ENGINEERING UNIT COASTAL STORMWATER & CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT

DESIGN MANUAL: GUIDELINES AND POLICY FOR THE DESIGN OF STORMWATER DRAINAGE AND STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS (Vade Mecum)

Issued by : R. KASSERCHUN PrENG. DEPUTY HEAD : CSCM MUNICIPAL CENTRE 166 OLD FORT ROAD DURBAN 4001

Revision Date: May 2008

ETHEKWINI MUNICIPALITY DESIGN MANUAL: GUIDELINES AND POLICY FOR THE DESIGN OF STORMWATER DRAINAGE AND STORMWATER MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS INTRODUCTION
These guidelines and policies are applicable to the design of minor stormwater reticulation and collection systems and for the management and control of stormwater runoff from sites by means of soakpits and attenuation tanks and runoff discharge controls. These guidelines include recommendations for the sizing and design of stormwater soakpits, attenuation structures/ponds, outlet discharge controls/overflows, kerb inlets, manholes, road edge channels, watercourses, underground pipelines and small channels. These must be designed to effectively collect, control and convey run-off from storms to larger or major drainage systems. The design of all major stormwater systems (whether culverts, pipes, canals, including road crossings, bridges etc.), for catchments greater than 1 km where hydraulic analysis of the waterway is necessary, should be carried out by checking by a registered professional engineer proficient in this field for approval by Coastal, Stormwater & Catchment Management Unit. Limited information related to the drainage and storage facilities to be used in a major drainage system for the control of floods has been included in these guidelines. These guidelines should be read in conjunction with the Stormwater management section of the Guidelines for the provision of Engineering Services and Amenities in Residential Township Development (the Red book) issued by the National Housing Board. Rail and highway crossings and jacked pipes normally require special measures and should be referred to the Deputy Head: Coastal Stormwater and Catchment Management.

Revision Date: May 2008

CONTENTS
1 1.1 1.2 1.3 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 3.14 3.15 3.16 3.17 3.18 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 STORMWATER MANAGEMENT POLICY page 5

Provision of soakpits Provision of attenuation and other storage structures Brief outline of minimum information required in a stormwater management plan THE RATIONAL METHOD Restriction on usage Area of catchment 'A' Time of concentration 'Tc' Run-off coefficient 'C' Rainfall intensity 'I' DESIGN OF A MINOR SYSTEM Critical points Rainfall intensity at critical points Minimum diameter Minimum velocity and gradient Materials Anchor blocks Curved alignment Servitudes Layout of stormwater sewers in servitudes Layout of stormwater sewers in road reserves Manholes Manhole covers Benching in manholes Channels Minimum cover Bedding Invert levels at manholes Inlets SELECTION OF CLASS OF PIPE PARTIAL FLOW IN PIPES SUBSOIL DRAINS STORAGE PONDS DESIGN OF SHORT LENGTH CULVERTS UNDER EMBANKMENTS CALCULATING TIME OF CONCENTRATION EXAMPLES OF CALCULATING THE RUNOFF COEFFICIENT C METHOD OF STORMWATER RETICULATION DESIGN GENERAL METHODOLOGY WORKED EXAMPLE Revision Date: May 2008 page 20 page 20 page 20 page 20 page 21 page 21 page 22 page 24 page 24 page 27 3 page 14 page 10

14 15

DESIGN OF STORMWATER KERB INLETS CALCULATIONS OF INVERT LEVELS AT MANHOLES

page 33 page 34 page 35 page 36 page 38 page 39 page 40 page 41 page 42 page 43 page 44 page 45 page 46 page 47 page page 49 page 50 page 51

LIST OF APPENDICES
PART R Stormwater Disposal SABS 0400 - 1990 Hydraulic elements of circular sections Bend losses Details of anchor blocks Discharge through box culverts : inlet control Discharge through pipe culverts : inlet control Kerb Inlet chart 1: cross fall 2% Kerb Inlet chart 2: cross fall 2,5% Kerb Inlet chart 3 & 4 : cross fall 4% and 6% Pipe bedding details Protection of pipes at reduced depths of cover Recommended layout of services - 9.5 metre reserve 48 Recommended layout of services - 12 metre reserve Recommended layout of services - 16 metre reserve Recommended layout of services - 19 metre reserve

Revision Date: May 2008

STORMWATER MANAGEMENT POLICY

Municipal stormwater availability In many instances erven do not have access or connections to municipal stormwater. In such cases the onus is placed on the developer to manage the excess stormwater resulting from any hardening of the site area. This management can take the form of soakpits if the soil and geological profiles allow or attenuation facilities such as tanks, ponds or areas designed to retain water. Where possible the emphasis should be placed on improving the potential for groundwater infiltration. Municipal infrastructure generally provided stormwater systems designed on the basis that not more than 40% of the area of residential properties would be hardened. As such, any development in such areas in excess of a 40% limitation naturally implies that the developer must be held responsible to manage the excess runoff from such a site for the proportion of hardening in excess of 40%. Where sites have historically disposed of stormwater into soakpits on site, this method of disposal must be maintained. Notwithstanding, soakpits cannot function effectively forever (life spans are limited to 5 to 15 years depending on the design and maintenance). The obligation is thus placed on the owner to maintain and upgrade the existing soakpit capacity where any further development or hardening of the site occurs. These responsibilities are necessary and due. Changing conditions and trends have lead to increased development densification. Increasingly, paving is replacing higher maintenance lawns and garden areas and a process of maximizing land usage to supplement incomes. These changing trends in residential and semi-urban areas have seen rezoning and new sectional type developments resulting in higher rates and volumes of runoff. Therefore, In accordance with the National Building Regulations PART R Stormwater Disposal SABS 0400 1990 (See Appendix), the eThekwini Municipal policy requires that privately owned sites may be required to manage and make provision for their own stormwater runoff. The general level of management required is that of controlling all runoff emanating from such a site in excess of that which would have occurred if the site was in its natural or original virgin state. Such stormwater management may well be the provision of soak pits, structures such as attenuation ponds or tanks (with controlled outlets where necessary, all to ensure that the rate of runoff is reduced to predevelopment states and that runoff is not concentrated onto adjacent neighbouring sites or other infrastructure, be it road drainage or valley lines, streams etc. 1.1 Provision of soakpits In general, where a site was originally developed with attenuation structures/ponds or soakpits controlling runoff, these systems should remain. These sites are also required to maintain and upgrade their systems to accommodate both existing and any new additional hardening on the site. Any application for approval of development on any open site without access to municipal stormwater will be required to provide a stormwater management plan based on a rational design method demonstrating that the soakpit/attenuation and other proposed controls controlling the additional stormwater runoff generated due to all the development of the site will not adversely affect downstream and neighbouring areas. All designs are subject to the approval of the Coastal, Stormwater & Catchment Management Department of the eThekwini Engineering Unit. Revision Date: May 2008 5

Additionally, existing single erven or properties that have a municipal stormwater connection, but where the site has been developed to the point where more than 40% of the site area has been hardened may be required to manage the excess runoff generated on the site/erf itself. Hardening of the site may be by either roofed areas or by otherwise generating more stormwater runoff by providing paved driveways or other semi or impermeable structures cumulatively covering in excess of 40 % of the area of the site or erf. If the geological and stability profile of the site is suitable soakpits sized on the basis of the excess hardened coverage of 40 % are to be provided or other engineered attenuation measures based on an engineers design and the Rational method of determining pre to post development runoff. Many existing/old soakpits are very rudimentary e.g. sheet iron covered rubble filled holes. These older soakpits had a effective lifespan rarely in excess of 10 years. They cannot be cleaned or maintained and the initial storage volume provided was generally minimal. Properly designed structures provide access to allow for essential periodic removal of accumulated silt, organic material and other windblown materials from the soakpit to allow it to continue to function effectively. Regular maintenance extends the soakpits life span and maintains storage volume. When drawings are submitted for approval of building additions and alterations and the property had existing soakpits, then the developer must be able to demonstrate that the existing soakpits are functioning. These existing soakpits will have over time been filled with detritus and in many cases have been displaced by excavations for pools or other structures etc. The original soakpits cannot be accepted unless they were constructed properly and can be accessed for cleaning or inspection. Current policy dictates that approval for any new addition on sites with soakpits must make provision for installing new soakpits unless a professional engineer is able to inspect the old/existing soakpits and certify the capacity and condition. As such, new properly designed soakpits for stormwater shall be built, sized on the basis of 1 (one) cubic metre of clear volume to drain each and every 40 square metres of all roofed, paved or otherwise hardened areas on that site. There are some alternatives to using soakpits and these include the provision of rainwater tanks which can be used for watering gardens and/or engineered ponds. These may be an attractive alternative to soakpits providing a stored source of irrigation water. The acceptable storage ratio in terms of using rainwater tanks as an alternative to soakpits is 60% of the volume of the tank. In other words, when calculating the volume of storage required (on the 1 m3 to 40 m2 area) then 60% of the rainwater tank volume may be claimed on the assumption that the tank is 40% full at any given time. Notes: Hardened areas shall include roofed areas, all paving, surfaced driveways, pool surrounds, etc. Grass blocks or other permeable paving are considered as hardened areas but the area can be reduced by up to 50% in such cases for determining the storage required (i.e. as being actually hardened). A typical detail of the soakpit design showing a plan and sectional view is to be provided as part of any drawing submission for approval where a soakpit is to be installed. Revision Date: May 2008 6

