from the base of the pond to the invert of
the emergency spillway. The following design
criteria apply.
On earthwork sites with slopes less than
10 percent and less than 200 m in length,
construct a sediment retention pond with
a minimum volume of 2 percent of the
contributing catchment (200 m
3
for each ha of
contributing catchment).
On sites with slopes greater than 10 percent
and/or more than 200 m in length, construct
sediment retention ponds with a minimum
volume of 3 percent of the contributing
catchment (300 m
3
capacity for each ha of
An additional 10 percent of this volume is to be
used as a sediment forebay.
The slope angle is determined by that slope
within a 50 m radius of the sediment retention
pond inlet or by the average slope angle over
the contributing catchment, whichever is the
greater.
On sites that are particularly steep, have a
high clay content or have sensitive downstream
environments, a greater sediment retention
pond volume and/or the use of chemical
treatment may be required.
Clean out sediment retention ponds when the
volume of sediment accumulated within them
reaches 20 percent of the design volume.
Clearly show the sediment retention pond
dimensions necessary to obtain the required
volume, as detailed above, on the sites Erosion
and sediment Control Plan(s).
Design - Dead Storage (Permanent Storage)
Dead storage is the component of
impoundment volume that does not decant and
remains in the sediment retention pond. It is
important for dissipating the energy of inflows.
Ensure dead storage is 30 percent of the total
sediment retention pond storage by positioning
the lowest decant 0.4 - 0.8 m above the invert
of the sediment retention pond.
The approved decant design detailed in these
guidelines allows the lower decant arm to
be raised as sediment deposition increases,
thereby maintaining the percentage volume of
dead storage.
63
Design - Live Storage (Decant Storage)
Live storage is the volume between the lowest
decant outlet level and the crest of the sediment
retention pond primary spillway.
Ensure that the live storage volume capacity is
70 percent of the total sediment retention pond
storage.
The approved decant design detailed in
these guidelines allows the decant system to
be raised as sediment deposition increases,
thereby maintaining the percentage volume of
live storage.
Design - Decanting/Outlet De-watering
Device
De-water the sediment retention pond to
remove the relatively clean water without
removing any of the settled sediment, and
without removing any appreciable quantities of
floating debris.
The use of a floating T-bar de-watering device,
which allows for the decanting of the cleaner
surface water from the top of the water column
is preferred. Substantiated performance design
will need to be submitted for decant systems
other than the floating T-bar de-watering
device.
The recommended decant rate from a
sediment retention pond is 3 litres/second/ha
of contributing catchment. This rate ensures
that appropriate detention times are achieved.
A standard T-bar design is detailed in Figure
22 for various sized catchments. This design
has evolved through a number of trials the
latest of which sought to find a decant that is
less prone to blockage due to mulch or floating
topsoil/pumice. For simplicity, give preference
to producing a standard T-bar decant that
provides a decant rate of 4.5 litres/second
per decant which can be added in discrete
increments to accommodate various sized
catchments.
To achieve a decant rate of 4.5 litres/second
per decant, the lower end of the decant is
capped and a 44 mm diameter hole is drilled
Plate 12: Sediment retention pond showing decant system.
64
Environment Waikato
in the centre of the cap. Slots at 10 mm centres
using a 4 mm wide cut-off blade are made
along the full length of the decant. These slots
extend a third of the way into the pipe.
For catchments less than 1.5 ha in area the
following hole sizes apply.
0.5 ha - 25 mm diameter
1.0 ha - 32 mm diameter
Alternatively the original decant design of 200
10 mm diameter holes positioned evenly over
the decant can be used by blocking up the
appropriate no of holes as required. Block out
65 holes if a decant rate of 3 l/sec is required.
This design however, is prone to blockage.
Single T-bar decants must be able to operate
through the full live storage depth of the
If two decant systems are required, ensure the
lower T-bar decant operates through the full live
storage depth of the sediment retention pond.
The upper T-bar decant is to operate through
the upper 50 percent of the live storage depth
of the sediment retention pond only.
If three decant systems are to be used, then
the lower T-bar decant operates through the
full live storage depth and the second T-bar
decant through the upper two thirds of live
storage depth of the sediment retention pond.
The upper T-bar decant operates through the
upper one third of live storage depth of the
sediment retention pond as detailed in Figure
21. Although this arrangement reduces the
decant rate per ha for the larger ponds, this is
preferable to having separate decanting rates
for each T-bar.
Ensure that the T-bar decant float is securely
fastened with steel strapping directly on top
of the decant arm and weight it to keep the
decant arm submerged just below the surface
through all stages of the decant cycle. This will
also minimise the potential for blockage of
the decant slots by floating debris. The most
successful method found to date is to weight
the decant arm by strapping a 1.8 m long
waratah between the float and the decant
(approximately 4 kg of weight).
Position the T-bar decant at the correct height
by supporting the decant arm between
warratahs as detailed in Figure 22.
Lay the discharge pipe at a 1 - 2 percent
gradient, compact the fill material around it
using a machine compactor and incorporate
anti-seep collars with the following criteria:
Install collars around the pipe to increase the
seepage length along the pipe with a spacing
of approximately 10 m.
The vertical projection of each collar is 1
m; ensure all anti seep collars and their
connections are watertight.
Use a flexible thick rubber coupling to provide
a connection between the decant arm and the
primary spillway or discharge pipe. To provide
sufficient flexibility (such as is required for the
lower decant arm) install two couplings. Fasten
the flexible coupling using strap clamps and
glue.
Where a concrete riser decant system is
utilised, ensure the lower decant connection
is positioned on an angle upwards from the
horizontal so as to split the operational angle
that the decant works through. This will reduce
the deformation force on the coupling used.
Design - Forebay
Construct a forebay with a volume equal to
10 percent of the pond design volume. On sites
with slopes less than 10 percent and lengths
less than 200 m this equates to a forebay
volume of 0.2 percent of the contributing
catchment area - 0.2 m
3
per 100 m2 of
contributing catchment. On sites with slopes
greater than 10 percent and lengths greater
than 200 m, forebay volume is equivalent
to 0.3 percent of the contributing catchment
area ie: 0.3 m
3
per 100 m2 of contributing
catchment.
The forebay is to extend the full width of the
main pond and is to be 0.5 to 1 m deep.
Inlets into the forebay are to be stabilised.
65
Access to the forebay is to be maintained at
all times to allow easy and frequent removal
of accumulated sediments by an excavator.
Sediment should also be removed after every
large storm event.
Design - Shape of the Pond
Ensure the length to width ratio of the sediment
retention pond is no less than 3:1 and no
greater than 5:1. The length of the sediment
retention pond is measured as the distance
between the inlet and the outlet (decant
system). A 2:1 ratio may be used if the pond
depth is no greater than 1 m.
Maximise the distance between the inlet and
the outlet (including the emergency spillway)
to reduce the risk of short circuiting and to
promote quiescent conditions. If this can
not be achieved by correctly positioning the
inlet and outlets, install baffles to achieve the
appropriate length to width ratio design.
Ensure that the sediment retention pond has
a level invert as described below to promote
the even and gradual dissipation of the
heavier inflow water across the full area of the
Design - Embankment
Thoroughly compact the sediment retention
pond embankment, with material laid in 150
mm layers and compacted to engineering
standards.
Before building a sediment retention pond,
install sediment controls such as silt fences
below the construction area and maintain them
to a functional standard until the sediment
retention pond batters are fully stabilised.
Figure 18: Pond level spreader
Forobuy
5ediment Retention Fond
3 . T inlol bullor lo bo smoolhod und roo o
voids
Lovol sproudor ull widlh o inlol ond, slubilisod rom lho boginning o lho inlol lo lho
pond invorl wilh 2 luyors o gooloxlilo.
Concrolo huunching
Lovol sproudor
T50mm x 50mm
Eurlh 8und wilh
silo concrolo
covor
Tm doop
2 x Gooloxlilo
luyors
Gooloxlilo
Wruppod uround
lovol sproudor und
concrolo huunching
Lovol sproudor
66
Environment Waikato
Where possible, install the discharge pipes
through the embankment as the embankment
is being constructed.
Fully stabilise the external batter face, by
vegetative or other means immediately after
construction.
Ensure all bare areas associated with the
sediment retention pond (including internal
batters) are stabilised with vegetation if the
sediment retention pond is to remain in use
over winter.
Design - Pond Level Spreader
Incorporate a pond level spreader between the
forebay and the main pond to spread inflow
velocities, thereby allowing rapid dissipation
of inflow energies. Combine the pond level
spreader with a well compacted and smoothed
inlet batter (no steeper than a 3:1 gradient),
stabilised over its entire area. The essential
design feature is to ensure the pond level
spreader is completely level, non-erodible and
spans the full width of the sediment retention
pond.
Stabilise the level spreader and inlet
embankment to the base of the pond with
a layer of strong woven low permeability
geotextile overlaid with a layer of soft non-
woven needle punched geotextile. Pin at 500
mm centres.
To ensure even inflows, install a trenched and
pegged 150 mm x 50 mm timber weir or
similar across the full width of the inlet. Bund
the edges with compacted earth to prevent
outflanking. This timber weir is haunched using
site concrete which also serves to toe in the
geotextile protection which will be required.
Position the top of the pond level spreader
weir 100 200 mm above the invert of the
emergency spillway.
Design - Baffles
Incorporate baffles in the sediment retention
pond design where the recommended pond
shape cannot be achieved. Extend baffles the
full depth of the sediment retention pond and
place them to maximise dissipation of flow
energy.
Generally, baffles are in the form of a
wing to direct inflows away from the outlet
and maximise the stilling zone. A series of
compartments within the pond can be used
to achieve this, although care must be taken
to avoid creating in-pond currents and re-
suspension of light particulates.
Baffles may be constructed from various
materials ranging from solid shutter boards to
braced geotextile curtains.
Design - Depth of Pond
Sediment retention pond depths may be
1 - 2 m deep, but no deeper than 2 m. Deeper
ponds are more likely to cause short circuiting
problems during larger storm events and
require specifically designed floating decant
systems.
The decant design in these guidelines operates
through a maximum live storage range of
1.5 m.
Design - Primary Spillway
For larger catchments (greater than 1.5 ha) the
sediment retention pond requires a primary
piped spillway (refer Figures).
For catchments up to 1.5 ha, decant flows
can be piped using the same diameter pipe
as the decant system (100 mm PVC smooth
bore) directly through the sediment retention
pond wall to discharge beyond the toe of the
sediment retention pond wall.
For contributing catchments between 1.5 and
3 ha in area, use a discharge and primary
spillway pipe diameter of 150 mm.
Where contributing catchments are 3 ha or
greater and/or the long term stability of the
sediment retention pond emergency spillway
is questionable (for example, built in fill), then
consideration must be given to incorporating
a concrete manhole riser and larger diameter
outlet pipe as a primary spillway sufficient to
accommodate the 5 percent AEP rainfall event.
If the sediment retention pond is to operate
over the winter and the contributing catchment
is fully stabilised, disconnect the T-bar decant
to reduce the frequency of emergency spillway
activation and consequent erosion.
67
Where a primary spillway upstand riser is used,
place the top of the riser a minimum 600 mm
lower than the top of the sediment retention
pond embankment and a minimum 300 mm
lower than the emergency spillway crest. Ensure
the riser and the discharge pipe connections
are all completely watertight.
Design - Emergency Spillway
An emergency spillway is essential for all
sediment retention ponds.
Emergency spillways must be capable of
accommodating the 1 percent AEP event
without eroding.

Emergency spillways must discharge onto
stabilised ground. The emergency spillway must
be located at the outlet end of the pond behind
or beside the decant system.
