FLOW PAST A CIRCULAR CYLINDER

William J. Devenport

1. Introduction
Experiments 3 and 4 involve the study of flow past a circular cylinder in a uniform stream. In experiment 3 this is done in a wind tunnel using conventional instrumentation, specifically a Pitot static probe and static pressure ports. In experiment 4 this is done in a water tunnel using a state of the art instrument !nown as a laser "oppler anemometer. #he ob$ective here is to give you experience of the broad range of flow measurement technology that is available to the aerospace or ocean engineer. %ou will also observe, in practice, a flow you have met only in theory up to now. #he flow past a two dimensional cylinder is one of the most studied of aerodynamics. It is relevant to many engineering applications. #he flow pattern and the drag on a cylinder are functions of the &eynolds number Re ' UD(, based on the cylinder diameter D and the undisturbed free stream velocity U. &ecall that the &eynolds number represents the ratio of inertial to viscous forces in the flow. #he drag is usually expressed as a coefficient C ' d()*U D,, where d is the drag force per unit span.
D d +

#he flow pattern at high &eynolds numbers )Re - 1...., is s!etched in figures 1)a, and 1)b, . /t the leading edge of the cylinder a stagnation point is formed where the oncoming flow is brought to rest. #he pressure here is e0ual to the stagnation pressure. #he pressure coefficient Cp ' )p - p,()*U , is therefore e0ual to 1 by 1ernoulli2s e0uation )figure +,. #o either side of the stagnation point the flow accelerates around the forward surface of the cylinder producing a drop in the pressure )figure +,. Immediately ad$acent to the cylinder surface a thin boundary layer is formed. #he boundary layer is a region where the velocity drops rapidly to 3ero to satisfy the no slip condition at the cylinder surface. #he direct effects of viscosity are felt only within the boundary layer.
D +

If Re is less than about 4..,... the boundary layer remains laminar from the stagnation point at the front of the cylinder to the point where it separates. #he resulting flow pattern )figure 1)a,,, termed sub critical, is associated with a high drag on the cylinder )see figure 3,, C being about 1.+. #he laminar boundary layer separates $ust upstream of the maximum thic!ness )see figure 1)a,,. 4eparation occurs because the boundary layer anticipates the deceleration of the flow )and therefore positive pressure gradient, that would otherwise occur on the rearward face of the cylinder. "ownstream of separation the flow 0uic!ly becomes turbulent and a broad wa!e is formed. #he wa!e as a whole is unstable and rolls up into vortices that are shed antisymmetrically at regular intervals from the cylinder )figure 1)a,,. #his type of wa!e is called a von 56rm6n vortex street )see for example, von 56rm6n )1783,,. 1ecause of separation the pressure remains low and approximately constant over the rearward face of the cylinder. #his causes a net imbalance of pressure forces on the cylinder )figure +,, usually referred to as the pressure
D d

drag. Pressure drag accounts for about 7.9 of the total drag on the cylinder in this regime. #he remaining 1.9 is due to s!in friction drag friction between the flow and the cylinder. :ost s!in friction drag is produced on the forward face of the cylinder where the boundary layer is thin and velocity gradients at the cylinder surface are large. /t &eynolds numbers greater than about 4..,... the boundary layer on the forward face of the cylinder undergoes transition and becomes turbulent. #he resulting flow pattern )figure 1)b,,, termed super critical, is associated with a much lower drag, C being about ..3. #he precipitous drop in C that occurs as a result of transition is usually referred to as the drag crisis. #he turbulent boundary layer generated in super critical flow is much less susceptible to adverse pressure gradients. It remains attached to the cylinder surface well past its maximum thic!ness. /s a result the wa!e is much narrower, the imbalance of pressure forces on the cylinder surface is much smaller and the pressure drag is greatly reduced. #his reduction swamps a small increase in s!in friction drag produced by the greater length of the boundary layer and its transition. ;ote that the drag crisis need not always occur at Re ' 4..,.... &oughness of the cylinder surface or unsteadiness in the free stream )such as is present in the open $et wind tunnel, can cause boundary layer transition at much lower &eynolds number.
d d D

#he above is a brief and truncated description of the structure of the flow past a cylinder. #his flow is both complex and beautiful. If you are interested further consult 1ertin )+..1,, Panton )17<4,, van "y!e )17<+, and, perhaps, your own flow visuali3ations from experiment 1 or experiment 4 if you have done them yet. In experiment 3 you will have the opportunity to investigate for yourself the flow past a cylinder over a range of &eynolds numbers. %ou will have a wind tunnel, model and e0uipment for measuring pressure and velocity at your disposal. #hrough analysis these measurements can be used also to estimate the drag on the cylinder and the shape of its wa!e.