Drawings must table the extent of the hardened areas to demonstrate that the required soakpit volume/s provided is adequate (i.e. 1 cubic metre of volume for every 40 square metres of area hardened). Soakpits should be constructed 3 4 metres (minimum) from any structure or boundary to prevent damage to buildings, foundations and to reduce a risk of piping under boundary walls etc. Any reduction in this distance must be supported by a geotechnical report. All soakpits provided shall be drawn to scale in position on the plan view, labeled as "new" together with the volume and overall dimensions. The pipe drainage must collect and drain the rain water from collection points, (eg. down pipes) to the soakpits and sized to ensure that the soakpits will fill during significant storm events. 1.2 Provision of attenuation and other storage structures Where economics, site geology, impermeable rock layers or clay soil types, slope stability or other engineering considerations argue against the suitability of using a soakpit then other attenuation controls or structures are mandated. On individual erven which are suitable for soakpits, it may not generally require a professional civil engineers design for soakpits for stormwater management. Generally, for multi-unit residential or commercial developments or where coverage exceeds 40% of an individual residential site, notwithstanding the suitability of the site geology for soakpits, a stormwater management plan is required. This is based on the increased risk of failure and higher percentage runoffs. Soakpits tend to fill in higher order storm events before the peak stormwater runoff from the site is reached. In other words the higher order peak runoff from the site is not reduced and the risk of downstream flood damage is not diminished. A competent professional civil engineer will be required to produce a Storm-water Management plan modeling the run-off for the Pre and Post development scenarios for at least the 1:10 and 1:50 year Recurrence Interval storms. The Storm-water Management Plan provided must provide logical and coherent detailed information allowing for verification of the engineers design. The SMP must provide as a minimum, the information as listed in paragraph 1.3 below.

The pre-development runoff coefficient (C) should ideally be derived on the component method where the slope component (Cs), soil permeability type component (Cp) and vegetation cover component (Cv), are assessed and summed to derive the runoff coefficient used for the site/drainage area as a whole. The post development runoff coefficient (C) for the overall site can generally simply be derived assessed on a proportional basis of the pre-development runoff coefficient C and the post dev areas that have actually been hardened with C = 0.95. Some examples are shown later in these notes. Generally, a Time of concentration Tc of not less than 15 minutes for residential sites and Tc of not less than 10 minutes for industrial sites must be used ( i.e. where the calculated Tc is less). The Rainfall statistical data to be used is available on the municipal website: Revision Date: May 2008 7

www.durban.gov.za/eThekwini/Services/Engineering/CSCM This data is listed based on a latitude and longitude grid for a variety of recurrence intervals from 2 to 1000 years for storm durations from 5 minutes to several days. The data is given as point data (i.e. In mm of rain falling in the storm time period shown) and must be converted to the rainfall intensity (mm/hr) corresponding to the Rational formula. Storage or attenuation/infiltration measures must provide for the difference between the Pre development and Post development 50 year storm runoffs generated/calculated. The attenuation storage required can be assessed on a simple plot of the peak runoff values Q calculated for the pre and post scenarios versus the Time/s of concentration (Tc) for each scenario. i.e. plotting superimposed pre and post hydrographs as simplified triangles. For small catchments runoff is assumed to be zero at both Time = zero and at 2 x Tc minutes. The volume of attenuation storage is represented by the area of the post dev hydrograph which lies outside/above the pre dev hydrograph plotted. In effect any runoff greater than that of the pre dev plot (50 year RI storm) must be attenuated/retained. The rate of outflow for any recurrence interval storm must be restricted to the predevelopment runoff. For example: runoff/outflow for the Post-developed site in a 10 year RI storm is not to exceed the 10 year pre-development runoff peak. The static water head generated in the attenuation tank when the 10 year post development calculated storage volume is reached should not result in a greater discharge from the attenuation tank than the 10 year Pre-development runoff calculated. Similarly, the 50 year storm storage/outflow relationships must be attained. The stormwater Management Plan must demonstrate with sufficient detail that the proposed measures/structures/ponds can be provided and are practical and workable. Where sites are steep the extended cut and fill banks which may result in providing a pond or structure should be shown. Cut and fill banks obviously cannot extend into building platforms or neighbouring properties and the drawings should demonstrate that this has been catered for in the design. The drainage system provided must be capable of delivering the volumes associated with the attenuation structure. There is no point in providing for an attenuation pond or other structure when the site layout and stormwater system is incapable of channeling or conveying the increased and excess runoff generated. The increased runoff may not bypass the attenuation provided and flow offsite/downstream without being reduced to predevelopment rates of discharge. Depending on the individual site characteristics and the location of the attenuation feature, a degree of over-design may be inherently required to satisfy the requirement of limiting runoff to pre-development conditions in the larger recurrence interval storm events. Competent design can resolve such problems and minimise costs. The use of level parking or flat areas as shallow attenuation tanks, creating wet or dry lined or unlined ponds are all alternatives to costly conventional retention structures. The objective is to maximize groundwater infiltration and/or to reduce peak runoff from artificially hardened development further eroding streams and further exacerbating the potential for flooding lower down in any catchment. Revision Date: May 2008 8

All Final stage/Construction drawings or building plans must include complete details of all storm-water structures, all outlet controls, reticulation layout and pipe sizes and all erosion protection measures required for construction. The architects submission must incorporate the approved engineered stormwater management layout. 1.3 List of minimum information required in a stormwater management plan (for both the pre and post development scenarios) Street address and description of erf Latitude and longitude or X, Y co-ordinates of site (Especially if no street address exists) Area of site Length of estimated drainage flow path Fall or slope of site Runoff Coefficients used (Cv - vegetal cover, Cs - slope, Cp - permeability/soil type) Time of Concentration Existing and future areas that have or will be developed (hardened) Actual Runoff coefficients used eg: o Roofs, premix driveways (C=0.95), o paving (C=0.95), o grass blocks (C=0.5) Rainfall intensities I10, I50 Runoff calculations Q10, Q50 Attenuation volumes

All of the above should be tabulated for both the Pre and Post development for at least the 10 and 50 year recurrence interval storms.

Revision Date: May 2008

2 2.1

THE RATIONAL METHOD Restriction on Usage The Rational Method is still probably the quickest and most commonly used method of estimating the peak runoff value of stormwater run-off generated from urban and rural areas in spite of its limitations in application and accuracy. Municipal guidelines/policy based on the National Building Regulations presupposes at least a Rational method of determination. The formula used in this method is Q = ft x C x I x A/360 cumecs Where Q = the maximum/peak rate of run-off in cumecs (m3/s) ft = an adjustment factor for the recurrence interval storm considered. C= run-off coefficient (see applicable tables for determination) I = the rainfall intensity (mm/hr) A = area of catchment in hectares (1 ha = 10 000m2)

2.2

Area of catchment (A) The area of catchment is the total area above a point of interest that will contribute to the run-off at that point, either from naturally occurring stream flow or from overland flow. Such an area can be measured on a topographical map by drawing a line from the outfall point and following the crests of ridges, spurs or high areas which can be identified from contours and encloses those valleys or low areas which will drain towards the outfall point. In manual mapping of any catchment, conceptually, runoff flows as a vector line equally bisecting the angle formed when drawn through the contour lines. This concept determines the extent of natural catchments. The area of the catchment once defined on a topographic map is determined by dividing the area into measurable geometric shapes (triangulation etc.), or by using the measuring tools on the GIS.