The emergency spillway crest and outer batter
requires a very high standard of stabilisation
with the fill material well compacted.
Construct the emergency spillway as a
stabilised trapezoidal cross section with a
minimum bottom width of 4 m or the width
of the pond floor, whichever is the greater up
to a maximum width of 8 m. The trapezoidal
cross sections to be continued down the outside
batter to avoid flows outflanking the geotextile.
When utilising geotextile for emergency
spillway stabilisation purposes, the batter face
must be smooth and all voids filled.
If geotextile is used, a strong woven low
permeability geotextile is laid first and then
covered with a soft non-woven needle punched
geotextile. Ensure the geotextile is pinned at
0.5 m centres over the full area of the
emergency spillway.
Where possible, construct emergency spillways
in well vegetated, undisturbed ground (not fill)
and discharge over long grass.
If the emergency spillway is constructed
on exposed soil, provide complete erosion
protection by means such as grouted riprap,
asphalt, erosion matting/geotextile or concrete.
Construct the emergency spillway with a
minimum of 300 mm freeboard height above
the primary spillway invert.
Construct a fabric silt fence across the
downslope end of the proposed works.
Clear areas under proposed fills of topsoil or
other unsuitable material down to competent
material. Large fill embankments may need to
be keyed in.
Use only approved fill.
Place and compact fill in layers as per the
engineers specifications.
Do not place pervious materials such as sand or
gravel within the fill material.
Construct fill embankments approximately
10 percent higher than the design height to
allow for settlement of the material. Install
appropriate pipe work and anti-seep collars
during the construction of the embankment and
compact around these appropriately.
Install and stabilise the emergency spillway.
Install and stabilise the level spreader.
Securely attach the decant system to the
horizontal pipework. Make all connections
watertight. Place any manhole riser on a firm
foundation of impervious soil.
Do not place pervious material such as sand or
scoria around the discharge pipe or the anti-
seep collars.
Install baffles if required.
Check sediment retention pond freeboard for
differential settlement and rectify as necessary.
Stabilise both internal and external batters
with vegetation.
68
Environment Waikato
Pond Maintenance and Disposal of Sediment
Clean out sediment retention ponds before the
volume of accumulated sediment reaches
20 percent of the total sediment retention pond
volume. To assist in gauging sediment loads,
clearly mark the 20 percent volume height on
the decant riser.
Clean out sediment retention ponds with high
capacity sludge pumps, or with excavators
(long reach excavators if needed) loading
onto sealed tip trucks or to a secure area
immediately adjacent to the pond.
The Erosion and Sediment Control Plan should
identify disposal locations for the sediment
removed from the sediment retention pond.
Deposit the sediment in such a location so
that it does not lead to a direct discharge to
receiving environments. Stabilise all disposal
sites as required and approved in the sites
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan.
Inspect sediment retention ponds every day
and before every forecasted rainfall event.
Inspect for correct operation after every runoff
event. Immediately repair any damage to
sediment retention ponds caused by erosion or
construction equipment.
Safety
Sediment retention ponds are attractive to
children and can become safety hazards if not
appropriately fenced and if safety rules are not
followed. Low gradient pond batters provide
an additional safety measure. Check the safety
requirements of the City or District Council
authority and the Occupational Safety and Health
branch of the Department of Labour.
Chemical Treatment
Some chemicals can be used successfully to
promote flocculation (clumping together) of
suspended solids in the sediment retention pond
to increase the particle mass and speed the rate
of settling.
Recent trials have identified a simple and
effective chemical dosing system that does not
require a power supply. This system uses poly
aluminium chloride (PAC) and has been found to
be particularly effective in settling fine particulate
such as fine silts and clays. Other chemicals may
become available as more trial data is obtained.
Chemical dosing systems are likely to be required
where the design sediment retention pond volume
cannot be achieved because of site constraints
and/or where a high level of treatment is
required because of the sensitivity of the receiving
environment. Chemical treatment is also more
likely to be required where the clay component is
high.
69
Single decant
for catchments up to 1.5 hectares
CROSS SECTION
PLAN
TP90_11.dwg
100mm discharge pipe laid at 1
or 2% gradient.
Minimum freeboard 300mm
Live
storage
variable
up to
1500mm
Dead
storage
500mm
Waratah stakes
Pond base level
SEE DECANT DETAIL
Poured concrete
antiseep collar
Poured concrete
antiseep collar
Waratahs and strong nylon
cord to control level of
decant
Anti-seep
collars
Geotextile fabric secured firmly to
the embankment face.
Rip-rap placed at pond outlet with
geotextile fabric placed underneath
Pond batters
2:1 to 3:1
Spillway compacted and
smoothed to eliminate all voids
prior to laying and pinning
appropriate geotextile/concrete
Width of top embankment should be
wide enough to ensure machinery
access for de-sludging of pond, if there
are no other access points available
2 x rubber couplings to provide
additional range
Geotextile fabric should be laid
into the pond to a depth of at
least 500mm below the
spillway invert
Figure 19: Sediment retention pond for catchments up to 1.5 ha
70
Environment Waikato
Figure 20: Sediment retention pond for catchments between 1.5 And 3 ha
Lowor
docunl
oporulos
ovor ull
doplh o
livo slorugo
- up lo
T500mm
Uppor
docunl
oporulos
ovor lop
T/2 o livo
slorugo
only
Concrolo risor muy
roquiro woighling or
unchoring lo provonl
louling
Lowosl lnlol pipo lo risor is
unglod upwurd ul T5 lo
ouso lonsion on loxiblo |oinl
Wuruluh slukos
roquirod or ull
docunls
Combinotion decont
for cotchments between 2-4 hectores
CkO55 5ECTOM
FLAM
Widlh o lop ombunkmonl should bo wido
onough lo onsuro muchinory uccoss or
do-sludging o pond, i lhoro uro no olhor
uccoss poinls uvuilublo
Spillwuy compuclod und smoolhod
lo oliminulo ull voids prior lo luying
und pinning uppropriulo
gooloxlilo/concrolo
Pourod concrolo
unlisoop collur
T50mm - 300mmC dischurgo
pipo luid ul T or 2 grudionl.
Pourod concrolo
unlisoop collur
Minimum roobourd 300mm
Pip-rup plucod ul pond oullol wilh gooloxlilo
ubric plucod undornoulh
Gooloxlilo ubric socurod irmly lo lho
ombunkmonl uco.
Anli-soop
collurs
300
Pond bullors
2.T lo 3.T
500mm
doud
slorugo
Gooloxlilo ubric should bo luid inlo
lho pond lo u doplh o u lousl 500mm
bolow lho spillwuy invorl
SEE
DECANT
DETAlL
Spillwuy widlh lo bo ull
widlh o pond invorl or
u minimum o
molros.
71
Figure 21: Sediment retention pond for catchments between 3 and 5 ha
72
Environment Waikato
Figure 22: Sediment retention pond - decant detail
Nolo.
All pipo work und illings
lo bo T00mmC P\C
Floul
Singlo wuruluh ixod
irmly bohind cublo
lios/slrups roquirod lo
woighl docunl
Docunl
A
Wiro or slool
slrups lo |oin
docunl und
loul
Floxiblo rubbor
|oinls gluod und
clumpod - Two
|oinls lo bo usod
only or lowor
docunl
Slundurd
Too |oinl
2
m
Wuruluhs plucod
oilhor sido o docunl
urm us u mouns o
socuring docunl
Allornulivo Docunl pipo
dosign.
Six oquully spucod rows o
T0mm diumolor holos ul
0mm spucings ulong lho
ull longlh o lho docunl
pipo
Alluch T.8 molro
long wuruluh lo
woighl docunl.
(soo Soclion A-A} A
Slundurd ond
cups
2
m
5mm slols
(muximum widlh}
Wiro limiling vorlicul
movomonl o docunl
m
m 3
0
0
T0mm conlros
Slols cul ul
T/3
o
circumoronco
Soo oriico
doluil ubovo
End cup lo bo gluod
ovor ond o pipo
und 44mm diumolor
oriico lo bo drillod
in ond cup
5ection A-A
Decont DetoiI
Orifice DetoiI
73
Typical silt pond layout
All bare surfaces to be stabilised with vegetation if the pond is to
remain through a winter period, otherwise just the outer batter
needs to be stabilised
Pinned geotextile overlaid with large rock to break
up flow
Wide shallow level spillway over existing ground where
possible, retain the existing grass cover. Bare areas to be
stabilised with concrete or similar
Bund/diversion drains to ensure
all flow enters at the inlet end
Extra crest width may be required to
provide for machinery access for
cleaning out
Sediment
Forebay
(1m deep)
Secure the ends of the
level spreader by burying
within the earth bund
Floating
decants
Figure 23: Sediment retention pond
74
Environment Waikato
75
Definition
A temporary barrier of woven geotextile fabric used
to intercept runoff, reduce its velocity and impound
sediment laden runoff from small areas of disturbed
soil.
Purpose
To detain flows from runoff so that deposition of
transported sediment can occur through settlement.
Silt fences can only be used to intercept sheet
flow. Do not use silt fences as velocity checks in
channels or place them where they will intercept
concentrated flow.
Application
On low gradient sites or for confined areas where
the contributing catchment is small, such as short
steep batter fills and around watercourses.
To delineate the limit of disturbance on an
earthworks site such as riparian areas or bush
reserves.
To store runoff behind the silt fence without
damaging the fence or the submerged area
behind the fence.
Silt fence 3.2
Do not install silt fences across watercourses
or in areas of concentrated flows.
Design
Ensure silt fence height is a minimum of
400 mm above ground level.
Place supporting posts/waratahs for silt fences
no more than 2 m apart unless additional
support is provided by tensioned wire (2.5 mm
HT) along the top of the silt fence. Where a
strong woven fabric is used in conjunction with
a wire support, the distance between posts can
be extended up to 4 m. Double the silt fence
fabric over and fasten to the wire and posts
with wire ties or cloth fastening clips at 150
mm spacing. Ensure supporting posts/waratahs
are embedded a minimum of 400 mm into the
ground.
Always install silt fences along the contour.
Where this is not possible or where there are
long sections of silt fence, install short silt
fence returns, projecting upslope from the silt
fence to minimise concentrations of flows. Silt
fence returns are a minimum of 2 m in length,
can incorporate a tie back and are generally
Plate 13: Silt fence
76
Environment Waikato
constructed by continuing the silt fence around
the return and doubling back, to eliminate
joins.
Join lengths of silt fence by doubling over fabric
ends around a wooden post or batten or by
stapling the fabric ends to a batten and butting
the two battens together as shown in Figure 24.
Maximum slope lengths, spacing of returns and
angles for silt fences are shown in Table 11.
Install silt fence wings at either end of the silt
fence projecting upslope to a sufficient height to
prevent outflanking.
Where impounded flow may overtop the silt
fence, crossing natural depressions or low
points, make provision for a riprap splash pad
or other outlet protection device.
Do not use silt fences in catchments of more
than 0.25 ha
Where water may pond behind the silt fence,
provide extra support for the silt fence with tie
backs from the silt fence to a central stable
point on the upward side. Extra support can
also be provided by stringing wire between
support stakes and connecting the filter fabric to
this wire.
Use silt fence material appropriate to the
site conditions and in accordance with the
manufacturers specifications.
Excavate a trench a minimum of 100 mm wide
and 200 mm deep along the proposed line of
the silt fence. Install the support posts on the
downslope edge of the trench and silt fence
fabric on the upslope side of the support posts
to the full depth of the trench, then backfill the
trench with compacted soil.
Use supporting posts of tanalised timber a
minimum of 50 mm square, or steel waratahs
at least 1.5 m in length.