+. /pparatus, Instrumentation and :ethods

A. Instr mentation !or meas rin" t#e properties o! t#e air. #he open $et wind tunnel used in this experiment uses the laboratory atmosphere as the wor!ing fluid. #he properties of the air in the lab vary depending on the weather so it is important that you measure them, so you !now what fluid you are wor!ing with. =rom the point of view of the dynamics of the air, the important properties are its density and viscosity )thin! of 1ernoulli2s e0uation and the &eynolds number,. &ather than measuring density directly, it is best obtained by measuring pressure and temperature and then using the e0uation of state for a perfect gas. /n aneroid barometer for measuring atmospheric pressure is provided on the side of the open $et wind tunnel control panel )see experiment 1, figure 1,. / digital thermometer for measuring atmospheric temperature is located on the side of the open $et tunnel next to the test section )see same figure,. Pressure is read in milli1ar )1 milli1ar'1..Pa,. #emperature is

read in degrees >elsius or =ahrenheit, depending on the thermometer setting. #he gas constant R in the e0uation of state for a perfect gas )p =RT, is +<? @(!g(5. #he temperature can also be used to infer the dynamic viscosity of the air using 4utherland2s relation. =or 4I units, =1.4578106 1.5/(+110.4) where T is temperature in 5elvin. &ecall that !inematic viscosity is dynamic viscosity divided by density. %ou can program 4utherland2s relation in your electronic logboo!, or use the calculator belowA

Inp t t#e temperat re in $elvin Press Rea% o!! t#e %&nami' vis'osit&

273.0

$ (" m)* s)*

+. Open ,et -in%)t nnel mo%el an% 'ir' lar '&lin%er mo%el #he experiment will be performed in the 3 foot subsonic wind tunnel, a detailed description of which is given in appendix + . :ounted in the wind tunnel is the cylinder model. #he model is built from Plexiglas. It has a diameter " of 14.mm and a span of 48+mm. >ircular end plates of diameter 3.Bmm are used to minimi3e flow around the ends of the cylinder. #hese plates act to ma!e the flow more two dimensional )though how two dimensional is open to 0uestion,. #he cylinder model is mounted spanwise across the test section. #he mount allows the cylinder to be rotated about its axis by a measured angle )indicated by the attached protractor,. It also allows the cylinder to be placed at different streamwise positions. / "wyer model 18. Pitot static probe is mounted towards the front of the test section. #his reference probe monitors the velocity and pressure of the free stream. #here are two pressure connections to the probe. #he one on the axis is connected to the Pitot, or stagnation, port and thus registers the stagnation pressure of the free stream po, the pressure produced by bringing the flow to a halt at the mouth of the tube. #he connection on the side of the probe is connected to the static ports on the side of the probe and thus registers the static )i.e. actual, pressure of the free stream p . #he difference in these pressures is related to the free stream velocity through 1ernoulli2s e0uation, po p= U . #o sense this pressure difference, and thus the free stream velocity, the probe is connected through two #ygon tubes to a model 4?B "wyer digital manometer, that can measure pressures in !Pa or inches of water column )the height of water column h is related to pressure through the hydrostatic e0uation p=watergh,. ;ote that the tube carrying the static pressure from the reference probe has a # connector in it. :a!e sure initially that the short length of tube branching from the # is bloc!ed. #he pressure tube system )indeed any pressure tube system, will not wor! unless it is sealed. Cith the tunnel off you should chec! that the manometer reads 3ero )the !nob at the top can be used to ad$ust the 3ero if necessary,, and choose the units )right hand button, in which you want it to read the reference Pitot static pressure.
+