2.3

Time of concentration (Tc) The time of concentration can be regarded as the time it takes for the excess rainfall resulting in run-off from the furthest significant part of a natural catchment to reach the point being considered. The shape of the catchment has significant implications on assessing the length of the flow path. For more accurate estimates of Tc it is sometimes necessary to create several smaller catchments especially where the shape of the catchment includes long narrow upper reaches which will not significantly contribute to the overall volumes or peak flow generated. It is difficult to accurately assess or determine the time of concentration with great confidence since an iterative approach would be required to assess the depth of sheet or concentrated flows with innumerable other considerations. However a number of tables and equations are included for estimation purposes. To obtain a measure of consistency, a general approach is recommended as follows: (a) Sheet flow naturally concentrates becoming stream flow with greater flow depth and generally higher flow velocities. The catchments size and shape is usually Revision Date: May 2008 10

significant in terms of determining the overland flow path to assess the time of concentration. The flow path length must be assessed appropriately. The runoff hydrograph for a long thin catchment differs significantly from a square catchment with the same area and characteristics. The rates of runoff will differ and be spread over longer periods of time. The total volume of runoff will tend to differ also depending on the time surface water has to infiltrate into the ground. The initial rates of infiltration depends on soil, moisture content and innumerable other considerations. (b) In assessing any flow-path when confronted with irregular shapes use your engineering judgement to apportion a flow length that is appropriate, i.e. that conforms to the runoff for the bulk of the area of the site to the point being assessed. Similarly when assessing the slope of a catchment use a slope conforming to the bulk or major portion of the site and use this in the Kerby formula (see later). (NB. the slope component of the runoff coefficient is not what is being considered here). Guidelines suggest the use of the height difference on the 1085 method or equal area methods. The 1085 height is the elevation difference measured from downstream at the 10 and 85% points along the full length of the flow-path. Whatever method is used it must be representative of the bulk of the catchment area considered. Since the methods used are subjective and inherently provide an estimate only it is not necessary to exhaustively analyze most catchments in a municipal environment. In large complex catchments the best method though laborious, is to break the catchment down into smaller areas and individually assess and cumulatively add each component areas runoff to derive a better estimate of the peak runoff of the whole. In the municipal environment with generally small catchments or developments being assessed, it is not necessary to exhaustively analyze but a sensitivity check should be done. Generally sheetflow only occurs in the first or initial say 200m portion of the upper end of the catchment. Thereafter, a further time of flow in conduits/streams/gutters etc becomes applicable and then Manning type equations or charts providing typical velocities for various terrain types or lined conduits can be used to estimate the balance of the travel time to the point under consideration. There may be several different catchments contributing flow to the point under consideration. The longest travel time calculated of all the different contributing runoff routes to that point is assumed to be the time of concentration. Similarly the area A used in the formula Q=CIA to determine the peak flow at that point is the sum of the areas of all the catchments contributing runoff to that point. Since the bulk of development in the city/metro region takes place where catchments are relatively small (< 1 km square) we advocate using a minimum time of concentration of 15 minutes for all undeveloped/rural/residential type sites. In other words if the calculated time of concentration for a residential site is less than 15 minutes use 15 minutes, and where a site is predominantly hardened i.e. fully developed commercial/industrial sites) then use a minimum of 10 mins if the calculated time of concentration is less. 2.4 Run-off coefficient (C)

Revision Date: May 2008

11

The run-off coefficient is a factor ranging between 0 and 1 which compensates for variations in rainfall over the catchment, infiltration and overland flow velocity during a storm, the shape of the catchment, ground slope, etc. Because of various indeterminate factors including ground moisture content, vegetation, permeability of soils, varying slopes, rainfall intensity etcetera, the coefficient 'C' is difficult to assess and a widely diverging range of estimated runoff coefficients can result. To minimise widely disparate results and allow for uniformity and consistency in approach, the table method used by the Dept of Water Affairs & Forestry (DWAF) is to be used and an excell version is available (shown below). C can be derived from applicable tables for determination. Where several catchments or sub-catchments contribute runoff to the point under consideration then unless C is uniform for all (i.e. the same slopes and vegetation etc exist) then a modified C applies which must be calculated as follows: Coverall = (Sum of Ci x Ai)/(Sum of Ai) for all of the differing sub-catchments i. For undeveloped sites the value for C must be derived from the sum of the contributions of the ground slope Cs, the vegetative cover Cv and the permeability or soil type Cp. In urban/industrial areas a combination of the percentage area contribution of the hardened areas and the balance of the site area assessed in terms of Cs, Cy and Cp above is logical/appropriate: Ci for the catchment i = Csi + Cvi + Cpi Ci may be considered to remain constant during any particular storm for smaller catchments (<5 km2). However we do advocate using a modification factor ft to reduce the runoff for lower order storms. RI Storm year 2 year 5 year 10 year 20 year 50 year 100 year Reduction Factor ft 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.67 0.83 1

But in a Pre and Post development assessment of runoff to estimate the attenuation storage required to reduce post runoff, the difference in C between pre and post development values of C determines the volume to be attenuated. The allowable discharge should be determined by applying the above reduction factor in order to obtain a lower value for the predevelopment peak flow since the rational peak flow is generally considered to be conservative (high) for design of systems. Values of 'C' for different types of catchment conditions and surfaces are shown below. A spreadsheet calculator for estimating the C value is included in the later examples in these guidelines.

Revision Date: May 2008

12

CALCULATION OF RUNOFF COEFFICIENT DWA METHOD PRE/RURAL Runoff Coefficient POST/URBAN Runoff Coefficient RURAL URBAN % Steepness/Slope Cs > 900mm Lawn sandy<2% % 0 0.08 20 0.05 0 0.18 < 3% Lawn sandy>7% 3-10 % 50 0.11 Lawn heavy<2% 0 0.15 15 0.20 0 0.30 10 - 30 % Lawn heavy>7% 15 0.30 0 0.40 > 30 % Residential single Cs 100 0.14 Flats/dense townships 0 0.60 Permeability Cp % 0 0.65 Industry , light Very perm (Dunes) 0 0.05 Industry , heavy 0 0.70 10 0.10 0 0.60 Perm (light soil) Business local Semi (most soils) 80 0.20 Business CBD 0 0.85 10 0.30 100 0.95 Imperm (rock, paving) Streets/roofs 100 0.95 100 0.20 Cp Vegetal growth Cv % Dense bush, forest 10 0.05 AREA WEIGHTING FACTORS 5 0.15 % DWA Cult land, sparse bush Grassland 75 0.25 RURAL 0 0.57 10 0.30 URBAN 100 0.95 Bare Surface Cv 100 0.23 LAKES 0 0.00 Cpost/desig Ct = Cs + Cp + Cv = 0.57 n 100 0.95

