Photonic nanojet enhancement of backscattering

of light by nanoparticles: a potential novel

visible-light ultramicroscopy technique
Zhigang Chen and Allen Taflove
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208
z-chen@northwestern.edu

Vadim Backman
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208

Abstract: We report what we believe to be the first evidence of localized

nanoscale photonic jets generated at the shadow-side surfaces of micron-
scale, circular dielectric cylinders illuminated by a plane wave. These
photonic nanojets have waists smaller than the diffraction limit and
propagate over several optical wavelengths without significant diffraction.
We have found that such nanojets can enhance the backscattering of visible
light by nanometer-scale dielectric particles located within the nanojets by
several orders of magnitude. Not involving evanescent fields and not
requiring mechanical scanning, photonic nanojets may provide a new means
to detect and image nanoparticles of size well below the diffraction limit.
This could yield a potential novel ultramicroscopy technique using visible
light for detecting proteins, viral particles, and even single molecules; and
monitoring molecular synthesis and aggregation processes of importance in
many areas of biology, chemistry, material sciences, and tissue engineering.
© 2004 Optical Society of America
OCIS codes: (170.0170) Medical optics and biotechnology; (170.0180) Microscopy;
(290.0290) Scattering; (290.1350) Backscattering.

References
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#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
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1. Introduction
Optical microscopy and spectroscopy technologies are well established and are remarkably
powerful. Critical to any discussion of them are the fundamental limitations of conventional
microscopy. In the case of imaging objects with optical fields propagating in the far-field
zone, the fundamental constraint is the diffraction of light which limits conventional optical
microscopy to a spatial resolution comparable to one-half wavelength, or about 200 nm for
visible light. As problems of interest push further into the nanometric regime, the importance
of imaging techniques that allow nanoscale resolution or sensitivity has been steadily
increasing.
Near-field optical techniques making use of the evanescent field have been developed to
overcome the diffraction limit of far-field optics. In particular, a proximal-probe technique
called near-field scanning optical microscopy (NSOM) has extended the range of optical
measurements beyond the diffraction limit and stimulated interest in many disciplines,
especially material and biological sciences [1-5]. However, the low light-collection
efficiency, relatively slow image-acquisition rate, and incapability to image or sense objects
below the surface of NSOM fundamentally limits its utility. An alternative to NSOM, solid
immersion lens (SIL) microscopy [6], reduces the wavelength by immersing the object space
in a material with a high refractive index. This improves resolution without a large loss of
light. More recently, a tip-enhanced near-field optical microscopy technique has been
developed [7-9]. This technique combines SIL microscopy with enhanced focusing caused by
a strongly peaked electric field adjacent to a sharply pointed metal tip. With this technique,
spectroscopic measurements having a spatial resolution of 10 nm have been achieved [8].
In this paper, we report what we believe to be the first evidence of localized photonic
nanojets generated at the shadow-side surfaces of micron-scale, circular dielectric cylinders
illuminated by a plane wave. Using high-resolution finite-difference time-domain (FDTD)
numerical modeling [10], we have found that photonic nanojets have waists smaller than the
diffraction limit and propagate over several optical wavelengths without significant
diffraction. We have further found that such nanojets can enhance the backscattering of
visible light by nanometer-scale dielectric particles located within the nanojets by several
orders of magnitude. This may provide a new ultramicroscopy technique for using visible
light to detect and image nanoparticles such as proteins, viral particles, and even single
molecules; and monitoring molecular synthesis and aggregation processes of importance in
many areas of biology, chemistry, material sciences, and tissue engineering.
2. Photonic nanojets
Several calculations have been reported for the spatial distributions of the internal and near-
external electromagnetic fields of plane-wave-illuminated infinite circular dielectric cylinders
[11-12]. These calculations have shown that high-intensity peaks can exist in both the
internal and near-external fields along the incident axis even for nonresonant conditions. The
location and the intensity of these near-field peaks depend upon the refractive index contrast
between the cylinder and its surrounding medium, as well as the size parameter
x = ka = 2π a λ of the cylinder (where a is the radius and λ is the incident wavelength)