In addition to the above items the wind tunnel facility is e0uipped with a digital camera, which you can use to document the various setups and instrumentation you use and several measuring instruments )tape measure, steel ruler, caliper, which can be used to measure the model, its placement and the placement of a probes. #his will be a good time to start your electronic lab boo!, measure and record atmospheric pressures, model dimensions, ta!e and record photos of the various e0uipment noting, as always, your 0uantitative impression of the accuracy of those measurements. C. Instr mentation !or meas rin" t#e press re %istri. tion on t#e '&lin%er s r!a'e "epending on the goals you choose for your measurement you will probably need to measure the surface pressure distribution on the circular cylinder or, more specifically, the distribution of surface pressure coefficient. #he pressure coefficient is defined as Cp ' )p - p,()*U , with p representing the pressure at the cylinder surface, the other symbols being defined above. ;ote that the denominator of the pressure coefficient p - p is what is already being measured by the reference Pitot static system.
+

#he cylinder is instrumented with 38 one millimeter diameter pressure taps at 1. degree intervals, around its circumference at mid span. #hese sense the surface pressure p and transmit it through a series of 3mm outside diameter #ygon tubes to the outside world. #here are two sets of instrumentation for measuring the distribution of p. #he first consists of a large )and rather historic, multitube manometer. Initially all the #ygon tubes are connected to this as! your lab instructor to explain the order. #he multitube manometer is described in appendix + . #he #ygon tubes transmit pressure experienced at each tap on the surface of the cylinder model to the top of each water column in the manometer. If the pressure is lower than atmospheric, the colored water is drawn up the tube. If the pressure is higher the level of the colored water is depressed. #he change in height of the fluid column, measured positive downwards, is used to infer the pressure p )relative to atmospheric, using the hydrostatic e0uation p=watergh. #o form the numerator of the pressure coefficient it is then necessary to measure p relative to atmospheric and subtract it from these readings. #his can be done by using the digital manometer connected to the reference Pitot static, with the Pitot pressure line disconnected. ;ote that, when measuring the pressure coefficient using this system, it is critical to )a, read the datum heights of all the manometer tubes before the tunnel is run )they won2t all be the same,, and )b, ma!e sure you !now the absolute circumferential position of each of the pressure taps )inferred from the connection scheme, and the angle by which the cylinder has been rotated about its axis,. #he principle advantage of the multi tube manometer is that it provides an easily understood way of simultaneously visuali3ing the pressure distribution on the entire circumference of the circular surface. )Photographing the multi tube manometer with the digital camera provides a way of recording 0ualitatively this distribution,. #he disadvantage of this system is that it is difficult to read the change in fluid heights with much accuracy, particularly at lower free stream speeds.

#he second system for sensing the surface pressure distribution on the cylinder is not as visual, but is much more accurate. #his is provided by a second "wyer digital manometer. #he digital manometer can be used directly to measure the numerator of the pressure coefficient by connecting one of the #ygon tubes from the static ports on the circular cylinder to its 2D2 input, and a #ygon tube from the 2#2 in the reference static pressure line to its 2 2 input. In this case, the pressure coefficient can be determined very accurately from the ratio of the simultaneous pressure readings from the two digital manometers. #he only problem with this system is that it only senses the pressure at one point on the cylinder surface. %ou have two options for measuring the whole pressure distribution. %ou can either connect the second digital manometer in turn to each of the static taps on the cylinder surface or, perhaps more easily, you can leave the manometer connected to a single tap and rotate the cylinder to place that tap at all the circumferential locations you want to measure the pressure. #his second scheme has the advantages of allowing you to leave all but one of the pressure taps connected to the multitube manometer, so you can use it to guide your measurement. D. Instr mentation !or meas rin" t#e '&lin%er -a(e / two axis manual traverse gear, described in appendix + is mounted towards the bac! of the wind tunnel test section. :ounted in the traverse gear is a second "wyer model 18. Pitot static probe. #ygon tubes are provided to transmit the pressures sensed by the Pitot static out of the test section, these pressures can be measured using the second "wyer digital manometer. 4cales attached to the hori3ontal and vertical axes of the traverse allow the relative position of the Pitot probe in the cross plane. If you use this probe you will have to use the distance measuring instruments described above to determine its absolute position )both streamwise and in the cross plane, relative to the cylinder. #he most obvious 0uantity that can be measured with this second Pitot static probe is the velocity distribution in the cylinder wa!e. If p o and p represent the Pitot and static pressure sensed by the probe then the local velocity is given by 1ernoulli2s e0uation po p= U , and )more importantly, the ratio of the local velocity to the free
+