In determining the value of 'C', the effect of both the present and future land use on run-off must be considered if upgrading or new stormwater infrastructure is being considered. The Mean Annual Precipitation (MAP) for Durban/eThekwini region is predominantly >= 900 mm MAP and even if the MAP is lower, we advocate using 900 MAP as a minimum. 2.5 Rainfall Intensity 'I' The rainfall intensity is the average rainfall in mm/hr for a design storm of a given frequency having a duration equal to the Time of Concentration Tc. Rainfall figures can be obtained from the eThekwini website once you have identified the appropriate Latitude and Longitude for the site (available on the GIS). The figures given for the times shown are point rainfalls (i.e. in mm) and must be converted to an intensity (i.e. mm/hr) www.durban.gov.za/eThekwini/Services/Engineering/CSCM. Rainfall intensity figures are also included in the accompanying excell file. In the design of a drainage system using the rational method, the duration of the design storm is assumed to be equal to the time of concentration 'Tc' estimated at the appropriate nodal point in the drainage system being designed. 'Tc' must be computed independently at each inlet or low spot. Thus, as the design progresses downstream, the drainage area increases in size, 'Tc' will increase and as a result, the rainfall intensity 'I' will correspondingly decrease. Remember that the minimum value of Tc to be used is at least 15 mins (in rural or urban residential areas) and 10 mins (in commercial/Industrial areas since the hardened areas are proportionally much greater). In other words, where the actual Revision Date: May 2008 13

assessed/calculated Tc is less than 15 or 10 minutes then use 15 or 10 minutes as appropriate as a minimum. An excell file is also available giving rainfall intensities for storms of up to 8 hrs where the latitude and longitude are known. 3 3.1 DESIGN OF A MINOR SYSTEM Critical Points The effectiveness of stormwater design depends largely on the identification in a catchment area of those areas or points where flooding cannot be tolerated more than once in 10 years due to the likelihood of heavy economic losses or social inconvenience. Such points are termed critical points, and while they can sometimes be pinpointed on a topocadastral map, they should always be identified during a field inspection. Critical points may occur: (a) at low points in a road (where ponding will occur) and ponding water may overflow the verge on the fill side, thus eroding fill embankments and flooding low-lying property; (b) at the intersection of a steep road with a flat road where water flowing down the steep road could flood the intersection or overshoot the opposite verge; (c) at the site of an important drainage structure eg. The confluence of a road with a major stream. Where potential flooding of a development may cause high economic losses. Any design or planning for the overall system must entail an assessment of what if scenarios. For example: ensure that you allow for an overland flood route below low points in a system considering that the pipe system could fail. This may be allowing for an access way or a footpath below such points. 3.2 Rainfall Intensity at Critical Points At critical points, both sufficient inlet capacity and pipe capacity must be provided to cope with the 10 year storm event. At all other points in a catchment, except for certain cases discussed below, design generally is only for the 3 year storm. In special cases e.g. in areas where uncontained stormwater resulting from the use of a 3 year design storm would cause severe wash-a-ways in soft ground, the Stormwater/Catchment Manager may require that the design be based on a storm frequency of 5 years for non-critical points, and of 20 years for critical points. In flat areas of the City with considerable commercial and industrial development, runoffs should be based on a 10 year storm period. "Major" disposal systems (i.e. those taking flows of about 10 cumecs or more) should be designed for 20 year storms and in some special cases e.g. systems crossing Transnet/S.A.T.S. reserves, design intensities may be required to be based on 50 or even 100 year storms. 3.3 Minimum Diameter Note that downstream pipes should never be smaller in diameter than the upstream pipe notwithstanding that hydraulic considerations (such as steeper hydraulic gradelines or slopes) may support/allow this. Downstream pipes will obviously tend to be blocked by any debris/objects transported down larger upstream pipes. The minimum diameter of pipe shall be as follows: 300 mm in a servitude; and Revision Date: May 2008 14

375 mm in a road reserve. 3.4 Minimum Velocity and Gradient The desirable minimum full flow velocity shall be 1,5 m/sec and the absolute minimum full flow velocity should be 0,9 m/sec which is acceptable only in unusual circumstances. Desirable and absolute minimum gradients are shown in the following table:
Diameter 300 375 450 525 600 675 750 825 900 1050 1200 Desirable Gradient 1/ 80 110 140 170 200 240 280 320 350 440 520

3.5

Materials In general, stormwater pipes shall have rubber ring joints, be spigot and socket spun concrete pipes complying with S.A.B.S. 677 but fibre reinforced cement pipes are permissible provided they comply with S.A.B.S. 819. Ogee type pipes are NOT acceptable. Other acceptable/suitable pipe types are : Weholite and Ribloc type pipes for use where steep grades or to maximise the use of labour but their use is NOT recommended in road reserves and road crossings .

3.6

Anchor Blocks 20 mPa concrete anchor blocks to details shown in Appendix 5 should be provided as follows :
Grade (%) Over 50 30 to 50 inc. 20 10 Spacing for 2,44 m pipe lengths every joint alternate joints every 4th joint every 8th joint

Spacing for intermediate grades can be interpolated. 3.7 Curved Alignment In normal circumstances straight alignment between manholes should be used, but curved horizontal alignment is acceptable subject to the following limitations: (a) the minimum radius of curvature for an effective pipe length of 2,44 m is as follows :
Pipe diameter (mm) 300 375 Radius of curvature (m) 70 70

Revision Date: May 2008

15

450 525 600 675 to 900 inc. 1 050 1 200 1 350 1 500

93 93 112 140 186 186 278 278

(b) 3.8

curved alignment is only permissible with pipes having approved flexible joints.

Servitudes The width of sewer and drainage servitudes is dependant upon the diameters of pipes to be laid within the servitude area and should not normally be less than 2m. However this width may be reduced at the discretion of the Deputy Head.

3.9

Position of Stormwater Sewers in Servitudes Stormwater sewers in servitudes should be positioned as follows: in 3 m servitudes - 1,0 m from a property boundary; in 2 m servitudes - in the centre of the servitude.

3.10

Position of Stormwater Sewers in Road Reserves Recommended layout of services in road reserves are shown in the Appendices for various road widths. In existing roads already containing services, a stormwater sewer should be laid in the verge at least 1 m clear in a horizontal direction from the water main.

3.11

Manholes Manholes should be placed at every change in horizontal and/or vertical direction or at a maximum spacing of: 100 m for pipes up to and including 900 mm diameter; 150 m for pipes over 900 mm up to and including 1 200 mm diameter; 200 m for pipes over 1 200 mm in diameter. Details of standard precast concrete ring manholes and brick manholes are shown on drawing nos. 38570/1/2/3 and 38850/1/4. Manholes may be constructed using 1 000 mm internal diameter class A precast concrete ring units in accordance with SABS. 1294 to a maximum depth of 5 m for pipes up to 375 mm diameter where a junction occurs and up to 600 mm with no junction. In all other cases including changes of direction and for manholes deeper than 5 m, a specialised design is usually necessary. Provision is to be made for a landing in all manholes deeper than 5 m in compliance with the requirements of the relevant regulations including the Occupational Health and Safety requirements. Step irons are considered unnecessary and should not be provided.

3.12

Manhole Covers Where manholes occur in roadways, standard D.C. heavy duty cast iron covers and frames in accordance with SABS. 558 Type 2B as shown on drawing number Revision Date: May 2008 16

DMW1281 should be used. Heavy duty precast concrete covers should be provided in footways and verges and wherever vehicular traffic may be expected other than in roadways. In all other cases light duty precast concrete covers are acceptable. A new composite polymer specification manhole cover and frame has been field tested and approved for use. Contact the CS&CM catchment or stormwater managers for details. Details of heavy duty and light duty precast concrete covers are shown on drawing nos. 38853 and 38852 respectively. Where manhole covers are to be sloped to suit road gradients, they should be laid on shaped brickwork or in-situ concrete. 3.13 Benching in Manholes All manholes should be benched with a smooth concrete channel formed to the soffit of the pipe and every attempt should be made to streamline the "inlet to outlet" flow of water. 3.14 Channels The minimum roadway cross fall on any black top surface should be 2,5% and the minimum longitudinal gradient should be 0,5% for concrete channels and 1% for asphalt channels. 3.15 Minimum Cover The minimum allowable depth of cover to the outside of the barrel of the pipe for stormwater sewers is as follows: (a) (b) (c) in servitudes 0,8 m in footways and verges 1,0 m below final kerb level in roadways 1,2 m below final constructed road level

If the required depth of cover cannot be achieved by importing additional material and a lesser depth of cover is unavoidable, the pipe should be protected from damage, at the discretion of the Deputy Head, by means of: the placement of case-in-situ or precast concrete slab(s) over the pipe, isolated from the pipe crown by a soil cushion of 100 mm minimum thickness. The protecting slab (s) should be wide enough and so designed to prevent excessive superimposed loads being transferred directly to the pipe (see Appendix); the use of structurally stronger pipes able to withstand superimposed loads at the depth concerned; Where the depth of cover in roadways or footways and verges is less than 600 mm or where the depth of cover in servitudes is less than 300 mm, protection of the pipe from damage must be provided. 3.16Bedding Bedding shall generally be in accordance with the requirements of Standard Engineering Specification Part "DB" : Earthworks for Pipe Trenches. Revision Date: May 2008 17