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1215
[12]. More recently, interior and exterior caustics produced in the scattering of a diagonally
incident plane wave by a circular cylinder have been examined using ray theory [13] and the
semiclassical limit of electromagnetic wave scattering theory [14].
Using high-resolution FDTD numerical solutions of Maxwell’s equations, we have
revisited the phenomenology of the generation of peaks of the internal and near-external fields
of a plane-wave-illuminated dielectric cylinder. Previously, the FDTD method has shown
promise in calculating scattering by realistic particles because of its ability to model complex
surface shapes and internal structures [10, 15, 16]. The two-dimensional (2-D) transverse
magnetic (TM) case has been considered, i.e., wherein the incident magnetic field vector is
perpendicular to the axis of an infinitely long cylinder of fixed cross section. Optical
wavelengths of about 500 nm and cylinder diameters of about 5 µm have been investigated.
Our FDTD computer code was first verified by calculating the differential scattering
cross section of several homogeneous, isotropic, circular dielectric cylinders and comparing
these results to the exact solution based on the separation-of-variables method [17]. The
perfectly matched layer (PML) absorbing boundary condition [18] was used in our FDTD
simulations to efficiently terminate the outer boundary of the computational lattice. With the
FDTD space lattice having a uniform square cell size of 1.25 nm (finer than 1/100th dielectric
wavelength for all computer runs), the results for the scattering cross section agreed with the
exact solution to within ±1.5 dB over the entire range of scattering angles for all cases
studied. Typical computational dynamic ranges for this level of agreement were 60 dB.
Having validated the FDTD numerical modeling procedure, we proceeded to study in
detail the internal and near-external fields of a series of homogeneous, isotropic, circular
dielectric cylinders. Figure 1 shows key results that illustrate the evolution of a photonic
nanojet as the refractive index of the cylinder is changed relative to that of its surrounding
medium. In this case, we consider an infinite dielectric circular cylinder of diameter d = 5
µm and refractive index n1 embedded within an infinite vacuum medium of refractive index
of n2 = 1.0. The cylinder is normally illuminated by a rightward-propagating sinusoidal
plane wave of wavelength λ2 = 500 nm in medium 2. Figures 1(a), 1(b), and 1(c) visualize
the FDTD-calculated envelope of the sinusoidal steady-state electric field for n1 = 3.5, 2.5,
and 1.7, respectively. With each decrease of n1 , it is evident that the internal electric-field
peak shifts toward the shadow-side surface of the cylinder along the forward direction.
Finally, the electric-field peak emerges from the shadow-side surface of the cylinder in Fig.
1(c) as a strong jet-like distribution. The most striking feature of this photonic jet is that it is
neither evanescent nor diffracting. It has a length of about 900 nm (slightly less than 2λ2 )
and a full width at half maximum (FWHM) waist of about 250 nm ( 0.5λ2 ). In terms of
intensity (defined as squared electric field) distribution, it has a waist of about 200 nm,
smaller than one-half wavelength. The emergence of a photonic jet from the shadow-side
surface of this dielectric cylinder for n1 ~ 2 is primarily consistent with previous work on
optical caustics generated by dielectric circular cylinders [13, 14]. For scattering of a
normally incident plane wave, the position of the cusp point focal line of the interior cusp
caustics generated by dielectric circular cylinders embedded within an infinite vacuum
medium is given by [13]

f = a(−1) p (2 p − 1 − n1 ) (1)
whereas the cusp point focal line of the exterior caustics consisting of a p = 1 near-zone
cylindrical aberration cusp caustic is given by [13, 14]
f = an1 [2(n1 − 1)] (2)

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1216
where a is the radius of the cylinder, n1 is the refractive index of the cylinder, and p
denotes the number of internal chords of the ray trajectories, i.e., the family of rays that
produces either an interior or exterior caustic has undergone p −1 internal reflections before
the caustic is formed. Equations (1) and (2) may be used to approximately predict the
position of the internal electric field peak and analyze the evolution of photonic jets.

