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In this section
G G G

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS AND THEIR APPLICATIONS

In Section 12.1 you learned that exponential functions are one-to-one functions. Because they are one-to-one functions, they have inverse functions. In this section we study the inverses of the exponential functions.

Denition Domain and Range Graphing Logarithmic Functions Logarithmic Equations Applications

Denition
We dene loga(x) as the exponent that is used on the base a to obtain x. Read loga(x) as the base a logarithm of x. The expression loga(x) is called a logarithm. Because 23 8, the exponent is 3 and log2(8) 3. Because 52 25, the exponent is 2 and 1 1 log5(25) 2. Because 25 32, the exponent is 5 and log232 5. So the logarithmic equation y loga(x) is equivalent to the exponential equation ay x.
loga(x)

G G

For any a 0 and a

1, if and only if ay x.

y loga(x)

E X A M P L E

Using the denition of logarithm Write each logarithmic equation as an exponential equation and each exponential equation as a logarithmic equation. b) 6 log14(x) a) log5(125) 3 m 1 c) 8 d) 7 3z 2

Domain of f f (x) = 2 x 5 f
1 (x)

Range of f

32 = log 2(x)
1

Solution a) The base-5 logarithm of 125 equals 3 means that 3 is the exponent on 5 that produces 125. So 53 125. 6 x by the denition of b) The equation 6 log14(x) is equivalent to 1 4 logarithm. m 8 is equivalent to log12(8) m. c) The equation 1 2
d) The equation 7 3z is equivalent to log3(7) z.

Range of f

Domain of f

FIGURE 12.8

The inverse of the base-a exponential function f (x) ax is the base-a logarithmic function f 1(x) loga(x). For example, f (x) 2x and f 1(x) log2(x) are inverse functions as shown in Fig. 12.8. Each function undoes the other. f (5) 25 32 and g(32) log2(32) 5.

To evaluate logarithmic functions remember that a logarithm is an exponent: loga(x) is the exponent that is used on the base a to obtain x.

E X A M P L E

Finding logarithms Evaluate each logarithm. a) log5(25) d) log10 (0.001)

1 b) log2 8 e) log9(3)

c) log12(4)

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helpful

hint

When we write C(x) 12 x, we may think of C as a variable and write C 12 x, or we may think of C as the name of a function, the cost function. In y loga (x) we are thinking of loga only as the name of the function that pairs an x-value with a y-value.

Solution a) The number log5(25) is the exponent that is used on the base 5 to obtain 25. Because 25 52, we have log5(25) 2. 1 1 is the power of 2 that gives us . Because 23, we b) The number log2 1 8 8 8 3. have log2 1 8 1 2 that produces 4. Because 4 , we c) The number log12(4) is the power of 1 2 2 have log12(4) 2. d) Because 0.001 103, we have log10(0.001) 3. . I e) Because 912 3, we have log9(3) 1 2
There are two bases for logarithms that are used more frequently than the others: They are 10 and e. The base-10 logarithm is called the common logarithm and is usually written as log(x). The base-e logarithm is called the natural logarithm and is usually written as ln(x). Most scientic calculators have function keys for log(x) and ln(x). The simplest way to obtain a common or natural logarithm is to use a scientic calculator. However, a table of common logarithms can be found in Appendix C of this text. In the next example we nd natural and common logarithms of certain numbers without a calculator or a table. Finding common and natural logarithms Evaluate each logarithm. a) log(1000) b) ln(e) 1 c) log 10

E X A M P L E

calculator close-up
A graphing calculator has keys for the common logarithm (LOG) and the natural logarithm (LN).

Solution a) Because 103 1000, we have log(1000) 3. b) Because e1 e, we have ln(e) 1. 1 1 , c) Because 101 10 we have log10 1.

Domain and Range

The domain of the exponential function y 2x is (, ), and its range is (0, ). Because the logarithmic function y log2(x) is the inverse of y 2x, the domain of y log2(x) is (0, ), and its range is (, ).
CAUTION

and a

Because the domain of y loga(x) is (0, ) for any a 0 1, expressions such as log2(4), log13(0), and ln(1) are undened.

Graphing Logarithmic Functions

In Chapter 11 we saw that the graphs of a function and its inverse function are symmetric about the line y x. Because the logarithm functions are inverses of exponential functions, their graphs are also symmetric about y x.