Reinforce the top of the silt fence fabric with
a wire support made of galvanised wire of a
minimum diameter of 2.5 mm. Tension the
wire using permanent wire strainers attached to
angled waratahs at the end of the silt fence.
Where ends of silt fence fabric come together,
ensure they are overlapped, folded and stapled
to prevent sediment bypass.
Maintenance
Inspect silt fences at least once a week and
after each rainfall. Make any necessary
repairs when bulges occur or when sediment
accumulation reaches 50 percent of the fabric
height.
Any areas of collapse, decomposition or
ineffectiveness need to be immediately
replaced.
Remove sediment deposits as necessary
to continue to allow for adequate sediment
storage and reduce pressure on the silt fence.
Ensure that the sediment is removed to a secure
area.
Do not remove silt fence materials and
sediment deposition until the catchment area
has been appropriately stabilised. Stabilise the
area of the removed silt fence.
Table 11: Silt fence design criteria
Slope
Steepness (%)
Slope Length (m)
(Maximum)
Spacing of Returns (m) Silt fence Length (m)
(Maximum)
Flatter than 2% Unlimited N/A Unlimited
2 - 10% 40 60 300
10 - 20% 30 50 230
20 - 33% 20 40 150
33 - 50% 15 30 75
> 50% 6 20 40
77
Figure 24: Silt fence
78
Environment Waikato
79
Definition
A temporary barrier of geotextile fabric over chain
link fence that is used to intercept flows, reduce
their velocity and impound sediment laden runoff
from small catchment areas.
Purpose
To reduce runoff velocity and allow the deposition
of transported sediment to occur.
A super silt fence provides much more robust
sediment control than a standard silt fence and
allows up to four times the catchment area to be
treated by an equivalent length of standard silt
fence.
Application
Provides a barrier that can collect and hold
debris and soil, preventing the material from
entering critical areas, watercourses and
streets.
Super Silt Fence 3.3
Can be used where the installation of an earth
or topsoil bunds would destroy sensitive areas
such as bush and wetlands.
Should be placed as close to the contour as
possible. No section of the fence should exceed
a grade of 5 percent for a distance of more
than 15 m.
Design
When considering super silt fence installation for
larger catchments (greater than 0.5 ha) as in
Table 12, carefully consider the specific site
conditions and other alternative control measures
available. The length of the super silt fence is
based on the limits shown in Table 12.
Do not use a super silt fence for catchments
greater than 1 ha.
Limits imposed by ultraviolet light affect the
stability of the fabric and will dictate the maximum
period that the super silt fence may be used.
Where ends of the geotextile fabric come together,
overlap, fold and staple the fabric ends to prevent
sediment bypass.
Plate 14: Super Silt fence
80
Environment Waikato
Use a silt fence fabric that is appropriate to
the site conditions and fits the manufacturers
specifications.
Excavate a trench 100 mm wide by 200 mm
deep along the line of the super silt fence.
Position the posts (No. 3 rounds, No. 2 half
rounds or waratahs) at no greater than 3 m
centres on the downslope side of the trench.
While there is no need to set the posts in
concrete, ensure the 1.8 m long posts are
driven to an appropriate depth (0.8 m
minimum).
Install tensioned galvanised wire (2.5 mm
HT) at 400 mm and again at 700 mm above
ground level using permanent wire strainers.
Secure chain link fence to the fence posts with
wire ties or staples, ensuring the chain link
fence goes to the base of the trench.
Fasten two layers of geotextile fabric securely
to the super silt fence with ties spaced every 60
cm at the top and mid section of the super silt
fence.
Place the two layers of geotextile fabric to the
base of the trench (a minimum of 200 mm into
the ground) and place compacted backfill back
to the original ground level.
When two sections of geotextile fabric adjoin
each other, ensure they are doubled over a
minimum of 300 mm, wrapped around a
batten and stapled at 75 mm spacings to
prevent sediment bypass.
Maintenance
Inspect regularly and before and after storm
events.
Undertake maintenance as needed and remove
silt buildups when bulges develop in the super silt
fence or when sediment deposition reaches
50 percent of the super silt fence height.
Table 12: Super Silt Fence Design Criteria
Slope
Steepness (%)
Slope Length (m)
(Maximum)
Silt fence Length (m)
(Maximum)
0 - 10% Unlimited Unlimited
10 - 20% 60 450
20 - 33% 30 300
33 - 50% 30 150
> 50% 15 75
81
for Super Silt Fence
Standard detail
ELEVATION
800mm min
1m min
3m max
200mm min
400mm min
Waratahs or
standard wooden
fenceposts
Ground Level
Flow
800mm min - 2nd layer
geotextile
400mm min - 1st layer
geotextile
Embed geotextile 200mm
min. into ground
Chain link fencing between
posts and geotextile
Geotextile - 2nd layer
Geotextile - 1st layer
CROSS SECTION
Flow Flow
TP90_16.dwg
Upper tensioned
galvanised wire
Lower tensioned
galvanised wire
Figure 25: Super silt fence
82
Environment Waikato
83
Definition
Temporary barriers of hay bales used to intercept
and direct surface runoff from small areas.
Purpose
To intercept or direct sediment laden runoff from
small areas to a sediment retention facility so that
deposition of transported sediment can occur. Hay
bale barriers do not filter sediment.
Application
Hay bale barriers are not primary sediment
control measures. They easily deteriorate and
require frequent maintenance.
Only use hay bale barriers to meet short term
needs of less than one month duration.
Only use hay bale barriers to intercept sheet
flow. Do not use them as velocity checks
in channels or place them where they will
intercept concentrated flow. They do not act
as filters and are easily overtopped or scoured
out.
Hay Bale Barrier 3.4
Do not use with a catchment area of more than
0.2 ha per 100 m length of hay bales.
Do not use hay bale barriers on slopes
exceeding 20 percent.
Design
Not applicable.
Place hay bale barriers along the contour with
bales in a row with the ends tightly abutting
adjacent bales.
Dig each bale into the ground 100 mm and
place so the bale bindings are horizontal.
Do not place bales more than one bale high.
Secure bales in place by two stakes driven
through the bale 300 to 400 mm into the
ground. Drive the first stake toward the
previously laid bale at an angle to force the
bales together. Drive stakes flush with the top of
the bale.
Plate 15: Hay bale barrier
84
Environment Waikato
Figure 26: Hay bale barrier
Maintenance
Inspect hay bale barriers frequently and after each
rain event. Undertake maintenance as necessary.
Remove all bales when the site has been fully
stabilised. Stabilise the trench where the bales
were located and grade flush.
85
Plate 16: Stormwater inlet protection
Definition
A barrier across or around a cesspit (stormwater
inlet).
Purpose
To intercept and filter sediment-laden runoff
before it enters a reticulated stormwater system
via a cesspit, thereby preventing sediment-laden
flows from entering receiving environments. The
protection may take various forms depending
upon the type of inlet to be protected. Stormwater
protection is a secondary sediment control device.
It must only be used in conjunction with other
erosion and sediment control measures.
If good erosion and sediment control measures
are in place on the site, then stormwater inlet
protection will not be required.
Application
Do not use stormwater inlet protection as a
primary method of treatment instead of other
sediment retention facilities.
Use only in small catchments of less than
0.5 ha.
Stormwater Inlet Protection 3.5
Use only where the catchment area to an
inlet is disturbed and it is not possible to
temporarily divert the storm drain outfall into a
sediment retention facility.
Stormwater inlet protection only offers limited
treatment of sediment-laden water, because
of the concentrated flows arriving at them.
Stormwater systems are, by design, very
efficient at conducting flows away from inlets,
and therefore, once any sediment reaches
the stormwater system, it will be discharged
directly to the receiving environment.
Therefore, the need to use stormwater
inlet protection can indicate poor erosion
and sediment control and/or inadequate
stabilisation on the site.
Design
There are various design options for reducing
sediment inputs to the stormwater cesspits.
Silt Fence Design
A silt fence can be erected around the inlet
(see Section 3). This method is appropriate
where cesspits have been connected to a
stormwater system and are collecting runoff
from disturbed soil surfaces.
86
Environment Waikato
Filter Media Design
Two common methods use geotextile and
scoria or gravel to treat sediment laden flows.
All points where runoff can enter the cesspit
must be protected with suitable geotextile
fabric.
Wrap geotextile fabric around the cesspit grate
as a barrier to flow directly from the roadside
gutter. Pay special attention to the inlet above
the grate back of the cesspit where a geotextile
fabric sock filled with gravel must be placed to
intercept runoff.
Lay coarse geotextile fabric over the cesspit
and up onto the kerb with a layer of aggregate
material to act as a primary filter and to hold
the fabric in place.
Check Dams
Place a series of low sandbag check dams
up the gutter from cesspits to act as a series
of sediment traps. The checkdams require a
spillway lower than the kerb to ensure that
runoff does not encroach onto the berm area
and cause scouring. Construct check dams out
of up to six sandbags laid end to end with no
gaps in an arc away from the kerb and up the
road to create a series of impoundment areas.
Maintenance
Maintenance requirements for cesspit protection
measures are high because they clog easily. When
clogging occurs, remove accumulated sediment
and clean or replace the geotextile fabric and
aggregate.
Inspect all stormwater inlet protection measures
following any rainfall event and maintain as
necessary to ensure they operate effectively.
Stormwater inlet protection provides at best limited
sediment retention. Do not use it as a primary
method of sediment control. Use additional
measures up-slope, such as topsoil bunds and
cut-off drains, to minimise the volume of sediment
reaching any stormwater inlets. Cesspits must
at all times remain able to convey flow from the
site to prevent large concentrated highly erosive
flows from building up and causing washouts in
secondary overland paths.
Construct silt fences for stormwater inlet protection
as outlined in Section 3 of these guidelines.
Figure 27: Stormwater inlet protection - filter media design
87
Plate 17: Decanting earth bund
Definition
A temporary berm or ridge of compacted earth
constructed to create impoundment areas where
ponding of runoff can occur, and suspended
material can settle before runoff is discharged.
Purpose
Used to intercept sediment-laden runoff and
reduce the amount of sediment leaving the site by
detaining sediment-laden runoff.
Application
Decanting earth bunds can be constructed across
disturbed areas and around construction sites
and subdivisions. Keep them in place until the
disturbed areas are permanently stabilised or
adequately replaced by other means. Decanting
earth bunds can assist the settling of sediment-
laden runoff.
Decanting earth bunds are particularly useful for
controlling runoff after topsoiling and grassing
before vegetation becomes established. Where
works are occurring within the berm area,
compact the topsoil over the berm area as bunds
Decanting Earth Bund 3.6
adjacent and parallel to the berm. This will act
as an impoundment area and controlled outfall
while also keeping overland flow away from the
construction area.
Design
Decanting earth bunds need a constructed
outlet structure and spillway as designed
for sediment retention ponds (Section 3 of
these guidelines). Alternatively, construct an
outlet of perforated pipe connected to a non-
perforated pipe that passes through the earth
bund. Ensure that the section of pipe within the
impoundment area is supported by means of a
rigid post, allowing filtration to occur.
Stabilise the emergency spillway by lining it with
a strong woven low permeability geotextile
overlaid with a soft non-woven needle punched
geotextile. Ensure the geotextile is pinned at 0.5
m centres over the full area of the emergency
spillway.
- If there is sand, pumice or other erodible
material in the decanting earth bund
embankment then an anti-seep collar must
be installed during the construction of the
embankment
88
Environment Waikato
- Ensure that all decanting earth bund
embankments are compacted appropriately,
particularly around the outlet pipe.
On earthwork sites with slopes less than
10 percent and less than 200 m in length,
construct the decanting earth bund with
a minimum volume of 2 percent of the
contributing catchment (20 m
3
for each 1000
square metres of contributing catchment).