The various bedding classes and their relevant load factors for rigid pipes are shown in the appendix. In saturated ground, steps should be taken to provide adequate drainage in trenches with a minimum layer of 150 mm of 19 mm stone placed under the pipe. Should site conditions warrant, filter fabric may be placed between in-situ material at the trench bottom and the stone mat. A cut-off drain placed at the seepage side of the trench bottom and connected to a stormwater manhole may be necessary. Further information on bedding of pipes is contained in the "Concrete Pipe Handbook" published by the Concrete Society of Southern Africa, a copy of which is available in the Technical Library of the Engineering Unit. 3.17 Invert Levels at Manholes General The standard practice of laying pipes "crown to crown" with benching formed to halfpipe level normally creates no problems but in some cases insufficient attention is given to the adjustment of invert levels at manholes to compensate for loss of energy between inlet and outlet pipes to prevent surcharge occurring in the manhole. In other words the water level rises in the manhole to compensate for the loss of energy and in extreme cases, the water level rise may be more than the manhole height and water surges out of the manhole dislodging the manhole lid. Standard Conditions At manholes with no drop inlets or no substantial side inflows or where the change in horizontal direction is less than 4 the difference in invert levels is determined by the difference in pipe diameters only provided pipes are laid "crown to crown" and benching complies with the requirements of paragraph 3.13 above. Special Conditions In the following circumstances conditions within a manhole warrant detailed examination: (a) (b) where the velocity head from the inlet pipe is destroyed e.g. at a drop manhole; where a relatively large inflow enters a manhole from an inlet or from one or more subsidiary lines.

When considering (a) and (b) above, the following criteria should be taken into account in calculating the required invert level of the outlet pipe: (i) full pipe flow at entry to outlet pipe; (ii) the water level in the manhole is not to be above crown level of the pipe carrying the major incoming flow and the crown of other incoming pipes should not be lower than this level. The velocity head required at the entry to the outlet pipe above the crown (the top or soffit) of the pipe =V/2g where V = required velocity at entry to outlet pipe in m/s, and g = 9,81 m/s, and in order to satisfy conditions (i) and (ii), the difference in invert level, between the inlet and outlet pipes = V/2g + difference in diameter of pipes. Note: the downstream pipe should not be a smaller diameter than the upstream pipe notwithstanding that the available grade may allow for this. This is to prevent potential blockages where an obstruction enters the system upstream). Revision Date: May 2008 18

Bend Losses Bend losses should be taken into account where there is a change in horizontal direction greater than 4 and although opinions vary on the extent of such losses in manholes, a loss of 50% of the velocity head of the inlet pipe is considered reasonable. For a 90 bend Velocity head at inlet pipe = Vi/2g Bend loss = 0.5 x Vi/2g Velocity head at outlet pipe = Vo/2g Available velocity head downstream of the bend = Vi/2g - 0.5 Vi/2g= 0.5 x Vi/2g The difference in invert level between inlet and outlet pipes equals the difference in pipe diameters plus the difference between required and available velocity head. =difference in pipe diameters + Vo/2g - 0.5 x Vi/2g For a 45 bend: From the graph in Appendix 12, the available velocity head downstream of the bend =Vi/2g - 0.75 x 0.5 Vi/2g = 5/8 x Vi/2g and the required difference in invert level = difference in pipe diameters + Vo/2g -5/8 x Vi/2g Where a substantial inflow from a subsidiary line occurs at a bend, the conditions detailed in clause 3.17.3 apply. 3.18 Inlets Where the grade of a road is flatter than 0,5%, graded channels are used and single inlets are provided at 30 m intervals. In this Service Unit, for roads having grades steeper than 1 in 200, the usual practice is to provide inlets at 40 m with depressed channels extending 1 m on the upstream approach. A more economical design could be obtained if more detailed investigations were to be conducted into inlet opening length, upstream channel length, road grade and the width of stream flow in the road and to encourage such analysis, Charts have been included in the appendix to these guidelines. These charts are based on the following: (a) (b) (c) (d) maximum allowable stream width to be 2,5 m and at critical points, 3,2 m; interception at inlets to be 80% of flow and at critical points, 100% of flow depressed channels to be provided regardless of the type of kerb used; and inlets to have openings in units of 1,2 m varying in length up to 5,6 m

(N.B. A 2 bay inlet consists of 2 No. 1.2 metre wide units but after deducting the thickness of brickwork i.e. 0,2 m, the waterway area is reduced to 2 m). 4 SELECTION OF CLASS OF PIPE Revision Date: May 2008 19

The class of pipe to be used can be obtained from the "Concrete Pipe and Portal Culvert Handbook" issued by the Concrete Manufacturers Association. 5 PARTIAL FLOW IN PIPES In the design of a new reticulation system, it is assumed that pipes are flowing full and partial flow is not normally considered. However, it is sometimes necessary to know the velocity and discharge of pipes flowing partially full and in such cases, the graph in Appendix 19 may be used or the Manning Equation which is included in the accompanying spreadsheet. 6 SUBSOIL DRAINS A subsoil drain should consist of either of the following: (a) for small volumes of seepage water, 19 mm or 25 mm grade single size stone as per SABS 1083 wrapped in drainage grade filter fabric with a 200 mm overlap at the top of the drain to form a nominal 200 mm by 200 mm square section with a 100 mm layer of coarse clean sand placed on either side of the 200 mm x 200 mm section; (b) for regular and high seepage flows, subsoil pipes wrapped in drainage grade filter fabric with a minimum overlap of 100 mm situated at the top of the pipe and covered with a clean coarse clean sand compacted to 95% Mod AASHTO. It is often convenient to incorporate a subsoil drainage system in the same trench as the stormwater sewer, running alongside or in the road. This technique allows for easy interception of transverse subsoil drains from under the road. If a subsoil drain is piped using perforated pitch fibre, slotted concrete or no-fines concrete pipes, it can be connected to a stormwater manhole or inlet but it is advisable to use fibre cement or spun concrete pipes for the connection through the brickwork. Where subsoil drainage is required to cut off seepage, e.g. under a road, it may be connected into a conveniently situated stormwater manhole or catchpit by means of a no-fines concrete block built into the side wall of the brick chamber instead of bricks. 7 LARGE STORAGE PONDS A major drainage system may consist of natural and artificial watercourses, large conduits, stormwater storage facilities, servitudes and floodplains. Should such a system be intended to cope with storms of 100-year frequency, the severity of the storm and consequent disruption of certain activities may allow playing fields, carparks, open spaces and similar areas to be used for on-site storage of stormwater. Such storage ponds can be used to regulate the rate of run-off and also for the control of pollution. They are classified as either attenuation (retarding) ponds, when only a slowing down in the rate of run-off is required, or retention ponds, when, in the absence of a positive outlet, the run-off is retained for future use. A major drainage system incorporating storage ponds will only operate infrequently, the more so in Durban because of the topography and consequently the design of such systems is rarely necessary. However, if required, more information on the design of storage ponds can be found in Part D, Urban Stormwater Management, of the Guidelines for the Provision of Engineering Services for Residential Townships, a copy of which is available in the Technical Library of the Engineering Unit. Revision Date: May 2008 20

DESIGN OF SHORT LENGTH CULVERTS UNDER EMBANKMENTS The characteristics of flow in a culvert are complicated since the flow is controlled by many variables, including inlet geometry, slope, size, roughness, approach, tailwater conditions etc., and to obtain an accurate determination of flow would require laboratory or field investigations. An estimate of the capacity of a culvert CANNOT be made using the Manning (or similar) formula for steady state pipe flow as the result would, in general, give a culvert size which is far too small. However, an approximate solution to the problem can be obtained using the following charts and formula. However, in all cases, the design of culverts under embankments should either be checked by, or referred to, the Coastal, Stormwater & Catchment Management Department of the Engineering Unit.