stream velocity is given by . "etermining this ratio is thus a matter of using the second digital manometer to determine the difference between the stagnation and static pressure for the Pitot static probe on the traverse, dividing by the )simultaneously measured, pressure from the reference manometer, and then ta!ing the s0uare root of the result. /nother 0uantity that can be measured using the traversing Pitot static probe is the stagnation pressure po which is normally expressed using the coefficient Cpo=)po p,( )po p). /s you !now from /EE 3.14, the stagnation pressure in inviscid steady flow remains constant, and e0ual to its free stream value. /s you can see, the stagnation pressure coefficient will remain 1 in this case. #he stagnation pressure always drops as a result of viscous effects such as are encountered inside the edge of a turbulent wa!e, li!e that shed by the cylinder, and thus here the stagnation pressure coefficient will always be less than 1. #his property of the stagnation pressure coefficient ma!es it a very good

indicator of the edge and extent of a wa!e. =or example, a reasonable definition of the wa!e edge would be the point where Cpo falls to ..7<. #he second digital manometer can be used directly to measure the numerator of the stagnation pressure coefficient by connecting the Pitot port of the traversing probe to its 2D2 input, and a #ygon tube from the 2#2 in the reference static pressure line to its 2 2 input. "ividing two simultaneous measurements with the two digital manometers then gives an accurate estimate of the stagnation pressure coefficient. Ene interesting aspect of using the Pitot static deep inside the cylinder wa!e is that the flow here contains regions of flow reversal and high turbulence where the validity of this techni0ue may be brought into 0uestion )refer bac! to your class notes on velocity and pressure measurement techni0ues,. %ou can therefore also use this set up to see what happens to a Pitot static measurement in such a region.

3. #heory
A. I%eal !lo- mo%el o! !lo- past a 'ir' lar '&lin%er In /EE 3.14 you studied irrotational incompressible flow past a circular cylinder without circulation )see 1ertin, +..1, section 3.13,. 4uch a flow can be generated by adding a uniform flow, in the positive x direction to a doublet at the origin directed in the negative x direction. Ef particular interest here is the pressure coefficient distribution predicted by the theory, given by the expression Cp=1 4sin+, where is angle measured from the bac! of the cylinder as shown in figure 4 . #his inviscid pressure distribution is unrealistic in a number of ways, not least that it implies a 3ero drag. Fowever, in this experiment you will have an opportunity to ma!e your own comparison with, and $udgment of, this theory. +. Determinin" t#e press re %ra" !rom s r!a'e)press re meas rements #he drag on a real cylinder is, of course, not 3ero and can be estimated from a measured pressure distribution as follows. >onsider an element of the cylinder surface of length ds ' rd as shown in figure 4 . #he force per unit span on the element due to a pressure normal to the element is

#he drag component of this force is the component acting in the direction of the free stream velocity

#he integral of this around the cylinder circumference gives the total drag on the cylinder per unit span d.

;ow, it is conventional to wor! in terms of the non dimensional drag coefficient,

and pressure coefficient,

where D is the cylinder diameter. Ce therefore have,

the second integral is 3ero, giving,

#his integration can be done numerically using 4impson2s or the trape3ium rule or by plotting C cos vs. and measuring the area under the curve. ;ote that is measured in radians.
p

#he above estimate of C ta!es account only of the pressure drag on the cylinder. In calculating this, however, it is fairly accurate, the main source of error probably being the numerical integration.
d

4. Practical Cor!
A. /ettin" !amiliar -it# e0 ipment #he following procedures are designed to help you get a feel for the open $et tunnel, the cylinder model and the instrumentation. It is important that each student get a hands on feel of how to use the apparatus and what its capabilities and problems are. =eel free to play with the apparatus at this stage, but don2t forget to record any results, thoughts, ideas or concerns in the logboo!.