E X A M P L E

A logarithmic function with base greater than 1 Sketch the graph of g(x) log2(x) and compare it to the graph of y 2x.

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calculator close-up
The graphs of y ln(x) and y e x are symmetric with respect to the line y x. Logarithmic functions with bases other than e and 10 will be graphed on a calculator in Section 12.4.
3

Solution Make a table of ordered pairs for g(x) log2(x) using positive numbers for x :
x g(x) log2(x)
1 4 1 2

1 0

2 1

4 2

8 3

Draw a curve through these points as shown in Fig. 12.9. The graph of the inverse function y 2x is also shown in Fig. 12.9 for comparison. Note the symmetry of the two curves about the line y x.
y 5 4 3 2 y=x

y = 2x
3

5 4 3 2 1 1 2 3 4

g(x) = log 2(x)

f(x) = loga(x) (a > 1)

FIGURE 12.9

(1, 0)

All logarithmic functions with the base greater than 1 have graphs that are similar to the one in Fig. 12.9. In general, the graph of f (x) loga (x) for a 1 has the following characteristics (see Fig. 12.10): 1. 2. 3. 4. The x-intercept of the curve is (1, 0). The domain is (0, ), and the range is (, ). The curve approaches the negative y-axis but does not touch it. The y-values are increasing as we go from left to right along the curve.

FIGURE 12.10

E X A M P L E

A logarithmic function with base less than 1 x . Sketch the graph of f (x) log12(x) and compare it to the graph of y 1 2

Solution Make a table of ordered pairs for f (x) log12(x) using positive numbers for x :
y y=x 4 3 2 f (x) = log1/2(x) y= 2 1 1 2 1
1 2 x

x f (x) log12(x)

1 4

1 2

1 0

2 1

4 2

8 3

The curve through these points is shown in Fig. 12.11. The graph of the inverse
5 x

2 3

is also shown in Fig. 12.11 for comparison. Note the symmetry function y 1 2 I with respect to the line y x.
x

FIGURE 12.11

All logarithmic functions with the base between 0 and 1 have graphs that are similar to the one in Fig. 12.11. In general, the graph of f (x) loga(x) for 0 a 1

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has the following characteristics (see Fig. 12.12):

f(x) = loga(x) (0 < a < 1) (1, 0)

1. 2. 3. 4.
x

The x-intercept of the curve is (1, 0). The domain is (0, ), and the range is (, ). The curve approaches the positive y-axis but does not touch it. The y-values are decreasing as we go from left to right along the curve.

Figures 12.9 and 12.11 illustrate the fact that y loga(x) and y a x are inverse functions for any base a. For any given exponential or logarithmic function the inverse function can be easily obtained from the denition of logarithm.

FIGURE 12.12

E X A M P L E

Inverses of logarithmic and exponential functions Find the inverse of each function. b) g(x) log3(x) a) f (x) 10 x

Solution a) To nd any inverse function we switch the roles of x and y. So y 10 x becomes x 10 y. Now x 10 y is equivalent to y log10(x). So the inverse of f (x) 10x is y log(x) or f 1(x) log(x). b) In g(x) log3(x) or y log3(x) we switch x and y to get x log3( y). Now x log3( y) is equivalent to y 3x. So the inverse of g(x) log3(x) is y 3x or g1(x) 3x. I

Logarithmic Equations
In Section 12.1 we learned that the exponential functions are one-to-one functions. Because logarithmic functions are inverses of exponential functions, they are oneto-one functions also. For a base-a logarithmic function one-to-one means that if the base-a logarithms of two numbers are equal, then the numbers are equal.
One-to-One Property of Logarithms

For a 0 and a

1, if loga(m) loga(n), then m n.

The one-to-one property of logarithms and the denition of logarithms are the two basic tools that we use to solve equations involving logarithms. We use these tools in the next example.

E X A M P L E

Logarithmic equations Solve each equation. a) log3(x) 2

b) logx (8) 3

c) log(x 2) log(4)

Solution a) Use the denition of logarithms to rewrite the logarithmic equation as an equivalent exponential equation:
log3(x) 2 32 x Denition of logarithm 1 x 9
1 1 or log3 2, the solution set is . Because 32 1 9 9 9

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study

tip

b) Use the denition of logarithms to rewrite the logarithmic equation as an equivalent exponential equation: logx(8) 3 x3 8 (x3)1 81 1 x 3 8 x
3

Establish a regular routine of eating, sleeping, and exercise. The ability to concentrate depends on adequate sleep, decent nutrition, and the physical well-being that comes with exercise.