On sites with slopes greater than 10 percent
and/or 200 m in length, construct decanting
earth bunds with a minimum volume of 3
percent of the contributing catchment (30
m
3
capacity for each 1000 square metres of
Ensure the top opening of the perforated
pipe is 100 mm lower than the invert of the
emergency spillway.
Ensure the section of pipe leading through
the decanting earth bunds and continuing
downslope below the decanting earth bunds is
non-perforated.
250mm
Spillwuy
Spillwuy slubilisod wilh lwo luyors o
gooloxlilo (min. widlh ~ 2m}
Slubilisod oullol
FIon
T0mm non-pororulod
pipo lhrough bund
Enginoorod ill on
compuclod ground
T00 mm
OutIet DetoiI
Froobourd
1oinls lo bo gluod und
ixod wilh PK scrows
Livo slorugo
volumo 50
Minimum doplh
0.5m
5m minimum lovol
dislunco rom docunl
Doud slorugo
volumo 50
Min doplh 0.5m
Pighl unglo
P\C olbow
T0mm diu. Pororulod
novucoil pipo.
Spillwuy Lovol
Pororulod pipo
ixod lo wuruluh
sluko wilh wiro
lios
Cross 5ection
Construct the decanting earth bunds such that
the maximum contributing catchment does not
exceed 0.3 ha.
Position the decant inlet to provide 50 percent
live storage volume with a minimum distance
of 5 m of flat ground from the inlet. Otherwise
raise the inlet so the dead storage level extends
out at least this far.
Maintenance
Inspect and maintain decanting earth bunds
regularly and after each rainfall event to check
for accumulated sediment which may cause
overtopping. Check any discharge points for signs
of scouring and install further armouring or other
stabilisation if scouring is evident.
Figure 28: Decanting earth bunds
89
Definition
A temporary pit which is constructed to trap and
filter water before it is pumped to a suitable
discharge area.
Purpose
To treat sediment-laden water that has been
removed from areas of excavation, or areas
where ponded sediment laden-water can not
drain by other means.
Application
When water collects during the excavation
phase of construction.
Particularly useful in urban areas during
excavation for building foundations.
May also be used to de-water sediment
retention measures.
Sump/Sediment Pit 3.7
Design
The design is based on a perforated vertical
standpipe placed in the centre of a pit, which is
then backfilled with aggregate.
Determine the number of sump/sediment
pits and their locations on site in accordance
with the required de-watering facilities and
procedures outlined below.
Pump water from the centre of the pipe to a
suitable discharge area.
Direct the discharge to an appropriate outlet.
If the water is pumped directly to a receiving
environment, then wrap a geotextile fabric
around the standpipe to help achieve a clean
water discharge. When a geotextile fabric is
used, the surface area of the standpipe will
need to be increased and the pumping rate
decreased to prevent the geotextile becoming
rapidly blocked.
Plate 18: Sump/sediment pit
90
Environment Waikato
Sump/sediment pit dimensions are variable,
but require a minimum depth of 1m and a
minimum volume of 2 m
3
.
Construct the standpipe from 300 600 mm
diameter pipe with a grid of 10 mm diameter
perforations at 60 mm spacings along the
standpipe.
Place a base of 50 mm aggregate in the sump/
sediment pit to a depth of 300 mm.
After placing the standpipe in position, backfill
the area with 50 mm aggregate.
Extend the standpipe 300 mm above the lip
of the sump/sediment pit with the aggregate
extended 100 mm above the anticipated
standing water elevation.
Maintenance
Undertake ongoing checks throughout the use
of the sump/sediment pit to ensure effective
operation.
For isolated areas where de-watering must
occur to facilitate progress, other methods may
be appropriate. These alternatives include the
following.
Pumping accumulated sediment-laden water to
a sediment retention pond.
Constructing a silt fence and pumping water
to behind the silt fence to be retained for
treatment. Do not let water to be treated enter
the silt fence as a concentrated flow or outflank
the silt fence.
Discharge accumulated sediment laden water
to land where soakage may occur. Ensure
that this untreated sediment-laden runoff
cannot enter to a stormwater system or any
watercourse.
Figure 29: Sump/sediment pit
300mm-
600mm
diameter
concrete or
PVC pipe with
drilled holes or
slots to be
wrapped in
geotextile
fabric
Suction line to pump
Maximum water level to be
at least 100mm below the
top of aggregate level
CROSS SECTION
100
The top of the standpipe extends
at least 300mm above the top of
the pumping pit
Place a minimum of 300mm of
aggregate before installing the standpipe
1500mm min
1
.
0
m

m
i
n
i
m
u
m
300
300
WL
TYPICAL PUMPING PIT ARRANGEMENT
Minimum volume of
pit to be 2m
3
Works within a Watercourse
91
Works Within A Watercourse 4.
Works within watercourses have very high
potential for erosion and discharge of sediment.
This is because such work is undertaken in or
near flowing water - the major cause of erosion.
Flowing water causes ongoing scour and provides
the transport mechanism to allow sediment
to be dispersed downstream of the works and
ultimately, into marine or lake environments.
Such works may also require a range of control
measures additional to those detailed below.
These other measures are described in other
sections of these guidelines and include both
erosion control and sediment control techniques.
Design and planning consideration for a
permanent watercourse crossing need to take
into account the permanent nature of the crossing
in question. Be sure that they are constructed in
accordance with all relevant requirements.
92
Environment Waikato
93
Definition
A bridge, culvert or ford installed across a
watercourse for short term use.
Purpose
To provide a means to cross watercourses without
moving sediment into the watercourse, damaging
the bed or channel, or causing flooding during
the construction, maintenance or removal of the
structure.
Application
Where heavy equipment is required to be moved
from one side of a watercourse to the other, or
where traffic must cross the watercourse frequently
for a short period of time.
Design
Careful planning can minimise the need for
watercourse crossings. Wherever possible,
avoid crossing watercourses by completing the
development separately on each side of the
channel, thus leaving the watercourse in its
natural state.
Temporary Watercourse Crossings 4.1
If no other option exists and a watercourse
crossing is required, select a location where
the potential effects of the crossing (including
construction) are minimised.
Plan watercourse crossings well before you need
them and if possible, construct them during
periods of dry weather. Complete construction
as rapidly as possible and stabilise all disturbed
areas immediately during and following
construction.
There are three main types of crossing; bridges,
culverts and fords.
Bridges
Where available materials and designs are
adequate to bear the expected loadings,
bridges are the preferred temporary
watercourse crossing method. They provide the
least obstruction to flow and fish migration,
cause little or no modification of the bed or
banks and generally require little maintenance.
It should be noted, however, that bridges can
be a safety hazard if not designed, installed
and maintained appropriately.
Plate 19: Temporary watercourse crossing
94
Environment Waikato
Culvert Crossings
Culverts are the most commonly used type of
temporary watercourse crossing, and can be
easily adapted to most site conditions. The
installation and removal of culverts, however,
causes considerable damage to watercourses
and can also create the greatest obstruction to
flood flows.
Fords
Made of stabilising material such as rock, fords
are often used in steep catchments subject to
flooding, but where normal flows are shallow.
Only use fords where crossing requirements
are infrequent. They can offer little or no
obstruction to flows, are relatively easy to install
and maintain.
As well as erosion and sediment control
measures, structural stability, utility and
safety must also be taken into account when
designing temporary watercourse crossings.
Any temporary crossing must comply with the
technical requirements of the various agencies
involved and any specific requirements
imposed by Environment Waikato.
When the structure is no longer needed,
remove the structure and all material from the
site. Immediately stabilise all areas disturbed
during the removal process by re-vegetation
or artificial protection as a short term control
measure. Keep machinery clear of the
watercourse while removing the structure.
Maintenance
Inspect temporary watercourse crossings after rain
to check for blockage in the channel, erosion of
the banks, channel scour or signs of instability.
Make all repairs immediately to prevent further
damage to the installation.
95
Definition
A short term watercourse diversion to allow works
to occur within the main watercourse channel
under dry conditions.
Purpose
To enable watercourse works to be undertaken
without working in wet conditions and without
moving sediment into the watercourse.
Application
Temporary watercourse diversions are used as
temporary measures to allow any works to be
undertaken within permanent and ephemeral
watercourses.
Design
Divert all flow via a stabilised system around
the area of works and discharge it back into the
channel below the works to avoid scour of the
channel bed and banks. Figure 30 shows the
suggested steps to minimise sediment generation
and discharge from works within a watercourse.
Temporary Watercourse Diversion 4.2
Plate 20: Temporary watercourse diversion
Step 1
Excavate the diversion channel leaving a plug
at each end so that the watercourse does not
breach the diversion. Size the diversion channel
to allow for a 5 percent AEP rain event.
Stabilise the diversion channel appropriately
to ensure it does not become a source of
sediment. Anchor suitable geotextile cloth in
place to the manufacturers specifications,
which will include trenching into the top of both
sides of the diversion channel to ensure that the
fabric does not rip out. Open the downstream
plug and allow water to flow up the channel,
keeping some water within the channel to
reduce problems when the upstream plug is
excavated. Open the upstream plug and allow
water to flow into the channel.
Step 2
Immediately place a non-erodible dam in the
upstream end of the existing channel. Construct
the dam as specified in Figure 31, where a
compacted earth bunds has shotcrete/concrete
placed, or appropriate geotextile pinned over
it, with rock rip-rap extending over the upper
face and adjacent to the lower face for scour
protection.
96
Environment Waikato
Step 3
Immediately install a non-erodible
downstream dam to prevent backflow into
the construction area. Drain the existing
watercourse by pumping to a sediment
retention pond where treatment of the
ponded water can occur prior to re-entering
the live section of the watercourse. Construct
the structure and complete all channel work.
Step 4
Remove the downstream dam first, allowing
water to flood back into the original
channel. Remove the upstream dam and fill
in both ends of the diversion channel with
non-erodible material. Pump any sediment-
laden water to a sediment retention pond.
Fill in the remainder of the diversion and
stabilise.
Maintenance
Any works within a watercourse will require
ongoing and vigilant maintenance to minimise
sediment generation. To achieve this, identify
and correct any aspects that may indicate
potential problems. Take particular notice of
the following aspects:
ripping of the geotextile lining
scour occurring where the flow re-enters the
channel
undercutting of the diversion lining
make repairs immediately.
Figure 30: Temporary watercourse diversion
works sequence
Step 1
Step 2
Step 3
Step 4
97
Pinned geotextile
covering all clay surfaces
Compacted clay
Rock rip-rap
Stream flow
Rip-rap to secure
geotextile and for
scour protection
should dam overtop
Dam cross-section detail
Figure 31: Temporary watercourse diversion dam detail
98
Environment Waikato
99
Definition
A bridge, culvert or ford installed across a
watercourse for ongoing use.
Purpose
To provide a means to cross watercourses by
a vehicle without moving sediment into the
watercourse, damaging the bed or channel,
or causing flooding during the construction,
operation or maintenance of the structure.
Application
Where permanent access is required across a
small watercourse.
construction) are minimised. Plan water crossings
well before you need to use them and if possible,
construct them during periods of dry weather.
Complete construction as rapidly as possible and
stabilise all disturbed areas immediately during
and following construction.
There are three main types of watercourse
crossing; bridges, culverts and fords.
Permanent Watercourse Crossings 4.3
100
Environment Waikato
101
Definition
A structure installed across, and normally
positioned above the top of bank of a
watercourse to provide all weather access.
Purpose
To provide access across watercourses without
moving sediment into the watercourse, damaging
the bed or channel, impacting on aquatic values,
or causing flooding during the construction,
operation and maintenance of the structure.