/fter reading the above chec! through )and list in your logboo!G, the various items of e0uipment available. Hoo! at each one and ma!e sure as a group you

have understood the various ways each one could and should be used. In particular, ma!e sure you have agreement on the various tubing arrangements needed to measure the various pressure coefficients )record theseG,. >hec! out the traverse. =igure out how you are going to determine the absolute locations )x, y and z, of the traversing probe relative to the cylinder center if you use the traverse. Fow solid is the traverseG how parallel is it to the cylinder axisG how solid is the probe mountG try agreeing on )and recordingG, an uncertainty estimate for the position accuracy of the probe. ;ote that to move the traverse hori3ontally re0uires having someone on the other side of the test section. 4ince you can2t move from one side to the other when the flow is on, thin! about the organi3ation this will re0uire. :easure and record the dimensions and position )x,y,z, of the cylinder model relative to the test section and record your results. "o the same for the reference Pitot static. >hec! that the reference Pitot static is pointing in the right direction. "etermine the relationship between the pressure taps on the cylinder surface, the tubes of the multitube manometer and the cylinder angle, so you !now where any given port is at any angle depending on what you end up choosing to do you might want to explain this in the logboo!. #ry moving the cylinder in the streamwise direction. >hec! the 3eros on the digital manometers. Fow about recording atmospheric conditions and inserting photos of e0uipment into your log boo!, if you haven2t done these alreadyG :a!e sure all items are secure in the tunnel. Fave the #/ )or group members experienced from experiment 1, show you how to turn on the facility and change the speed. );ote that the speed should be changed 4HECH% and I&/"J/HH%, otherwise it will damage the tunnel control system and render the facility unusable., >hec! out and record the maximum speed of the tunnel and note in the logboo! )compute the max. cylinder &eynolds number alongside,. Hoo! at the multi tube manometer, ma!e sure you are comfortable with what it shows and that your group is in agreement on how you might use it )0ualitative only, how to ta!e photos, 0uantitative, how to measure the pressure changes,. Hower the speed to half maximum )this will correspond to one 0uarter of the maximum reference Pitot static pressure thin! about 1ernoulli,. >hec! the multitube againG does it ma!e senseG ma!e an )at least mental, estimate of its accuracy. >onnect the second digital manometer up as though you were going to measure the pressure coefficient on the cylinder surface. /gree on a number for accuracy of the two manometer systems. #ry rotating the cylinder to measure the pressure somewhere else. #ry swapping tubes instead. >onnect up the second digital manometer to the traversing Pitot static )a, as though to measure velocity and )b, as though to measure the stagnation pressure coefficient. "o the readings ma!e senseG is the stagnation pressure coefficient 1 with the traversing probe in the free stream, with what errorG #ry moving the probe about. Fow accurately can you find the wa!e edgeG #hin! about the flow over the cylinder. Is there any real reason to suppose the flow is very two dimensionalG is there any way you could chec! that presumption with the traversing probeG >an you thin! of any reasons why the flow over the

cylinder, or in its wa!e, might be asymmetric top to bottomG >an you thin! of any way of chec!ing thatG >an you thin! of any way to chec! whether the traversing probe is upsetting the wa!e flow it might be used to measureG %ou might want to note your concerns and ideas in the logboo!. +. Desi"nin" an% implementin" an e1periment Ence the group is familiar with the e0uipment, what its flaws are and what it can do, it is time to design your test. >hoose goals from the following list. )%ou may also modify these goals or choose a different goal of your own, but that goal must be scientific, and clearly stated in the logboo!,. ;ote that, as always, your grade does not depend upon how many goals you achieve, but on how complete, careful, scientific and documented your wor! is. =or example, if you only complete one goal, but you document a systematic, detailed, and careful study, you have done well. In addition your grade does not depend upon how close your results agree with any other pre conceived ideas of what the answers should be. Instead it depends upon how open mindedly and ob$ectively you assess your results, their limitations, and what they appear to show. 1e aware that you will be expected to come up with formal uncertainty estimates for the basic measurements you ma!e )measurement position, velocity, pressure coefficient, stagnation pressure coefficient,. Goal 1 "esign, conduct, and implement a series of tests to determine the pressure distribution and drag coefficient on the circular cylinder at a fixed &eynolds number, and compare with inviscid theory. !uggestio"s %our drag estimate can be compared with data from figure 3 . #he pressure distributions could additionally be compared with the sub and supercritical experimental results in figure + . >hec!ing some pressure measurements, 0ualitatively or 0uantitatively, with an independent system )you have two, would provide assurance that they are about right. /naly3e and plot your results as you go. ;ote and re measure any funny loo!ing points )!eep both sets of measurements,. 5eep careful documentation of what you do, why you do it, set up characteristics, expected results, unexpected results, analysis, photos and plots in the electronic lab boo! as you proceed. %ou might be wise to chec! out the spanwise uniformity of the flow at one &eynolds number, using the traverse. Chether or not it is uniform may be an important thing to tal! about when presenting your results in your report. /nalysis should include uncertainty estimates for all results. #his maybe a challenge for the drag estimate, but remember that integrating the drag is a lot li!e ta!ing a average of many samples as is done in the class example on uncertainty. Goal # "esign, conduct, and implement a series of tests to determine the shape and form of the circular cylinder wa!e at a fixed &eynolds number. !uggestio"s Imagine the wa!e as a three dimensional structure trailing behind the cylinder. "iscuss in your group where you want to measure the location of the wa!e edge. "o you want to measure velocity )more easily discussed and related to theory, or stagnation pressure coefficient )more accurate for determining the wa!e edge,G "o you want to measure more than the wa!e edge, e.g. profiles across the wa!e, +" cross section through the wa!e )you could plot contours of the measured 0uantity then,, so you can see the behavior of the Pitot static in the highly turbulent region near the wa!e center. "on2t