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 1. Evolution of a photonic nanojet as the refractive index of a plane-wave-illuminated
circular dielectric cylinder decreases. The FDTD-calculated envelope of the sinusoidal steady-
state electric field is visualized for a d = 5 µm circular cylinder of uniform refractive index
n1 embedded within an infinite vacuum medium of refractive index n2 = 1.0. Light of
wavelength λ2 = 500 nm propagates from left to right in medium 2. (a) n1 = 3.5; (b) n1 =
2.5; (c) n1 = 1.7.

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1217
 (a) (b)

(c)
Fig. 2. Generation of photonic nanojets similar to that in Fig. 1(c) for three different
combinations of d , n1 , n2 , and λ2 : (a) d = 5 µm, n1 = 3.5, n2 = 2.0, λ2 = 250 nm; (b) d
= 6 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 = 1.33, λ2 = 300 nm; (c) d = 10 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 = 1.33, λ2 =
300 nm.

The photonic nanojet shown in Fig. 1(c) can be made thinner by increasing the refractive
index of the surrounding medium, which is equivalent to decreasing the wavelength of the
incident light. This is shown in Fig. 2(a), which visualizes the FDTD-calculated envelope of
the sinusoidal steady-state electric field distribution for the parameter set of d = 5 µm, n1 =
3.5, n2 = 2.0, and λ2 = 250 nm. The photonic jet of Fig. 2(a) has a waist of about 160 nm
and a length of about 400 nm. In terms of intensity distribution, it has a waist of about 120
nm, smaller than one-half wavelength. We have determined that photonic nanojets similar to
that in Fig. 2(a) can be generated using a variety of combinations of d , n1 , n2 , and λ2
provided that n1 n2 and d λ2 are not changed from the case of Fig. 2(a). This is shown in
Fig. 2(b), which visualizes the FDTD-calculated envelope of the sinusoidal steady-state
electric field distribution for the parameter set of d = 6 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 = 1.33, and
λ2 = 300 nm. The photonic jet of Fig. 2(b) has a waist of about 200 nm and a length of about
500 nm. In terms of intensity distribution, it has a waist of about 130 nm, smaller than one-
half wavelength. As a final example, Fig. 2(c) illustrates the photonic nanojet produced by
the parameter combination d = 10 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 = 1.33, and λ2 = 300 nm. All

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1218
parameters for this case are the same as for Fig. 2(b) except that the cylinder diameter is
increased from 6 µm to 10 µm. Here, the jet has a length of about 1000 nm and a waist of
about 200 nm. In terms of intensity distribution, it has a waist of about 140 nm, smaller than
one-half wavelength. From these studies, we conclude that the length of the photonic nanojet
is effectively controlled by the size of the cylinder whereas the waist of the photonic nanojet
is determined by the incident wavelength in the surrounding medium.

−6 −6
10 10
change due to insertion of a 5−nm nanoparticle change due to insertion of a 10−nm nanoparticle
isolated 5−nm nanoparticle isolated 10−nm nanoparticle
−7 −7
10 10
Differential Cross Section (m)

Differential Cross Section (m)

−8 −8
10 10

−9 −9
10 10

−10 −10
10 10

−11 −11
10 10

−12 −12
10 10

−13 −13
10 10
170 175 180 185 190 170 175 180 185 190
Scattering angle (degrees) Scattering angle (degrees)

(a) (b)
Fig. 3. FDTD numerical results illustrating photonic nanojet enhanced backscattering of light
by dielectric nanoparticles. The parameter set of Fig. 2(b) ( d = 6 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 =
1.33, and λ2 = 300 nm) is assumed. A square, n = 1.5 dielectric nanoparticle of side
dimension s is inserted at the center of the photonic jet on the surface of the 6-µm cylinder.
(a) Absolute value of the change of the differential scattering cross section within ±10° of
backscatter for s = 5 nm compared with the differential scattering cross section of the isolated
nanoparticle. (b) Repeated studies of (a) for a nanoparticle of side dimension s = 10 nm.