Denition of logarithm Raise each side to the 1 power.

1 23 8 or log12(8) 3 the solution set is . Because 1 2 2 c) To write an equation equivalent to log(x2) log(4), we use the one-to-one property of logarithms:

1 8 2
3

Odd-root property

log(x 2) log(4) One-to-one property of logarithms x2 4 x 2 Even-root property If x 2, then x2 4 and log(4) log(4). The solution set is {2, 2}.

helpful

hint

CAUTION If we have equality of two logarithms with the same base, we use the one-to-one property to eliminate the logarithms. If we have an equation with only one logarithm, such as loga(x) y, we use the denition of logarithm to write ay x and to eliminate the logarithm.

The rule of 70 is used to nd approximately how long it takes money to double. Divide 70 by the interest rate, ignoring the percent symbol. For example, at 7% money dou0 bles in approximately 7 or 7

Applications
When money earns interest compounded continuously, the formula 1 A t ln r P

10 years. To nd the time more exactly, divide ln(2) 0.693 by the interest rate.

expresses the relationship between the time in years t, the annual interest rate r, the principal P, and the amount A. This formula is used to determine how long it takes for a deposit to grow to a specic amount. Finding the time for a specied growth How long does it take $80 to grow to $240 at 12% compounded continuously?

E X A M P L E

Solution Use r 0.12, P $80, and A $240 in the formula, and use a calculator to evaluate the logarithm:
240 1 t ln 80 0.12 ln(3) 0.12 9.155 It takes approximately 9.155 years, or 9 years and 57 days.

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WARM-UPS
True or false? Explain your answer.

1. The equation a 3 2 is equivalent to loga(2) 3. 2. If (a, b) satises y 8x, then (a, b) satises y log8(x). 3. If f (x) ax for a 0 and a 1, then f 1(x) loga(x). 4. If f (x) ln(x), then f 1(x) e x. 5. The domain of f (x) log6(x) is (, ). 6. log25(5) 2 7. log(10) 1 8. log(0) 0 9. 5log5(125) 125 10. log12(32) 5

12.2

EXERCISES
13. 2a b 15. log3(x) 10 17. e3 x 14. a3 c 16. logc(t) 4 18. m e x

Reading and Writing After reading this section, write out the answers to these questions. Use complete sentences. 1. What is the inverse function for the function f (x) 2x? 2. What is loga(x)?

Evaluate each logarithm. See Examples 2 and 3. 19. log2(4) 20. log2(1) 22. log4(16) 24. log8(64) 26. log64(64) 1 28. log2 8 21. log2(16) 23. log2(64) 25. log4(64) 1 27. log2 4

3. What is the difference between the common logarithm and the natural logarithm?

4. What is the domain of f (x) loga(x)? 5. What is the one-to-one property of logarithmic functions?

29. log(100) 31. log(0.01) 1 33. log13 3

30. log(1) 32. log(10,000) 1 34. log13 9

6. What is the relationship between the graphs of f (x) a x and f 1(x) loga(x) for a 0 and a 1?

35. log13(27) 37. log25(5)

36. log13(1) 38. log16(4) 1 40. ln e

Write each exponential equation as a logarithmic equation and each logarithmic equation as an exponential equation. See Example 1. 7. log2(8) 3 9. 102 100 11. y log5(x) 8. log10(10) 1 10. 53 125 12. m logb(N )

39. ln(e 2)

Use a calculator to evaluate each logarithm. Round answers to four decimal places. 41. log(5) 42. log(0.03) 43. ln(6.238) 44. ln(0.23)

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Sketch the graph of each function. See Examples 4 and 5. 45. f (x) log3(x) 46. g(x) log10(x)

Solve each equation. See Example 7. 1 2 59. x 60. x 1612 2

61. 5 25x 63. log(x) 3 65. logx(36) 2 67. logx(5) 1 47. y log4(x) 48. y log5(x) 69. log(x 2) log(9)

62. 0.1 10 x 64. log(x) 5 66. logx(100) 2 68. logx(16) 2 70. ln(2 x 3) ln(x 1)