forget to try and characteri3e whether the probe is influencing the probe it is trying to measure, whether the wa!e is symmetric. If you have already measured the pressure distribution at the centerline, the wa!e shape here would be particularly important. /naly3e and plot your results as you go. &e measure any funny loo!ing points. 5eep careful documentation of what you do, why you do it, set up characteristics, expected results, unexpected results, analysis, photos and plots in the electronic lab boo! as you proceed. %ou might be wise to chec! out the spanwise uniformity of the flow at one &eynolds number, using the traverse. Chether or not it is uniform may be an important thing to tal! about when presenting your results in your report. /nalysis should include uncertainty estimates for all results. Goal $ =ind out the effect of &eynolds number on drag and(or pressure distribution and(or wa!e shape and compare with data from figures + and 3 . !uggestio"s #hree wisely chosen &eynolds numbers maybe enough. &emember the &eynolds numbers goes as the s0uare root of the reference Pitot static pressure. 4ee suggestions under goals 1 and +. Goal % =ind out if this cylinder model undergoes a drag crisis, and the &eynolds number or range of &eynolds numbers over which that occurs. ;ote that you won2t be able to reach a &eynolds number of 4..,... with the open $et wind tunnel, but )as discussed at the end of section 1, this should not be necessary with the free stream turbulence present in this facility. !uggestio"s Chen hunting through &eynolds numbers for the drag crisis, 0ualitative measurements of the surface pressure distribution on the cylinder may be enough to indicate the state of the flow. If you find a range of &eynolds numbers you should then start to worry )a, if it doesn2t agree with figure 3, why notG or )b, if it does agree with figure 3, should itG Is the flow really +"G symmetricG can you chec! itG is the tunnel 0uality an issue ) appendix + ,G %ou would be wise to firm up your conclusion that the flow is subcritical, and supercritical with at least some 0uantitative measurements. 5eep careful documentation of what you do, why you do it, set up characteristics, expected results, unexpected results, analysis, photos and plots in the electronic lab boo! as you proceed. /nalysis should include uncertainty estimates for all results. #his maybe a challenge for any drag estimates, but remember that integrating the drag is a lot li!e ta!ing a average of many samples as is done in the class example on uncertainty. #he group should leave few minutes at the end of the lab period for discussion and to chec! that everybody has everything they need. /s a group go through the exit chec!list.

B. &ecommended &eport =ormat

1efore starting your report read carefully all the re0uirements in appendix 1. Title page /s detailed in appendix 1 .