3. Photonic nanojet enhanced backscattering of light by nanoparticles

Our further computational investigations of the photonic nanojets illustrated in Figs. 1(c) and
2 indicate that such jets can greatly enhance the effective backscattering of light by
nanometer-scale dielectric particles located within the jets. Figures 3 and 4 provide the results
of FDTD numerical experiments that illustrate this phenomenon. Here, we consider the case
of Fig. 2(b) ( d = 6 µm, n1 = 2.3275, n2 = 1.33, and λ2 = 300 nm) with a square, n = 1.5
dielectric nanoparticle inserted at the center of the photonic jet on the surface of the 6-µm
cylinder. We have adopted double-precision representations for data in our FDTD computer
code in order to detect the nanoparticles with fine resolution in our computer experiments.
Figures 3(a) and 3(b) graph the absolute value of the change of the FDTD-calculated
differential scattering cross section within ±10° of backscatter when a nanoparticle of side
dimension s = 5 nm and s = 10 nm, respectively, is inserted at the center of the photonic
nanojet. These figures also graph the corresponding differential scattering cross section of the
isolated nanoparticle. We see that the effective backscattering cross section of each
nanoparticle is enhanced by several orders of magnitude, specifically by ~ 104 for the 5-nm
object and ~ 103 for the 10-nm object. In addition, the side lobes of the differential cross
section near backscattering of the 10-nm object are wider than those of the 5-nm object. This
may serve as another indicator for detecting nanoparticles of different sizes.
Figure 4 graphs the backscatter enhancement factor as a function of the size of the
nanoparticle. It is apparent that the photonic nanojet created by the much larger 6-µm

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1219
cylinder provides a dimensional increase in the effective backscattering cross section of the
nanoparticle relative to the case where the nanoparticle is isolated.
7
10

Backscattering enhancement factor

6
10 (1.25 nm)

5
10
(5 nm)

4
10
(10 nm)

(60 nm)
3 (40 nm)
10 (15 nm)
(20 nm)

2
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Side dimension s of nanoparticle (nm)

Fig. 4. FDTD numerical results illustrating backscattering enhancement factor as a function of

side dimension s of nanoparticles. The parameter set of Fig. 2(b) ( d = 6 µm, n1 = 2.3275,
n2 = 1.33, and λ2 = 300 nm) is assumed. A square, n = 1.5 dielectric nanoparticle of side
dimension s is inserted at the center of the photonic jet on the surface of the 6-µm cylinder.

4. Conclusions
In conclusion, we have reported what we believe to be the first evidence of localized
nanoscale photonic jets generated at the shadow-side surfaces of micron-scale, circular
dielectric cylinders illuminated by a plane wave. These photonic nanojets have waists smaller
than the diffraction limit and propagate over several optical wavelengths without significant
diffraction. Such nanojets enhance the backscattering of visible light by nanometer-scale
dielectric particles located within the jets by several orders of magnitude. Not involving
evanescent fields and not requiring mechanical scanning, photonic nanojets may provide a
new means to detect and image nanoparticles of size well below the diffraction limit. This
could yield a potential novel ultramicroscopy technique using visible light for detecting
proteins, viral particles, and even single molecules; and monitoring molecular synthesis and
aggregation processes of importance in many areas of biology, chemistry, material sciences,
and tissue engineering.
Acknowledgments
This work was supported by National Science Foundation grant BES-0238903.

#3929 - $15.00 US Received 26 February 2004; revised 17 March 2004; accepted 18 March 2004
(C) 2004 OSA 5 April 2004 / Vol. 12, No. 7 / OPTICS EXPRESS 1220