Application
Where permanent access is required from one
side of a watercourse to the other.
Design
Bridge abutments/piles and retaining walls
must be constructed on stable ground.
The lowest point of the bridge soffit is generally
positioned a minimum of 0.5 m above the
1 percent AEP flood level.
Approach levels to the bridge should have a
minimum grade of 10H:1V and are generally
not built up, to avoid restriction of flood flows.
Engineering design is required.
Keep in-channel support outside the low flow
channel to minimise changes to stream flows.
construction) are minimised.
Bridges 4.3.1
construction. There are three main types of
crossing; bridges, culverts and fords.
Spans greater than 10 m are likely to require
specialist design and in-channel support.
Avoid/minimise restrictions to flood flows within
the channel or flood plain.
By law (RMA, 1991) all waterway crossings
require consent unless otherwise specified
within the Regional Plan.
Considerations
Fastening of the structure by approved
engineering techniques is required. Specific
calculations are likely to be required
particularly if the structure is positioned below
the banks and will be subjected to relatively
frequent inundation. Depth of carriageway,
railing and curbing is to be factored in.
Specific channel and bank armouring may be
required depending on flow velocities.
Stability of the reach of watercourse to be
crossed should be considered. Straight reaches
with stable watercourse invert and banks are
generally preferred.
Unstable watercourses will require armouring/
planting to provide long term protection of the
structure. Such armouring/planting may be
required to extend considerable distances both
upstream and downstream.
Maintenance
Check the bridge after major storm events for
structural integrity, debris build up and erosion.
102
Environment Waikato
Bridge span
Typical reinforced concrete abutment
set back from top edge of the channel
on stable ground
Bridge bearer pile cap
beam
Compacted backfill with 150mm
roading metal on top
River
Riverbanks
Driven piles,
encroaching no
further than 25% of
river bank width from
top edge of channel
Ground treated wooden
retaining wall 100 x 150mm
Figure 32: Bridge plan view
Figure 33: Small bridge installation
Approaches to bridge at floodplain
level to allow overland flood flows
around the bridge
Typical reinforced concrete abutment
(generally precast) placed 1-2m back
from the top edge of the bank on stable
ground
R
iv
e
r
Compacted
earth fill
Bridge bearer pile cap beam
100 x 150
ground treated
retaining wall
Number and length of piles
designed to provide sufficient
weight bearing loads for design
load of bridge
Post
R
ive
rb
a
n
k
103
Definition
A within channel structure that conveys flow
through a pipe or box section.
Purpose
For safe, stable, permanent access across small
waterways.
Application
Culvert crossings are suitable for use on most
small, modified watercourses (drains) and small,
unmodified streams where there is little risk of
flood debris load such as trees and logs.
Design
Pipe sizing is to be determined by the area of
catchment upstream of the culvert. Correct pipe
sizing and positioning will prevent a scour hole
forming at the discharge end of the pipe and
minimise the frequency of overtopping. Refer to
Table 13, Typical Sizing for Rural Culverts.
Culvert fill must be free of debris and topsoil
and well compacted. Stable bedding material
(clean graded aggregate).
Side compaction is essential for most types
of piping. The use of a motorised hand held
compactor is recommended.
Culvert fill must be free of debris and topsoil
and well compacted. Stable bedding material
(clean graded aggregate).
Side compaction is essential for most types
of piping. The use of a motorised hand held
compactor is recommended.
Culvert inlet capacity increases significantly
with the depth of water impounded above the
culvert inlet. Specific design is required.
For small culverts the height of fill above the
top of the culvert pipe should not exceed 1.5 m
Culvert Crossings 4.3.2
to avoid excessive build up of water pressure
through the pipe during flood flows. Such
pressure can cause scour and weaken and/or
collapse the culvert fill.
Headwalls (upstream and downstream)
constructed of treated timber or dry concrete
filled bags will be necessary to prevent scour of
the culvert crossing fill batters.
Check the culvert after major storm events for
structural integrity, debris build up and erosion.
Culvert pipes must be laid horizontal with
the bottom of the culvert and set into the
streambed to maintain a flooded invert during
all flows.
For culvert crossings with fill heights greater
than 1.5 m above the culvert, special design
considerations are required. Please consult
Environment Waikato.
Energy dissipation is required at the outlet end
to minimise channel erosion and to prevent
bank erosion through back water effects.
A stable spillway must be included in the design
to provide safe passage of flood flows.
By law (RMA, 1991) all waterway crossings
require a consent unless otherwise specified
in a Regional Plan. If you require information
please contact Environment Waikato staff.
Table 13: Typical Sizing for Rural Culverts
Catchment Area
(ha)
Pipe Diameter (m)
10 0.60
20 0.75
30 0.90
40 1.00
50 1.20
75 1.35
100 1.50
104
Environment Waikato
Considerations
Careful planning can minimise the need for
watercourse crossings. Wherever possible,
avoid crossing watercourses by completing the
development separately on each side of the
channel, thus leaving the watercourse in its
natural state.
construction) are minimised for instance, at right
angles to the watercourse, stable banks, etc.
construction.
Maintenance
Inspect the crossing after the first large storms for
structure stability, erosion, debris build up, and
invert stability. We recommend regular checks,
with particular focus on the autumn period to
ensure operation prior to the winter rains.
Where stock are present include the emergency
spillway into the area fenced out to protect the
watercourse.
Ensure the emergency spillway remains armoured
with long grass cover or rock armouring if stock
are likely to damage the flowpath.
Figure 34: Culvert inlet using precast headwall
Rock rip rap
Precast concrete
head and wing
walls
Curved inlet to lower
losses
Geotextile overlain by rock
amouring to dissapate energy of
flows
105
Cement/Sandbags
Rock amouring to protect
streambed and walls from
backwater erosion
Direction of flow
Rock rip rap in outlet to
prevent waterfall and maintain
water throughout the culvert to
provide fish passage.
Spillway provision (gradient no steeper than
1V:5H if grassed)
Figure 35: Culvert outlet protection
Figure 36: Culvert crossing outlet
Stream baseflow level
Sand bedding
Machine compacted
backfill
Wacker compacted
backfill
200 - 300mm
600mm min
106
Environment Waikato
107
Definition
Rock (rip-rap) placed at the outfall of channels or
culverts.
Purpose
To break up concentrated flows, to reduce the
velocity of flows to non erosive rates and to
stabilise the outfall point.
Application
This practice applies where discharge velocities
and energies at the outlets of pipes, culverts or
flumes are sufficient to cause erosion. This will
apply to most concentrated flow outfalls and
outlets of all types such as sediment retention
ponds, stormwater management ponds and road
culverts.
Design
Detailed design of rock outlet protection depends
on the location.
Do not use rock outlet protection to protect
pipe outlets at the top of cuts or on slopes
steeper than 10 percent without further
armouring of the receiving channel.
Rock Outlet Protection 4.4
Plate 21: Rock outlet protection
Ensure correct rock sizing such that there is
minimum movement during maximum flow
velocity.
Remove soft material down to a firm bed and
smooth and level the outfall area to eliminate
voids.
Ensure rip-rap is composed of a well graded
mixture of washed rock if required and has an
appropriate geotextile placed underneath to
prevent soil movement into and through the
rip-rap.
Rock containments systems such as gabion
baskets and reno-mattresses provide greater
risk management and can provide additional
batter support. They should be considered for
all outlets where flow velocities are high.
Construct gabion baskets using heavy
galvanised steel wire. Ensure foundation
conditions for the gabion baskets/reno
mattresses are the same as for rock rip-rap and
place filter cloth beneath all gabion baskets.
In some circumstances a key may be needed
to prevent undermining of the main gabion
structure.
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Environment Waikato
Design the structure and use materials within
the relevant manufacturers and engineering
specifications.
Reno-mattresses may require pinning to the
apron of the headwall or the substrate to
prevent downstream movement.
Remember that works within a watercourse
such as the placement of rock rip-rap or
gabion baskets may require a resource consent
from Environment Waikato. Contact us well
ahead of time so that any consents needed
may be obtained before works are due to start.
Maintenance
Once installed, the maintenance requirements of
such structures is very low. Inspect after high
flows to check scour and dislodgement and make
repairs immediately.
Quarries
109
Quarries are potentially a major source of
sediment. They are often exposed for long
periods of time and the area of bare earth can be
considerable. Their continuous operation means
that site conditions continually change. Careful
planning is required to ensure that the operations
are carried out with minimal environmental
impact. It is the responsibility of the quarry
operator to minimise the adverse environmental
effects of the operation.
This section of these guidelines is designed to help
quarry operators address soil and water problems
which may arise as a result of quarry operations.
It should be read in conjunction with Sections 2
and 3 of these guidelines, which detail specific
erosion and sediment control practices. Quarries
are often required to produce management plans
covering the various aspects of their operation.
These guidelines will help in the production of
such plans.
The following specific issues associated with
quarry operations are discussed below:
1. road access
2. stormwater
3. overburden disposal
4. stockpile areas
5. rehabilitation of worked out areas
6. riparian protection areas
7. maintenance schedule for erosion and
sediment control treatment structures.
Road Access
Many quarries are serviced by metal roads, used
in all weather conditions. Vehicle movements
during rain can generate a lot of sediment.
These roads, however, are not always within the
designated quarry area and therefore are not
covered by the Quarry Management Plan. Careful
consideration needs to be given to managing
roads and traffic. In cases such as these, erosion
and sediment control measures need to be
installed along roads as outlined in Sections 2
and 3 of these guidelines.
Where possible, incorporate road access into the
Quarry Management Plan, ensuring all measures
necessary are put in place to protect receiving
environments.
Stormwater
Clean Runoff
As far as it is possible, divert clean water
flow away from working and bare areas to
prevent them from becoming contaminated by
sediment. This aids in reducing the volume of
contaminated runoff needing to be controlled
and treated. Runoff Diversion Channels around
the working site, as outlined in Section 2 are
the simplest way to deal with the clean runoff.
Contaminated Runoff
Any runoff from bare areas will collect sediment
and become contaminated. This contaminated
runoff, which includes runoff from aggregate
wash processes, must be contained and
treated in an appropriate manner before
being discharged to natural watercourses.
The Quarry Management Plan must detail the
methods for containment and treatment of all
contaminated runoff. Particular attention should
be paid to sensitive areas such as permanent
watercourses, watercourse crossings and
steeply sloping bare areas. Design all structures
for the 5 percent AEP rainfall event.
Overburden Disposal
Methods of overburden disposal vary for
each quarry operation. Overburden removal
and disposal sites can be a major source of
erosion and sediment discharges from quarries,
particularly if the disposal site is not properly
located and managed. The Quarry Management
Plan for the site should give a reasonable
indication of the following:
The timing and extent of overburden stripping,
which will be related to an expected volume
and area of extraction.
The methods to be employed for disposing the
overburden.
Ongoing management of disposal sites,
including provision for regular disposal of
material trapped in sediment retention ponds.
Quarries 5.
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Environment Waikato
If overburden disposal is dealt with in isolation
from the Quarry Management Plan, consideration
must be given to the following points:
Selection of disposal site (why the site was
chosen).
Stability of the site and subsequent overburden
fill (batter slopes, safety factors, benching,
underlying material, drainage).
Erosion and sediment control measures.
Rehabilitation of disposal site (re-vegetation,
contouring).
Stockpile Areas
Stockpile areas include those used for stockpiling
both raw or finished quarry products prior to
further processing or final despatch. These areas
can be a major source of contaminated runoff if
not properly controlled. Position stockpiles well
away from any watercourses and runoff flow
paths.