Introduction 1egin this section by stating logical ob$ectives of the experiment that best fit how your particular investigation turned out and what you actually discovered. In the second half of this section explain in summary form what was done to achieve these ob$ectives )mention in broad terms what types of analysis were done as well as the experiment itself,. / good start here is K#o attain these ob$ectives, experiments were....K. #he purpose of this is to tell the reader enough so that he or she !nows what to expect in the rest of the report. Iiving the reader Kadvance warningK li!e this ma!es the report much clearer and easier to read. =ollow this with a bac!ground to the technical area of the test and(or the techni0ues. #his material can be drawn from the manual )no copying,, classes or even better, other sources you have trac!ed down yourself. #his could be a good place to describe the basis of the inviscid theory for flow past the cylinder. =inish with a summary of the layout of the rest of the report. Apparatus and Instrumentation In this section you need to describe each item of e0uipment and explain how it was used. )If it helps, feel free to use a separate subsection for each item., 1egin with the wind tunnel giving details that are relevant to this experiment )e.g. closed circuit, contraction ratio, dimensions and shape of test section, open $et test section, 0uality of flow )see appendix + ,, speed range, reference Pitot static used to monitor flow speed and its set up, temperature monitoring, manometer characteristics and model numbers etc.,. "on2t omit obvious things, e.g. the name of the wind tunnel. #hen describe the model. Important details areL its shape and dimensions, how and where it was mounted, what it is made of, how it is instrumented )including the multitube manometer,. =inally give the details of the Pitot static tube )si3e, shape, where and how it was mounted, traverse gear, how it was used,. It is often much easier to describe clearly the si3e, shape and relative positions of ob$ects if you include a diagram or dimensioned and labeled photo. / picture of some !ind, with dimensions, of the test section showing the model, Pitot static tube and reference Pitot static is definitely needed. %ou could also put the coordinate system you are going to use later in presenting results on this figure, and describe it in the text )some suggested words for doing this can be found in the &ecommended &eport =ormat section of Experiment 4 ,. Ether diagrams or plots )some of which you may wish to copy from the manual, may ma!e this section easier to write and read. "iagrams of tubing arrangements may help explain what you measured and why. Jncertainties in primary measurements should be included in this section. Results and Discussion / good way to open this section is to briefly state what raw measurements were made and at what conditions and why the why should fit in with your ob$ectives )e.g.

K:easurements of static pressure coefficient on the cylinder surface were used to determine...K,. #hen introduce the plots )e.g. K&esults are presented in figures ....K, and then describe any variables and parameters used in them )e.g. K#he coordinate system used is shown in figure .... x is measured downstream from .... "istances have been normali3ed on .... Melocities J have .... pressures are presented as coefficients >p, defined as.... where....K etc.,. ;ext refer to uncertainty estimates for the parameters. ;ow describe each of the plots in turn, using a separate paragraph for each. 4tate what each plot shows )e.g. Ksurface pressure coefficient distributions at two &eynolds numbers compared with a theoretical distribution computed assuming unbounded potential flowK,. :ention, and attempt to explain, any imperfections in the experiment revealed by these data )e.g. are the measured distributions symmetrical, is the pressure coefficient at the stagnation point 1,. "escribe the shapes of the curves. #o help in your discussion you can then introduce any auxiliary measurements that have a bearing on the flow )e.g. the unexpected form of the pressure distribution on the cylinder may be partly explained by three dimensionality in the flow. =igure GG shows a spanwise profile measured in the cylinder wa!e at x&D'...K,. :a!e sure your results and discussion include )and $ustify, the conclusions you want to ma!e and that those conclusions connect with your ob$ectives. /lso remember to include any uncertainty estimates in derived results. %ou should reference a table )copied out of your Excel file, or appendix containing the uncertainty calculation. Con'l sions 1egin this section with one or two sentences summari3ing what you did )e.g.K 4urface pressure and .... measurements have been made at .... in ....K,. #hen draw your conclusions which should be numbered, each starting on a separate line. :ost conclusions should be a single sentence that summari3es an important piece if information which you did not !now before the experiment )and that has already been explained in the &esults and "iscussion,. :a!e sure you include conclusions that address the same points as your ob$ectives, if not, change the ob$ectives.

8. &eferences
1. 1ertin @.@., +..+, 'erody"amics (or )"gi"eers , 4th edition, Prentice Fall. +. Panton &.H., +..B, *"compressi+le ,low, Ciley. 3. von 56rm6n #., 1783, 'erody"amics, :cIraw Fill, pp. 8< ?+, <B. 4. van "y!e :., 17<+, '" 'l+um o( ,luid -otio", Parabolic Press, pp. +< 31.