CALCULATING TIME OF CONCENTRATION Note: Where the calculated value of Tc is less, then use the following minimum values for Tc
Thick vegetation (bush, wooded areas) Cultivated areas and parks Residential areas Fully developed, commercial, industrial 15 mins 15 mins 15 mins 10 mins

Time of Overland Flow The KERBY formula can be used where flow is overland/sheetflow, ie streamflow is not yet developed: Tc (in minutes) = 36x (r x L/1000/S0.5)0,467
Time of overland flow Type of surface r factor Smooth paving 0.02 clean soil 0.10 sparse grass 0.30 mod grass 0.40 thick bush/grass 0.80 Tc overland MINS 19.96 Units Tc - Mins L - Distance (m) not greater than 200m s - Slope (m/m) r - roughness value for type of surface EXAMPLE

The above table is not to be used for an overland distance (L) where L is a lot greater than 200 m. Here streamflow would be well established. Use stream flow equation and/or the manning equation and/or table values below in combination with the Kerby equation where L exceeds 200m. Bransby Williams Streamflow equation -Natural Watercourses only Tc (in minutes) = 60(.87L2/1000000000/S)0.385 This table gives a guide to the time taken with slope and distance shown
The units are the same as tabulated above and yield the following typical results % slope Slope length (m) m/m 100 200 400 500 800 1 0.01 4.0 6.8 11.6 13.7 19.7 2 0.02 3.0 5.2 8.9 10.5 15.1 15 0.15 1.4 2.4 4.1 4.8 7.0

1000 23.4 17.9 8.3

Revision Date: May 2008

21

30 50

0.3 0.5

1.1 0.9

1.8 1.5

3.1 2.6

3.7 3.0

5.3 4.4

6.3 5.2

The following table can be used to estimate the lower limit of the flow time because the table gives relatively high velocity values for large catchments indicative of established runoff/flows.
sheet flow paved (m/s) 0.6 0.8 1.4 1.9 2.4 2.7 3 grassed waterwa y (m/s) 0.45 0.65 1 1.45 1.8 2.05 2.3 near bare ground (m/s) 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.4 forest/me adow (m/s) 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.35

% slope 1 2 5 10 15 20 25

lawn (m/s) 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

cultivated (m/s) 0.15 0.2 0.3 0.45 0.55 0.65 0.7

As examples: the depth of sheet flow to achieve the paved velocities shown above would be approx 20 mm. the depth of flow in a natural stream sloping at 1 % would be some 200 mm deep to reach a velocity of 0.45m/s. the depth of flow would be approx 50 mm in the case of the grassed waterway to reach the velocities shown 10 EXAMPLES OF CALCULATING THE RUNOFF COEFFICIENT C In a rural (undeveloped) area the catchment being assessed has slopes where 20% of the area < 3%, 50% is between 3-10%, 15 % of the site area has slopes beween 10-30% and the remaining 15% of the area is very steep with a slope of> 30%. Entering these values will generate a runoff slope component (Cs) of 0.14. on the same site/catchment the soil profiles/permeability characteristics over the surface show 0% of the area is very permeable, 10% of the area is permeable (light soil), 80% of the site is semi-permeable (most soil types), and the remaining 10% of the area is visible sheet rock. Entering these values will generate a runoff permeability component (Cp) of 0.20. on the same site/catchment the vegetation profiles across the surface shows 10% of the area is dense bush, 5% of the area is cultivated land or sparse bush, 75% of the site is grassland, and the remaining 10% of the area is bare rock. Entering these values will generate a runoff vegetal cover component (Cv) of 0.23. The cumulative runoff component for the entire site (C)=(Cs)+(Cp)+(Cv) = 0.14+0.2+0.23=0.57 (See the following table)

Revision Date: May 2008

22

DWA METHOD PRE/RURAL Runoff Coefficient POST/URBAN Runoff Coefficient MAP % Catchment MAP URBAN 0 0.08 Catchment Slope CS % > 900mm Lawn sandy<2% < 3% 20 0.05 Lawn sandy>7% 0 0.18 3-10 % 50 0.11 Lawn heavy<2% 0 0.15 10 - 30 % 15 0.20 Lawn heavy>7% 33 0.30 > 30 % 15 0.30 Residential single 0 0.50 100 0.14 Flats/dense townships 0 0.60 Industry , light 0 0.65 Soil Permeability Cp % Very perm (Dunes) 0 0.05 Industry , heavy 0 0.70 Perm (light soil) 10 0.10 Business local 0 0.60 Semi (most soils) 80 0.20 Business CBD 0 0.85 Imperm (rock, paving) 10 0.30 Streets/roofs 67 0.95 100 0.20 100 0.74 Vegetal growth Cv % Dense bush, forest 10 0.05 AREA WEIGHTING FACTORS Cult land, sparse bush 5 0.15 % DWA Grassland 75 0.25 RURAL 40.00 0.57 Bare Surface 10 0.30 URBAN 60.00 0.74 100 0.23 LAKES 0 0.00 Rural Catchment coeffCt = 0.57 Cdesign 100 0.67

At a later stage the same site is developed as follows: The site is partially developed with 40% of the area hardened (being roof, access roads and paving), 20 % of the site is landscaped into flat lawns, and the balance remains in a pre-development condition. In the above excell table above, the POST/Urban portion of the table, 40% hardening of the overall site equates to 67% of the developed/Post portion, and the 20% landscaped portion equates to the balance or 33% of the developed/Post portion. The post development runoff coefficient is a combination of 40% of the site with a runoff C = 0.95, 20% of the site with C=0.3 say, and 40% of the site with say the original undeveloped C=0.57 as previously calculated/shown. The combined C can simply be estimated by the calculation C= (40% x 0.95 + 20% x 0.3 +40% x 0.57) / 100 = 0.67. 11 METHOD OF STORMWATER RETICULATION DESIGN 1 2 Identify the catchment area on a topographical plan and locate the natural outfall. Determine the points in the catchment at which flooding is intolerable and mark these on the plan as critical points. Build up a provisional network of drainage on the plan, starting at the top of the catchment and working downwards until the outlet point is reached. At this stage the field inspection should be done. After the network has been checked and adjusted, if necessary, to suit local conditions, the stormwater lines are surveyed in order to establish levels, lengths, grades, etc. Mark on the plan the position of those inlets which are obviously necessary (e.g. at local low points, intersections, critical points, etc.) And judge where intermediate inlets are required. Rough calculations of local flows and Revision Date: May 2008 23

3 4

reference to the Kerb Inlet Charts : Appendices 13, 14 and 15 should be made to assess spacings. 6 Establish the critical flow paths; i.e the flow paths from each critical point to the outlet point of the catchment. These define the spinal system of critical pipelines which is required to carry the 10 year storm flows from each critical point to the outlet point. Code the reticulation system so that each branch of the network and each length of pipe between manholes or inlets of any branch is indentifiable : for example A-B would represent the pipe length between manholes or inlets AB on Figure 1 of this Appendix. Calculate the area of catchment above the inlet. Determine the time of concentration Tc in minutes.

8 9

N.B. The longest time of flow for all of the catchments (upstream catchments) that contribute runoff to the point considered must be used when calculating the design runoff at that point. If two or more catchments contribute runoff to the point in consideration, then the flow time for each catchment should be assessed. The flowtime will generally consist of an overland flow time, any streamflow (in larger catchments) and or any conduit flowtime (in pipes or channels etc). The longest time estimated for all of the catchments draining to the point will be the Tc used to determine the rainfall intensity to be used in the formula Q=CIA/360. The area used in the calculation will be the cumulative areas of all of the upstream catchments which drain to the point in consideration. 12 GENERAL METHODOLOGY Label each catchment eg Area 1, Area 2 etc. Determine the overland flow length and average slope for each catchment. Determine the time of overland flow (use Kerby but L not > 200m) + time of stream flow (for distance > 200 m if applicable) + time of flow in conduit (if applicable then use chart or use Manning equation). For subsequent downstream catchments the time of overland flow (length not > 200m) + time of stream flow (if applicable) + time of flow in conduit must be determined when considering the design flow. NB. If Tc < 15 mins (rural/parks/residential) use 15 mins OR If Tc < 10 mins (commercial/industrial/largely hardened sites) use 10 mins Calculate the relevant runoff co-efficient C for each catchment and for the design of pipes downstream, the area and longest time of concentration for all the contributing catchments must be used. Where more than one catchment contributes flow and the runoff Coefficient differs for each contributing Catchment then a mean or representative C value must be determined on a proportional area basis i.e. C = ((C1 x A1) + (Ci x Ai) etc.) / (A1 +Ai etc) Revision Date: May 2008 24

Identify the Latitude and Longitude of the site. (This can be located using the GIS) and obtain the relevant intensity of rainfall for the appropriate storm return period from the municipal website or the accompanying rainfall intensity excell spreadsheet. www.durban.gov.za/eThekwini/Services/Engineering/CSCM Then calculate the PEAK runoff from Q = CIA/360 cumecs Using the field information, pipe inverts between manholes/inlets are used to calculate pipe gradients and a nomogram or manning formula can be used to establish the following information: theoretical pipe diameter; selected pipe diameter; capacity of selected pipe diameter; and velocity of flow All the above data should be tabulated for each step in the calculation but do not proceed downstream of a junction until all the adjoining branches have been dealt with. When the first leg below a junction is considered in the calculation, the areas of each catchment area for each branch leading to the junction are added together to give the total area for this leg. This procedure of summing the areas ensures that critical lines are carrying the 10 year runoffs from the full contributing catchment areas to the critical point considered. Using the flow value, you can derive the most suitable inlet from the Kerb Inlet Charts given in the Appendix bearing in mind the following: (a) unless the position of an inlet is fixed by physical conditions, the limiting factor to be used is the maximum allowable stream width of 2,5 m (3,2 m at critical points) which will often lead to greater spacing between inlets and, as a result a more economical design but care should be taken that the intervening spacing is carefully considered in areas where resulting flood damage could occur.