Rehabilitation of Worked Out Areas
Planning for rehabilitation must be an integral
part of all quarry operations. A properly planned
and implemented rehabilitation programme
will reduce the need for expensive ongoing
erosion control, and control and treatment
of contaminated runoff. The aim of site
rehabilitation, whether temporary or permanent,
is to maintain the site in a condition such that
erosion and contaminated runoff are limited
to an acceptable level. The prime areas for
consideration are:
establishing suitable final ground contours
establishing a suitable environment for
vegetation growth
re-vegetating the site with suitable vegetation
cover.
Riparian Protection Areas
Riparian protection areas rely on vegetation to
provide a buffer between the quarry operations
and a water body such as a watercourse or
wetland. These margins act as a physical barrier
to keep machines away from sensitive areas as
well as serving as a last resort sediment trap for
diffuse runoff and/or unforeseen discharges. Do
not, however, rely on riparian protection areas as
a primary sediment control mechanism.
Maintenance Schedule for Erosion and
Sediment Control or Treatment Structures
Because quarry operations continue over a very
long time frame, it is important to develop a
maintenance schedule for any control/treatment
structures that are put in place. Money spent on
designing and constructing control/treatment
structures will be wasted if these structures are not
adequately maintained.
Properly maintained structures will provide
optimum performance at all times, thereby
minimising the adverse environmental effects
of the quarry operation. Conversely, poorly
maintained structures are likely to result in
unsatisfactory environmental protection despite
being initially well designed and constructed.
Develop a maintenance schedule for the site
that clearly indicates what is to be done in terms
of visual inspections and maintenance works.
Undertake routine maintenance works when
they will cause the least possible detrimental
environmental effects (either directly or indirectly).
For example, do not clean sediment retention
ponds during or immediately after rainfall events.
To ensure that the operation of the pond is not
affected at these critical times, maintenance
should be done prior to events.
It is also particularly important that all control/
treatment structures are inspected after significant
rainfall events, or during prolonged rainfall, in
addition to any regular scheduled inspections.
In the maintenance schedule include a procedure
for immediately repairing and remedying any
damage caused to control/treatment structures
from daily quarry activities.
Within the overall quarry operation, give the
inspection and maintenance of control/treatment
structures a high priority. Ensure every person
involved in the quarry operation is familiar with
all aspects of erosion and sediment control on the
site, including any special conditions of consents
that are relevant, for example, specific water
quality sampling requirements.
For all aspects of quarry operations where erosion
and sediment controls are required, install
the erosion and sediment control practices as
specified in these guidelines.
Vegetation Removal
111
Vegetation removal operations can be a major
source of sediment. They often involve earthworks
associated with tracking, roading and landing
(skid site) formation, as well as the direct
disturbance and exposure of the soil surface.
Careful planning is required to ensure that
these operations are carried out with minimal
environmental impact.
This section of these guidelines is designed to
help people involved with vegetation removal
operations to address soil and water problems
which may arise as a result of their operation.
This section should be read in conjunction with
Sections 2 and 3 of these guidelines, which detail
specific erosion and sediment control practices.
Vegetation removal operations are also often
required to produce Harvesting Management
Plans that cover the various aspects of their
operation. These guidelines can be used to assist
in the production of these plans.
Various specific issues associated with vegetation
removal operations are discussed below:
1. roading
2. firebreaks
3. landings and tracks
4. land preparation
5. harvesting and management after harvesting.
Roading
Roading activities undertaken as part of
vegetation removal operations have a large
potential impact on soil and water values.
Planning, Location and Design
Locate roads on ridge tops, natural benches
and flatter slopes, avoiding steep side slopes
where possible.
Do not locate roads in gully bottoms.
Minimise gully crossings where possible.
Locate roads a safe distance from watercourses
and gullies.
Make specific provision for highly erodible soils
such as pumice.
Do not discharge runoff directly to a
watercourse, and where possible, ensure runoff
is filtered through vegetation.
Vegetation Removal 6.
Where steep side cuts cannot be avoided,
ensure adequate cross-formation drainage
is installed and that these channels flow onto
stable or erosion proof areas such as spurs.
Ensure they do not discharge onto areas of soft
fill.
Construction
Where construction operations are to be
undertaken in erosion-prone areas or adjacent
to a watercourse, use an excavator to enable
soil and other loose material to be placed in a
stable position.
Do not bulldoze loose material into
watercourses or areas where it may wash into
watercourses.
Keep machines out of watercourses and
minimise the number of crossings.
If operations are suspended, put adequate
drainage provisions in place to avoid
concentration of runoff and scour problems
until work resumes.
Stabilise cut and fill slopes where required,
using measures such as benching,
hydroseeding and straw mulching.
Install contour drains and drop structures to
prevent scouring.
Flume or pipe runoff to solid ground and then
discharge onto logging slash, gravel, rock
rip-rap or geotextiles.
Plan the operational sequence of installing
culverts and bridges across watercourses.
Ensure all materials, machinery and labour are
on hand before commencing construction.
Ensure that the supervision of culvert and
bridge installations is carried out by a suitably
experienced person.
Complete the construction of watercourse
crossings, approach roads and associated
erosion and sediment control measures as a
continuous operation.
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Environment Waikato
Firebreaks
Locate firebreaks to minimise the possibility of
debris entering watercourses.
Keep earthworks associated with firebreaks
clear of steep drop-offs and watercourses.
Consideration must be given to the erosion
potential of tracks formed along gully bottoms.
These areas should be avoided.
Maintain firebreaks to a reasonable standard
to control runoff, rilling and gully erosion.
Construct contour drains as required.
Avoid ponding of water above steep drop-
offs and, if ponding occurs, implement an
appropriate drainage design to prevent gully
erosion.
At the completion of operations, check
firebreaks for any potential erosion problems.
Land Preparation
Planning
Plan and implement all land preparation and
forest establishment to match an appropriate
proposed method of harvesting.
Protection Areas (Riparian Margins)
Retain or establish protection areas along all
watercourses. Where protection areas do not
exist, they can be established in conjunction
with the following operations.
- Land clearing or site preparation on areas
being converted to production forestry.
- Planting on farm land or similar sites.
- Replanting on exotic clear felled areas.
- Vegetation removal on terrain which may be
difficult, very steep or erosion prone.
Re-evaluate all existing protection areas when
harvesting or replanting adjacent to production
stands.
Generally, protection areas can be left to
regenerate naturally. However, in some cases it
may be appropriate to accelerate re-vegetation
by actively planting protection species.
Planting Boundaries
When re-planting, establish planting
boundaries back from watercourses in order to
minimise potential watercourse damage from
future harvesting operations. Establish planting
the boundaries on a case by case basis with
consideration to both topography and soil
stability.
V-Blading/Line Raking
Where possible operate across the contour, to
minimise runoff concentration down the blade
lines.
Where downhill runs are unavoidable, limit
them to 50 m maximum length. Do not attempt
these runs on slopes too steep for the tractor
to reverse up. Blade or rake at least one line
on the contour along the lower boundary
of downhill operations to prevent runoff
concentration at low points or gully systems.
Finish downhill runs well before any fill batter
slopes such as landings and access roads.
Establishing and Tending
During establishing and tending stages,
minimise soil loss and prevent contamination of
watercourses with chemicals, fertilisers, debris
or detritus.
During thinning to waste operations, fell trees
away from watercourses where possible.
Harvesting and Management After Harvesting
Planning of Logging Operations
Plan all logging operations, particularly the
location of skid tracks and roads, to protect
water and soil values.
Off-site adverse effects must be avoided or
minimised when determining the ability and
management of a catchment to be harvested.
When harvesting near sensitive areas, extract
towards landings located away from them.
Felling Operations
When trees are being felled within reach of a
watercourse, ensure an experienced feller is
in control of the operation. Where possible,
fell trees away from watercourses. Extract any
trees that have fallen into watercourses before
de-limbing and heading. Back pull, or employ
other acceptable directional felling techniques
to fell problem trees, particularly on steep or
Vegetation Removal
113
unstable watercourse faces and edges. Remove
all large logging debris from watercourses
at the completion of the operation, keeping
machinery out of the watercourse.
Extraction Operations
Ground Based Systems
- Keep tracking and stumping activities to
a practical minimum. Use a few carefully
chosen tracks and stay on these rather than
taking shortcuts which cause unnecessary
ground disturbance.
- Carry logs off the ground or on the machine
where possible.
- Keep the machine blade up and do not
bulldoze soil and stumps needlessly.
- Do not cross watercourses (other than at
approved crossing points) and do not haul
along them.
- On soft and/or wet soils or steeper slopes,
use low-ground-pressure machines such as
flexible-track or wide-tyre skidders.
Cable Systems
- Where cable systems are used in
environmentally sensitive areas, keep the
settings small, the haul distances short and the
hauling direction uphill wherever practicable.
Avoid cross slope haul lines that damage
protection areas or sweep slash and soil into
watercourses.
- Whenever possible when hauling across
watercourses, use a system such as a skyline
which allows full suspension of logs. Lift logs
clear of watercourse banks and protection
areas.
Cleanup Operations
On completion of logging operations, carry out
the following procedures:
- Remove all temporary crossings.
- Construct water cut-offs on skid tracks to
prevent runoff concentration and sediment
flow.
- Ensure landings are properly drained and
that sediment and debris are unable to
directly enter any watercourse.
- Stabilise fill batters on landings and tracks
by sowing with suitable grass seed.
- Ensure runoff is channelled safely over
batter slopes and onto stable areas.
On all aspects of vegetation removal operations
where erosion and sediment controls are required,
install the erosion and sediment control measures
as specified in these guidelines.
Landings and Tracks
Landings and tracks are generally permanent
features and therefore require careful location
preparation, direction of fall and control of runoff.
Skid tracks, while generally more of a temporary
feature, also require careful consideration of the
above. Any tracking results in concentration of
runoff and consequently, an increase in erosion.
Minimise erosion by tracking across contours and
where possible, locating tracks on ridges rather
than in gullies.
Ensure that extraction tracks do not lead directly
down towards watercourses where runoff may go
directly into the channel.
Where possible try to keep skid tracks and landings
at least 20 m away from watercourses.
At the completion of logging operations, construct
water cut-offs across skid tracks wherever runoff
may be concentrated. Ensure that water cut-offs
discharge to solid ground and not to areas of fill.
Keep landings well clear of permanent
watercourses. Where no alternative exists, ensure
that the watercourse is not obstructed. Form all
landings so that surface runoff does not flow down
towards or directly into a watercourse. Construct
earth bunds along watercourse edge boundaries
to prevent debris and sediment from entering
watercourses. Extra caution must also be exercised
in the planning and construction measures which
control water flowing
off skid tracks onto landings, so as to minimise
water runoff onto the landing.
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Environment Waikato
Figure 37: Low use track
Flow
5% slope downhill to prevent
any concentration of flows
along the track
Vegetated side cast fill
Track and side wall surfaces to be
stabilised by vegetaion or aggregate
Glossary
115
(AEP) Annual Exceedance Probability
A statistical term defining the probability of
an event occurring annually. Expressed as a
percentage and generally used in hydrology to
define rainstorm intensity and frequency. For
example, a 5 percent AEP event has a 5 percent
chance of being exceeded in any one year. This
has replaced the return period concept. A
5 percent AEP event expresses the 20-year return
period probability terms.
Anti-seep Collar
An impermeable barrier, usually of concrete,
constructed at intervals within the zone of
saturation along the conduit of a primary outlet
pipe to increase the seepage length along the
conduit and thereby prevent piping or seepage in
the compacted fill material along the outside of
the pipe.
Area of Disturbance
The area of exposed soil.