Use a calculator to solve each equation. Round answers to four decimal places. 71. 3 10 x 1 73. 10 x 2 49. h(x) log14(x) 50. y log13(x) 75. e x 7.2 72. 10 x 0.03 74. 75 10x 76. e 3x 0.4

Solve each problem. See Example 8. Use a calculator as necessary. 77. Double your money. How long does it take $5000 to grow to $10,000 at 12% compounded continuously? 78. Half the rate. How long does it take $5000 to grow to $10,000 at 6% compounded continuously? 51. y log15(x) 52. y log16(x) 79. Earning interest. How long does it take to earn $1000 in interest on a deposit of $6000 at 8% compounded continuously? 80. Lottery winnings. How long does it take to earn $1000 interest on a deposit of one million dollars at 9% compounded continuously?

The annual growth rate for an investment that is growing continuously is given by Find the inverse of each function. See Example 6. 53. f (x) 6x 54. f (x) 4x 55. f (x) ln(x) 57. f (x) log12(x) 56. f (x) log(x) 58. f (x) log14(x) 1 A r ln , t P

where P is the principal and A is the amount after t years. 81. Top stock. An investment of $10,000 in Dell Computer stock in 1995 grew to $231,800 in 1998. a) Assuming the investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate?

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b) If Dell continues to grow at the same rate, then what will the $10,000 investment be worth in 2002? 82. Chocolate bars. An investment of $10,000 in 1980 in Hershey stock was worth $563,000 in 1998. Assuming the investment grew continuously, what was the annual growth rate? In chemistry the pH of a solution is dened by pH log10 [H], where H is the hydrogen ion concentration of the solution in moles per liter. Distilled water has a pH of approximately 7. A solution with a pH under 7 is called an acid, and one with a pH over 7 is called a base. 83. Tomato juice. Tomato juice has a hydrogen ion concentration of 104.1 mole per liter (mol/L). Find the pH of tomato juice. 84. Stomach acid. The gastric juices in your stomach have a hydrogen ion concentration of 101 mol/L. Find the pH of your gastric juices. 85. Neuse River pH . The pH of a water sample is one of the many measurements of water quality done by the U.S. Geological Survey. The hydrogen ion concentration of the water in the Neuse River at New Bern, North Carolina, was 1.58 107 mol/L on July 9, 1998 (Water Resources for North Carolina, wwwnc.usgs.gov). What was the pH of the water at that time? 86. Roanoke River pH. On July 9, 1998 the hydrogen ion concentration of the water in the Roanoke River at Janesville, North Carolina, was 1.995 107 mol/L (Water Resources for North Carolina, wwwnc.usgs.gov). What was the pH of the water at that time?
Roanoke River at Janesville 8 pH (standard units) 6 4 2 0

where I is the intensity of the sound in watts per square meter. If the intensity of the sound at a rock concert is 0.001 watt per square meter at a distance of 75 meters from the stage, then what is the level of the sound at this point in the audience? 88. Logistic growth. If a rancher has one cow with a contagious disease in a herd of 1000, then the time in days t for n of the cows to become infected is modeled by 1000 n t 5 ln . 999n

Find the number of days that it takes for the disease to spread to 100, 200, 998, and 999 cows. This model, called a logistic growth model, describes how a disease can spread very rapidly at rst and then very slowly as nearly all of the population has become infected.
t 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 200 400 600 800 1000 n Number of infected cows

Time (days)

FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 88 GET TING MORE INVOLVED

89. Discussion. Use the switch-and-solve method from Chapter 11 to nd the inverse of the function f (x) 5 log2(x 3). State the domain and range of the inverse function. 90. Discussion. Find the inverse of the function f (x) 2 e x4. State the domain and range of the inverse function.

G R A P H I N G C ALC U L ATO R EXERCISES

91. Composition of inverses. Graph the functions y ln(e x) and y e ln(x). Explain the similarities and differences between the graphs.
2 3 4 5 6 7 July 1998 8 9

FIGURE FOR EXERCISE 86

Solve each problem. 87. Sound level. The level of sound in decibels (db) is given by the formula L 10 log(I 1012),

92. The population bomb. The population of the earth is growing continuously with an annual rate of about 1.6%. If the present population is 6 billion, then the function y 6e0.016x gives the population in billions x years from now. Graph this function for 0 x 200. What will the population be in 100 years and in 200 years?