(c) the bypass flow should normally be about 20% of the calculated runoff unless total collection is desired (e.g. at a critical or local low point) and the appropriate inlet for approximately 80% interception is selected from the relevant Kerb Inlet Chart. The information should be tabulated on your sketch plan of the site for ease of later reference and for review. At low points select an inlet for a flooded width of 3,2 m (see examples on inlet charts). When necessary calculate energy losses at manholes using the information given in Paragraph 3.17 above and tabulate the information on your design sketch plan layout. It is important to note that the basic method of runoff calculations, pipe and inlet design shown in this text, may be adopted for use in designing extensions to existing drainage systems or upsizing of pipes in existing networks. However, it is imperative that the design of extensions or relays should not overload the capacity of existing downstream pipes. If this situation occurs, please consult the Revision Date: May 2008 25

Stormwater/Catchment Manager for assistance. Attenuation storage or upgrading downstream may be required.

Revision Date: May 2008

26

13

WORKED EXAMPLE

Revision Date: May 2008

27

In the above layout, the low point is a critical point inlet C, the critical path is C-D-EF. Consider point of entry at A Area drained/Catchment Area is Area 1= 2 ha (= 20 000 m2) Flow Length =150 m Height of Fall = 4 m Average Grade = 4/150 = 0.03 or 3 % Tc (Kerby formula in minutes) = 36x (r x L/1000/S0.5)0,467 Tc (Using S=0.03, r = 0.4; L = 150) yields Tc = 22.5 minutes For rural/residential areas Tc should be >= 15 mins therefore Tc = 22.5 mins is in order. Estimate Runoff Co-eff for Area 1 ie. C1 = Cs + Cp + Cr = 0.05 + 0.2 + 0.25 = 0.5 Design is normally for a 3 year storm. NOTE: In this example rainfall for a 5 year storm return period has been used but the same principles otherwise apply for a 3 year storm with the proviso that storm rainfall intensity would have to be interpolated between the 2 and 5 year data since 3 year data has not been included. The site is at Latitude 29 deg 44 min longitude 30 deg 50 min To find the rainfall intensity we must interpolate for the Tc calculated of 22.5 mins between the values shown in the table for the above Latitude and longitude between 15 min and 30 mins. The formula used is of the form ITc = (Tc - 15)/(30 - 15)*(I30 - I15) + I15 Tc = 22.5 minutes gives I = 98.5 say 99 mm/hr The recurrence interval adjustment factor ft for 5 year storm is 0.55 from the table in paragraph 2.4 above. Q = ft x CIA/360 = 0.55 x 0,5 x 99 x 2/360 = 0.151 cumecs From information obtained in the field, the grade between A & B is 1 in 42. The slope S is therefore = 0.024 From Manning equation Q = V x A = 1/n x (R)2/3 x S0.5 x A = 1/n x(D/4)2/3 x S0.5 x Pi x D2/4 The manning n value for a concrete pipe is between 0.011 new to 0.013 for an older pipe The theoretical pipe diameter = 300 mm using Manning or find the diameter using the pipe flow charts. The capacity of the selected pipe (new and flowing full) = 0.180 cumecs The headwall depth required for overland flow to enter the pipe can be found in the appendix chart or estimated in the following spreadsheet calculator: Revision Date: May 2008 28

SHORT sloped PIPE CULVERTS <= 250 mm dia HEAD H DIA D (m) H/D 1.25 0.09 13.88888889 q=D2(gD)0.50.48(S/0.4)0.05(H/D)1.9 m3/s H/D>0.8 q=D2(gD)0.50.44(S/0.4)0.05(H/D)1.5 m3/s 0.8>H/D>1.2 q=0.6pi (D2/4)(2gh)0.5 m3/s 0.018902997

slope 0.001 0<h/d<0.8 0.8<H/D<=1.2 h/d>>1.2

In the above calculator, a head of 0.7 m only is required to induce a flow of 0.157 m3/s in a 300 dia pipe. The actual available head would normally be greater in practice since the minimum cover for a pipe is more. The velocity of flow in selected pipe at full pipe flow conditions =2.5 m/s Before considering conditions at inlet B, calculate the time of flow in pipe A-B For A-B Flow Length = 80 m Flow Velocity in 300 mm dia Pipe at Grade of 1 in 42 = 2,5 m/s Flow time = Length of pipe / velocity = 80/2.5 = 0.5 mins The time of concentration Tc at B = 22.5 mins + 0.5 mins = 23 mins Consider Inlet at B Area drained A = 0,5 ha Flow Length = 120 m Height of Fall = 5 m Average Grade = 5/120 = 0.041 = 4.1% Tc (Using Kerby Formula S=0.041, R= 0.4; L = 120) yields Tc = 18.3 minutes For rural/residential areas Tc should be >= 15 mins therefore Tc = 18.3 mins is OK Estimate Runoff Co-eff = C2 = Cs + Cp + Cr = 0.11 + 0.2 + 0.25 = 0.56 Assume 5 Year Storm Return Period and I = 110 mm/hr by interpolating between the tabulated values for I at 15mins and 30 mins because Tc = 18.3 mins. Q = ft x CIA/360 = 0.55 x 0.5 x 110 x 0.5 /360 =0.035 m3/s With a grade of 1 in 20 between B1 and B and using manning formula, the selected pipe diameter = 300mm capacity of selected pipe = 0,392 cumecs the velocity of flow in the selected pipe is negligible.

Consider MH.B

Revision Date: May 2008

29

Area contributing to MH B = Area 1 + Area 2 = 2.5 ha Calculate the longest travel time for contributing areas to MH B gives Tc = 23 mins The combined runoff coeff C for Area 1 and 2 = (C1 x Area1 + C2 x Area2)/ (Area1 +Area2) since different runoff coefficients were determined for Area 1 and Area 2 (i.e we are calculating a mean representative value) = 0.51 Rainfall intensity I for a 23 min 5 year storm interpolated between the statistical intensities given for 15 mins and at 30 mins results in I = 93.1 mm/hr Q = ft xCxIxA/360= 0.55x0.51x93.1x2.5/360 = 0.181 cumecs (= 0 181 m3/s or 181 litres/sec) The surveyed grade is 1 in 80 between B and C selected pipe diameter = 375 mm capacity of selected pipe from manning or table = 0,230 m3/s the velocity of flow in the selected pipe = 2,1 m/s Length of Pipe B-C = 60 m Flow Time in Pipe B-C = 0.5 mins Tc at C = 23.5 mins Consider Inlet C NB: C is a lowpoint i.e design is for a 10 yr storm as a critical point Area drained = 1.7 ha Flow Length = 180 m Height of Fall = 14 m Average Grade = 14/120 = 0.12 or 12 % Tc (Using Kerby Formula S=0.12, R= 0.4; L = 180) yields Tc = 17.3 minutes For rural/residential areas Tc should be >= 15 mins therefore Tc = 17.3 mins is OK Estimate Runoff Co-eff = C2 = Cs + Cp + Cr = 0.2 + 0.2 + 0.25 = 0.65 As the runoff entering inlet C from Area 3 will be required in the sizing of the outlet, Q should now be calculated for this area. A = 1.7 ha Tc = 17.3 mins C = 0.6 as calculated above I for 10yr storm = 142.4 mm/hr (use 10 yr intensity being a critical point) Q = ft 10year xCxIxA/360= 0.6 x 0.65 x 142.4 x 1.7/360 = 0.262 cumecs (= 0.262 m3/s or 262 litres/sec) For total flow at C Area Ac = Area1 + Area2 + Area3 = 4.2 ha Revision Date: May 2008 30