Baffles
Semi-permeable or solid barriers placed in a
sediment retention pond to deflect or regulate
flow and effect a more uniform distribution of
velocities, hence creating better settling conditions.
Batter
A constructed slope of uniform gradient.
Berm
Narrow strip beside road.
BPO
Best practicable option.
Bulk Earthworks
This term is generally used to describe the cut to
fill earthworks required to re-grade an area. It
also applies to larger scale earthworks such as for
building excavations.
Catchment
A geographical unit within which surface runoff is
carried under gravity by a single drainage system
to a common outlet. Also commonly referred to as
a watershed or drainage basin.
Channel
That part of a watercourse system where normal
flow is contained. The channel is generally incised
into the flood plain and for many of the stable
stream systems in New Zealand can be defined
in capacity as being just able to accommodate
the annual return period flow (100 percent AEP)
without overtopping.
Also refers to an artificial conduit such as a ditch
excavated to convey water.
Channel Stabilisation
Stabilisation of the channel profile by erosion
control and/or velocity distribution through
reshaping, the use of structural linings, mass
blocks, vegetation and other measures.
Channel Storage
The amount of water temporarily stored in
channels while en route to an outlet.
Clay (Soils)
A mineral soil consisting of particles less than
0.002 mm in equivalent diameter.
A soil texture class.
Cleanfill
Material that when discharged to the environment
will have no adverse effect on people or the
environment. This includes natural materials such
as clay, soil and rock, and other inert materials
such as concrete and brick, or mixtures of any of
the above. Cleanfill excludes for example:
a) material that has combustible, putrescible or
degradable components
b) materials likely to create leachate by means of
biological or chemical breakdown
c) any products or materials derived from
hazardous waste treatment, hazardous waste
stabilisation or hazardous waste disposal
practices
d) materials such as medical and veterinary
waste, asbestos, or radioactive substances that
may present a risk to human health
e) soils or other materials contaminated with
hazardous substances or pathogens
f) hazardous substances.
Clean Water
Any water that has no visual signs of suspended
solids, such as overland flow (sheet or channelled)
originating from stable well-vegetated or
armoured surfaces.
Glossary 7.
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Environment Waikato
Cohesion
The capacity of a soil to resist shearing stress,
exclusive of functional resistance.
Cohesive Soil
A soil that, when unconfined, has considerable
strength when air-dried and significant cohesion
when submerged.
Compaction
For construction work in soils, engineering
compaction is any process by which the soil grains
are rearranged to decrease void space and bring
them into closer contact with one another, thereby
increasing the weight of solid material per unit
of volume, increasing their shear and bearing
strength and reducing permeability.
Concentrated Flow
The accumulation of material that has settled
because of reduced velocity of the transporting
agent (water or wind).
Conduit
Any channel intended for the conveyance of water,
whether open or closed.
Construction staging
The phasing of bulk earthworks to minimise the
area of bare earth exposed at any one time.
Contour
A line across a slope connecting points of the
same elevation.
Contributing Drainage Area
All of that drainage area that contributes to
the flow into a treatment device. A contributing
drainage area can include both clean and
sediment-laden water flows. Commonly referred
to as the catchment area.
Crimping
The embedding of straw mulch into the soil
surface by using implements such as a disc
cultivator set at zero cut.
Critical 20 Year Return Period Storm
A rainfall event that has a 5 percent Annual
exceedance probability and a duration equal to
the time of concentration.
Cumulative Effect
The combination of discrete isolated effects,
the sum of which can have a major long term
detrimental impact.
Dam
A barrier to confine or raise water for storage or
diversion, to create a hydraulic head, to prevent
gully erosion, or to retain soil, rock or other
debris.
Decant Rate
The rate at which surface water is decanted from
a sediment retention pond.
Deposition
The accumulation of sheet flow into discrete rills,
gullies or channels, significantly increasing erosive
forces.
Detention Dam
A dam constructed for the temporary storage
of storm flow, which releases the stored water
at controlled rates in order to reduce flooding
hazard downstream of the dam.
De-watering
The removal of impounded water, generally by
pumping. Refer sump pit.
Di-ammonium phosphate (DAP)
A high percentage nitrogen and phosphate
fertiliser suitable for the rapid establishment of
grass.
Disturbed Area
An area of exposed soil.
Diversion
A channel or bunds constructed to convey
concentrated flow.
Drainage
The removal of excess surface water or ground
water from land by means of surface or
subsurface drains.
Drainage Basin
Refer catchment.
Emergency Spillway
A sediment retention pond or dam spillway
designed and constructed to discharge flow in
excess of the structures primary spillway design
discharge.
Glossary
117
Energy Dissipator
A designed device such as an apron of rip-rap or
a concrete structure placed at the end of a water
conduit such as a pipe, paved ditch or flume for
the purpose of reducing the velocity and energy of
the discharged water.
Ephemeral Watercourse
A watercourse that flows only part of the year;
includes overland flowpaths such as grassland
swales and dry gullies which only flow during
more intensive rainstorms.
Erodible
An erodible soil is a soil that is readily entrained
(moved) by actions such as rain drop impact,
overland flow or wind.
Erosion and Sediment Control Plan (E&SCP)
A detailed Plan normally prepared by the
Developers engineer that details the way erosion
is to be minimised and treatment of sediment-
laden overland flow is to be undertaken.
Erosion Matting
A manufactured matting of either synthetic or
natural fibre used to minimise surface erosion and
in some cases, promote re-vegetation.
Erosive
Refers to the ability of erosional agents such
as wind or water to cause erosion. Not to be
confused with erodible, as a quality of soil.
Erosive Velocities
Velocities that are high enough to wear away
the land surface. Exposed soils erode faster than
stabilised soils. Erosive velocities vary according
to the soil type, slope and structural or vegetative
stabilisation used to protect the soil.
Estuary
Area where fresh water meets salt water, where
the tide meets the river current (such as bays,
mouths of rivers, salt marshes and lagoons).
Estuaries serve as nurseries and spawning and
feeding grounds for large groups of marine
life and provide shelter and food for birds and
wildlife. The majority of the estuaries in the
Auckland Region are low energy systems where
sediment readily settles.
Evapotranspiration
The sum of surface evaporation and plant
transpiration.
Filter Blanket
A layer of sand and/or gravel designed to prevent
the movement of fine-grained soils.
Fill
Earth placed (normally under a strict compaction
regime) to raise the land surface.
Filter Fabric
A woven or non-woven, water-permeable
geotextile made of synthetic products such
as polypropylene used for such purposes as
preventing clogging of aggregate by fine soil
particles. Refer geotextile fabric.
Filter Strip
A long, narrow vegetative planting used to retard
or collect sediment for the protection of adjacent
properties or receiving environments.
Fines (Soil)
Generally refers to the silt and clay size particles
in soil.
Fire Breaks
Specific deforested strips within a forest to act as a
barrier in the event of fire.
Flocculation
The process whereby fine particles suspended in
the water column clump together and settle. In
some instances this can occur naturally, such as
when fresh clay-laden flows mix with saline water,
as occurs in estuaries. Flocculation can be used
to promote rapid settling in sediment retention
ponds by the addition of flocculating chemicals
(flocculants).
Flume
A high-velocity, open channel for conveying water
to a lower level without causing erosion. Also
referred to as a chute.
Gabion Basket
A flexible woven-wire basket composed of two
to six rectangular cells filled with small stones.
Gabions may be assembled into many types of
structures such as retaining walls, channel liners,
drop structures and groynes.
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Environment Waikato
Geosynthetic Erosion Control Systems (GECS)
The artificial protection of erodible channels and
slopes using artificial erosion control material
such as geosynthetic matting, geotextiles or
erosion matting.
Geotextile Fabric
A woven or non-woven, impermeable or semi-
permeable material generally made of synthetic
products such as polypropylene and used in a
variety of engineering, stormwater management,
and erosion and sediment control applications.
Grade
The slope of a road, channel or natural ground.
The finished surface of a channel bed, road bed,
top of embankment or bottom of excavation. Any
surface prepared for the support of construction
like paving or for laying conduit.
To finish the surface of a channel bed, road bed,
top of embankment or bottom of excavation.
Gravel
Aggregate consisting of mixed sizes of 5 mm to
75 mm particles which normally occur in or near
old streambeds and have been worn smooth by
the action of water.
Harvesting Management Plans
A plan detailing how the forest harvest operation
is to be conducted to minimise earth disturbance
and to maximise the protection of adjoining land
and natural features such as watercourses and
native vegetation.
Headwater
The source of a watercourse. The water upstream
of a structure or point on a watercourse.
Hydrology
The science of the behaviour of water in the
atmosphere, on the surface of the earth and
underground.
Hydroseeding
The spraying of a slurry of seed, fertiliser and
paper or wood pulp over a surface to be re-
vegetated.
Impervious
Not allowing infiltration of water.
Landings
Forestry - a log production and assembly area.
Level Spreader
A device used to convert concentrated flow into
sheet flow.
Mitigation
Measures taken to off-set adverse environmental
effects caused by soil disturbing activities.
Mulch
Covering on surface of soil to protect it and
enhance certain characteristics, such as
protection from rain drop impact and improving
germination.
Overburden (Quarries)
Unusable soil/rock stripped from above suitable
production material.
Overland Flow Path
The route of concentrated flow.
Perennial Stream
A stream that maintains water in its channel
throughout the year or maintains a series of
discrete pools that provides habitats for the
continuation of the aquatic ecosystem.
Permeability (Soil)
The rate at which water will move through a
saturated soil.
Permitted Activity
An activity that does not exceed the thresholds
specified by a Regional or District Plan whereby a
resource consent is required. However permitted
activities must meet certain performance
standards in terms of minimising adverse effects.
Pervious
Allowing movement of water.
Poly Aluminium Chloride (PAC)
A long chain chemical that is used as a flocculent
in certain situations.
Primary Spillway
The riser inlet within a sediment retention pond.
Glossary
119
Quarry Management Plans
A plan detailing how a quarry operation is to
be conducted to minimise earth disturbance,
to maximise the protection of adjoining land
and natural features such as watercourses and
native vegetation, and to minimise the effect on
adjoining residents and/or landowners.
Rainfall Intensity
The volume of rainfall falling in a given time.
Normally expressed as mm/hour.
Rehabilitation
Restoration to as near to pre-disturbance
conditions as possible. This may entail such
measures as revegetation for erosion control,
enhancement planting, modification and
armouring of watercourses.
Reno Mattress
A shallow (300 - 500 mm deep), wide, flexible
woven-wire basket composed of two to six
rectangular cells filled with small stones. Often
used at culvert inlets and outlets to dissipate
energy and prevent channel erosion.
Return Period
The statistical interpretation of the frequency of a
given intensity and duration rainstorm event.
Refer AEP.
Re-vegetation
The establishment of vegetation to stabilise a site.
Riparian Protection Area
An area adjacent to a watercourse designated
as a non-disturbance zone to provide a buffer
between receiving environments (for example,
watercourses) and the area of operation.
Riser
In a sediment retention pond, a vertically placed
pipe to which decant pipes are attached, which
forms the inlet to the primary spillway.
Saturation Point
In soils, the point at which a soil or an aquifer will
no longer absorb any amount of water without
losing an equal amount.
Scarified
Shallow subsurface disturbance with a tine
implement to provide surface roughening. Used
before topsoiling and re-vegetation.
Scour
The erosive or digging action of flowing water;
the downward or lateral erosion caused by water.
Channel-forming stream scour is caused by the
sweeping away of mud and silt from the outside
bank of a curved channel (meander), particularly
during a flood.
Sediment
Solid material, both mineral and organic, that is
in suspension, is being transported or has been
moved from site of origin by air, water, gravity or
ice and has come to rest on the earths surface
either above or below water.