Tc = Tc(of Area 1) + Tc(from point A to B) +Tc(from point B to C)= 22.5+0.5+0.5=23.5mins (being longest Tc for all contributing areas) Mean or representative runoff coeff C at point C must be determined. It is a proportional average of all 3 of the contributing catchments, as follows: = (C1xA1 + C2xA2 + C3xA3)/(A1+A2+A3) = (0.5*2+0.56*0.5+0.65*1.7)/(2+0.5+1.7) = 0.57 Intensity I10year = 120.8 mm/hr being the inter[polated value for 23.5mins for a 10 yr storm Q = ft 10year x CABCx I xAABC/360= 0.6*0.57*120.8*4.2/360 = 0.482 cumecs (= 0.482 m3/s or 482 litres/sec) With a grade of 1 in 75 between C and D Selected pipe diameter from manning equation or pipe flowchart = 535 mm dia pipe (Capacity full flow = 0.592 l/s) capacity of selected pipe = 0.71 cumecs velocity of flow in selected pipe = 2.5 m/s Length of Pipe C-D = 50 m Flow Time in Pipe = Length/Vel = 50/2.5 = 0.33 mins Tc at D = Tc at C + 0.33 mins = 23.5 + 0.33 = 23.8 mins Consider MH.D Area = A1 + A2 + A3 as for inlet C = 4.2 ha Runoff coeff = 0.57 as at pt C Intensity I10year = 119.8 mm/hr from interpolation for Tc = 23.8 mins for 10 year storm (C was a low pt or critical pt) Q = ft10year xCABCD x I x AABCD/360 = 0.6*0.57*119.8*4.2/360 = 0.478 cumecs (= 0.478 m3/s or 478 litres/sec)

With a grade of 1 in 80 between D and E selected pipe diameter = 600 mm Capacity of selected pipe = 0.54 cumecs velocity of flow = 1.91 m/s Length of Pipe D-E = 100 m Flow Time in Pipe = 100/1.9 = 0.9 mins Tc at E = 23.8 + 0.9 = 24.7 mins

Consider Inlet E Flow Length = 70 m Height of Fall = 3 m Average Grade =3/70 = 0.04 = 4 % Revision Date: May 2008

31

Tc (Using Kerby Formula S=0.04, R= 0.4; L = 70) yields Tc = 14.4 minutes say 15 mins minimum Estimate Runoff Co-eff for Area 4 = Cs + Cp + Cr = 0.11 + 0.2 + 0.25 = 0.56 For Total Flow at E Area = A1 + A2 + A3 + A4 = 4.5 ha Tc = 24.7 mins C = (C1xA1+C2xA2+C3xA3+C4xA4)/(A1+A2+A3+A4) =(0.5*2+0.56*0.5+0.65*1.7+0.56*0.3)/(2+0.5+1.7+0.3) = 0.57

Intensity I10year = 116.6 mm/hr by interpolation for Tc = 24.7 mins Q = ft10year xCABCD x I x AABCD/360 = 0.6*0.57*116.6*4.5/360 = 0.498 say 0.5 cumecs (= 0.5 m3/s or 500litres/sec)

With a grade of 1 in 10 between E and F selected pipe diameter = 600 mm (pipe size must conform to upstream pipe size even though a 375 mm pipe has the reqd capacity at a grade of 1/10) capacity of selected pipe = 2.3 cumecs velocity of flow = 8.1 m/s

Revision Date: May 2008

32

14

DESIGN OF STORMWATER KERB INLETS Once the pipe reticulation designed, consideration should be given to the sizing of inlets. Examples are shown on the actual charts. Briefly considering the above example comments are as follows: Consider inlet B1 Q has been calculated above The gradient of the Road must be known Note that normally 80% of gutter flow is to be intercepted The Maximum Stream Width = 2.5 m The road Crossfall should be determined Using kerb inlet design charts, the number of bays and upstream channel length can be determined Check that the Stream Width is not exceeded and determine the actual intercepted flow (the balance should be added to the required flow at the next downstream inlet Data should be tabulated or put on your design sketch layout plan Consider Inlet C Q will be as calculated plus the bypass flow from inlet B1 As this inlet is at a low point, the approach grade on either side of the inlet will be reasonably flat and a grade of 1% can be assumed in both cases. Interception must be 100% and the maximum stream width should not exceed 3,2 m. If flow is large, auxiliary inlets should be provided to intercept part of the upstream flow. Using the chart for low point conditions Note that at low points there is no necessity to depress the upstream channel. Consider Inlet E Area contributing flow is area 4 only and the Tc for area 4 will be used in the calculation only. (N.B. a storm return period of 10 years is used only in the design of the pipe network) due to the low point or critical point at C There is no bypass flow from inlet C Conditions at Point of Entry in Area 1 The available head H must be determined on site = 0,94 m and site conditions are assumed to be such that this depth of headwater is acceptable

Revision Date: May 2008

33

15

CALCULATIONS OF INVERT LEVELS AT MANHOLES SEE PARAGRAPH 3.17 ON PAGE 17 In the previous example: Manhole B if there was a substantial flow from inlet B1 then at MH B it would be assumed that the velocity head of the inlet pipe from A was destroyed and consequently bend losses would in such a case be irrelevant and the reduced invert level would be calculated as follows: The required difference in invert level required is = (dout - din) + vout2/2g NOTES: Vout is the velocity of flow in the outlet pipe using the calculated design runoff flow divided by the full area of the chosen pipe The velocity head would be measured above the crown of the pipe i.e. assuming full pipe flow If there were no inflows but only the energy losses due to the 900 bend of 0.5 x v2/2g. Then the required difference in invert level required would be: = (dout - din) + vout2/2g (vin2/2g - 0.5vin2/2g) Inlet C11 At this inlet the change in grade of the pipe is small and can be disregarded but as there is a substantial inflow, a energy or velocity head adjustment is required. As there is a difference in pipe diameter, the reduced invert level of the outlet pipe from the exit level of the inlet pipe, is the sum of the velocity head required for the outlet pipe and the difference in diameter. i.e The required difference in invert level required is = (dout - din) + vout2/2g Manhole D At manhole D where there is a 900 bend and no difference in pipe diameter and no inflow, the difference in invert level is simply = 0.5vin2/2g Inlet E At this point the effect of the small inflow can be disregarded and the required difference in invert level required is = (dout - din) + vout2/2g - (vin2/2g - 0.75 x 0.5vin2/2g) Data should be tabulated in on a sketch of the layout or in a suitable table.

Revision Date: May 2008

34

APPENDICES
PART R Stormwater Disposal SABS 0400 - 1990 Hydraulic elements of circular sections Bend losses Details of anchor blocks Discharge through box culverts : inlet control Discharge through pipe culverts : inlet control Kerb Inlet chart 1: cross fall 2% Kerb Inlet chart 2: cross fall 2,5% Kerb Inlet chart 3 & 4 : cross fall 4% and 6% Pipe bedding details Protection of pipes at reduced depths of cover Recommended layout of services - 9.5 metre reserve 48 Recommended layout of services - 12 metre reserve Recommended layout of services - 16 metre reserve Recommended layout of services - 19 metre reserve page 36 page 38 page 39 page 40 page 41 page 42 page 43 page 44 page 45 page 46 page 47 page page 49 page 50 page 51

Revision Date: May 2008

35

Revision Date: May 2008

36

Revision Date: May 2008

37

Revision Date: May 2008

38

Revision Date: May 2008

39

Revision Date: May 2008

40

Revision Date: May 2008

41

Revision Date: May 2008

42

Revision Date: May 2008

43

Revision Date: May 2008

44

Revision Date: May 2008

45

Revision Date: May 2008

46

Revision Date: May 2008

47

Revision Date: May 2008

48

Revision Date: May 2008

49

Revision Date: May 2008

50