Sediment Delivery Ratio
The proportion of the soil eroded from within a
catchment area that actually reaches sediment
treatment controls or water bodies.
Sediment Texture
The relative proportions of different sized of
sediment and soil particles that can be separated
by screening. The size of sediment particulate.
Refer soil texture.
Sediment Yield
The quantity of sediment discharged from a
particular site or catchment in a given time,
measured in dry weight or by volume. When
erosion and sediment control measures are in
place, sediment yield is the sediment discharged
from the site after passing through those
measures.
Settling
The downward movement of suspended solids
through the water column.
Shear Strength
The ability to resist shear (slip) forces.
Sheet flow
Shallow dispersed overland flow.
Shutter Boards
Plywood or similar sheeting supported by light
timber framing normally used for boxing concrete
forms.
Silt
A soil consisting of particles between 0.05 and
0.002 mm in equivalent diameter. A soil textural
class.
120
Environment Waikato
Silt Loam
A soil textural class containing a large amount of
silt and small quantities of sand and clay.
Silty Clay
A soil textural class containing a relatively large
amount of silt and clay and a small amount of
sand.
Slash
Branches trimmed from production logs.
Soil
The unconsolidated mineral and organic material
on the surface of the earth that serves as a natural
medium for the growth of land plants.
Earth and rock particles resulting from the
physical and chemical disintegration of rocks,
which may or may not contain organic matter.
Includes fine material (silts and clays), sand and
gravel.
Soil Structure
Soil structure reflects the pore space within a soil
available for aeration and storage of water. It is a
measure of bulk density and as a rule the higher
the soil bulk density the poorer the structure.
The combination or arrangement of primary soil
particles into secondary particles, units or peds.
Good soil structure is important for plant growth.
Soil Texture
The relative proportions of various particle sizes in
a soil material. Refer sediment texture.
Spreader (Hydraulics)
A device for distributing water uniformly in or
from a channel.
Stabilisation
Providing adequate measures, vegetative and/or
structural that will protect exposed soil to prevent
erosion.
Stabilised Area
An area sufficiently covered by erosion-resistant
material such as a good cover of grass, or paving
by asphalt, concrete or aggregate, in order to
prevent erosion of the underlying soil.
Subsoil
The horizons of soils with distinct profiles. In soils
with weak profile development, the subsoil can be
defined as the soil below the ploughed soil (or its
equivalent of surface soil), in which roots normally
grow.
Surface Runoff
Rain that runs off rather than being infiltrated or
retained by the surface on which it falls.
Surface Water
All water with its surface exposed to the
atmosphere.
Suspended Solids
Solids either floating or suspended in water.
Swale
A constructed elongated depression in the land
surface that can be seasonally wet, is usually
heavily vegetated, and is normally without flowing
water. Swales conduct stormwater into primary
drainage channels and can provide some ground
water recharge.
Tackifier
A compound that is added to straw mulch to bind
it together and prevent it being blown around by
the wind.
Temporary Watercourse Crossing
A stable watercourse crossing that is installed for
the duration of an operation and is removed in its
entirety at the completion of the operation.
Tensile Strength
Resistance to elongation and tearing.
Time of Concentration
The time for runoff to flow from the most remote
part of the drainage area to the outlet.
Toe (of Slope)
Where the slope stops or levels out. Bottom of the
slope.
Topsoil
Fertile or desirable soil material (suitable organic
and structural properties) used to top-dress
roadbanks, subsoils, parent material etc to
provide a suitable medium for plant growth.
Glossary
121
Unified Soil Classification System
(Engineering)
A classification system based on the identification
of soils according to their particle size, gradation,
plasticity index and liquid limit.
Uniform Flow
A state of steady flow occurring when the mean
velocity and cross-sectional area are equal at all
sections of a reach.
Universal Soil Loss Equation
An equation used for the design of a water
erosion control system.
RKLSCP where:
A = the soil loss in tons per ha per annum
R = the rainfall factor
K = the soil erodibility factor
LS = the slope length and gradient factor
C = the vegetation factor
P = the surface roughness factor.
Water Body
Any type of surface water such as watercourses,
lakes and wetlands.
Watercourse
Any pathway for concentrated overland flow,
including rivers, streams and ephemeral channels.
Watershed
Refer catchment.
Water Table
The upper surface of the free ground water in a
zone of saturation; locus of points in soil water at
which hydraulic pressure is equal to atmospheric
pressure.
Water Table Drain
A drain that parallels a carriageway to drain
surface and subsurface water from the road
formation.
122
Environment Waikato
Glossary
123
Auckland Regional Council. 1995: Proposed Regional Plan : Sediment Control. Auckland Regional Council,
Auckland
Auckland Regional Council. 1994: Storm sediment Yields from Basins with Various Landuses in Auckland
Area. Auckland Regional Council Technical Publication No. 51, Auckland Regional Council, Auckland.
Auckland Regional Council, 1995: The Environmental Impacts of Urban Stormwater Runoff. Auckland
Regional Council Technical Publication No. 53. Auckland Regional Council, Auckland.
Auckland Regional Council, 1996: The Environmental Impacts of Accelerated Erosion and Sedimentation.
Auckland Regional Council Technical Publication No. 69, Auckland Regional Council, Auckland.
Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Delaware, United States, 1989: Delaware
Erosion and sediment Control Handbook . Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control,
Delaware.
Environment B.O.P., 1993: Forest Operations Guidelines. Environment B.O.P. Guideline, Environment B.O.P.,
Whakatane
Environment B.O.P. 1996: Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines for Earthworks. Environment B.O.P.
Guideline No. 1, Version 2, Environment B.O.P., Whakatane
Environment B.O.P. 1994: Erosion and Sediment Control Guidelines for Quarries. Environment B.O.P.
Guideline No. 2, Environment B.O.P., Whakatane
Environment Protection Section, Australian Capital Territory Government, Australia, 1989: Guidelines for
Erosion and Sediment Control on Building Sites. Australian Capital Territory Government, Canberra
Environment Waikato, 1995: Design Guidelines for Earthworks, Tracking and Crossings. Environment
Waikato Technical Publication No. 1995/8, Environment Waikato, Hamilton
Goldman, S.J. Jackson, K, Bursztynsky, T.A. 1986: Erosion and Sediment Control Handbook. McGraw-Hill,
New York
Herald, J.R. 1989: Hydrological Impacts Of Urban Development In The Albany Basin, Auckland. PhD Thesis,
University of Auckland
Maryland Department for the Environment, Maryland, United States, 1994: Maryland Standards and
Specifications for Soil Erosion and Sediment Control. Maryland Department for the Environment, [Baltimore,
Md.]
New South Wales Department of Housing, Australia, 1993: Soil and Water Management for Urban
Development . New South Wales Department of Housing, [Sydney]
New Zealand Logging Industry Research Organisation, 1993: New Zealand Forest Code of Practice. New
Zealand Logging Industry Research Organisation, [Rotorua]
State of North Carolina, United States, 1988: Erosion and Sediment Control Planning and Design Manual .
State of North Carolina, [Raleigh, N.C.]
USDA-Soil Conservation Service, Syracuse, New York, 1991: New York Guidelines for Urban Erosion &
Sediment Control. USDA-Soil Conservation Service, New York
Winter, R, 1998: Predicting sediment Yield During the Earthworks Development Stage of a Subdivision,
Auckland, and Assessment of the Efficiency of a sediment retention pond. MSc Thesis, University of Waikato,
Hamilton
References
124
Environment Waikato
Glossary
125
Runoff diversion channel/bund
Contour drain
Benched slope
Rock check dam
Temporary seeding
Hydroseeding
Mulching
Turfing
Geosynthetic Erosion Control Systems (GECS)
Stabilised construction entrance
Pipe drop structure
Level spreader
Surface roughening
Sediment retention pond
Silt fence
Super silt fence
Hay bale barrier
Stormwater inlet protection
Earth bund
Appendix 1 Standard Symbols for Erosion and
Sediment Controls
126
Environment Waikato
Sump/sediment pit
Temporary watercourse crossing
Temporary watercourse diversion
Rock outlet protection
Glossary
127
Tables
Table 1 Positioning of contour drains 22
Table 2 Watertable drain amouring 23
Table 3 Typical water cut-off spacing check 26
Table 4 Typical watertable culvert spacing 28
Table 5 Benched slope design 33
Table 6 Rock check dam design 36
Table 7 Grass seed and fertiliser application rates 40
Table 8 Stabilised construction entrance aggregate specifications 49
Table 9 Design criteria for pipe drop structure 51
Table 10 Level spreader design criteria 55
Table 11 Silt fence design criteria 76
Table 12 Super silt fence design criteria 80
Table 13 Typical sizing for rural culverts 103
Plates
Plate 1 Runoff diversion channel/bund 19
Plate 2 Contour drain 21
Plate 3 Benched slope 33
Plate 4 Rock check dam 35
Plate 5 Mulching 43
Plate 6 Mulch crimping 44
Plate 7 Turfing 45
Plate 8 Stabilised construction entrance 49
Plate 9 Pipe drop structure 51
Plate 10 Surface roughening 57
Plate 11 Sediment retention pond showing decant systems 61
Plate 12 Sediment retention pond showing baffle to lengthen flowpath and
create correct length:width ratio 66
Plate 13 Silt fence 75
Plate 14 Super silt fence 79
Plate 15 Hay bale barrier 83
Plate 16 Stormwater inlet protection 85
Plate 17 Decanting earth bund 87
Plate 18 Sump/sediment pit 89
Plate 19 Temporary watercourse crossing 93
Plate 20 Temporary watercourse diversion 95
Plate 21 Rock outlet protection 107
Appendix 2 List of Tables, Plates and Figures
128
Environment Waikato
Figures
Figure 1 Types of erosion common in the Waikato region 10
Figure 2 Clean water diversion channel 20
Figure 3 Runoff diversion channel 20
Figure 4 Contour drain 22
Figure 5 Watertable drain 24
Figure 6 Water cut-offs 26
Figure 7 Watertable culverts 28
Figure 8 Soakholes 29
Figure 9 Benched slope 34
Figure 10 Rock check dam 36
Figure 11 Geotextile laid on slope 48
Figure 12 Geotextile at culvert outlet 48
Figure 13 Stabilised construction entrance 50
Figure 14 Pipe/flume drop structures 53
Figure 15 Flume design specifications (for catchments up to 0.5 ha) 53
Figure 16 Level spreader 56
Figure 17 Tracking 58
Figure 18 Pond level spreader 65
Figure 19 Sediment retention pond for catchments up to 1.5 ha 69
Figure 20 Sediment retention pond for catchments between 1.5 and 3 ha 70
Figure 21 Sediment retention pond for catchments between 3 and 5 ha 71
Figure 22 Sediment retention pond - decant detail 72
Figure 23 Sediment retention pond 73
Figure 24 Silt fence 77
Figure 25 Super silt fence 81
Figure 26 Hay bale barrier 84
Figure 27 Stormwater inlet protection - filter media design 86
Figure 28 Decanting earth bunds 88
Figure 29 Sump/sediment pit 90
Figure 30 Temporary watercourse diversion works sequence 96
Figure 31 Temporary watercourse diversion dam detail 97
Figure 32 Bridge plan view 102
Figure 33 Small bridge installation 102
Figure 34 Culvert inlet using precast headwall 104
Figure 35 Culvert outlet protection 105
Figure 36 Culvert crossing outlet 105
Figure 37 Low use track 114
Environment Waikato, 401 Grey Street, PO Box 4010, Hamilton East.
Environment Waikatos Freephone 0800 800 401 www.ew.govt.nz
This publication was made possible by Environment Waikato Rates

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January 2009

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