AP-T107/08

Bitumen Emulsions
AUSTROADS TECHNICAL REPORT


Bitumen Emulsions


Bitumen Emulsions
First Published August 2008




Austroads Inc. 2008

This work is copyright. Apart from any use as permitted under the Copyright Act 1968,
no part may be reproduced by any process without the prior written permission of Austroads.




Bitumen Emulsions
ISBN 978-1-921329-80-7


Austroads Project No. TT1220

Austroads Publication No. APT107/08



Project Manager
J ohn Worrall

Prepared by
Christina Chin



Published by Austroads Incorporated
Level 9, Robell House
287 Elizabeth Street
Sydney NSW 2000 Australia
Phone: +61 2 9264 7088
Fax: +61 2 9264 1657
Email: austroads@austroads.com.au
www.austroads.com.au




Austroads believes this publication to be correct at the time of printing and does not accept
responsibility for any consequences arising from the use of information herein. Readers should
rely on their own skill and judgement to apply information to particular issues.




Bitumen Emulsions




























Sydney 2008

Austroads profile
Austroads purpose is to contribute to improved Australian and New Zealand transport outcomes
by:
providing expert advice to SCOT and ATC on road and road transport issues
facilitating collaboration between road agencies
promoting harmonisation, consistency and uniformity in road and related operations
undertaking strategic research on behalf of road agencies and communicating outcomes
promoting improved and consistent practice by road agencies.

Austroads membership
Austroads membership comprises the six state and two territory road transport and traffic
authorities, the Commonwealth Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development
and Local Government, the Australian Local Government Association, and New Zealand Transport
Agency. It is governed by a council consisting of the chief executive officer (or an alternative
senior executive officer) of each of its eleven member organisations:
Roads and Traffic Authority New South Wales
Roads Corporation Victoria
Department of Main Roads Queensland
Main Roads Western Australia
Department for Transport, Energy and Infrastructure South Australia
Department of Infrastructure, Energy and Resources Tasmania
Department of Planning and Infrastructure Northern Territory
Department of Territory and Municipal Services Australian Capital Territory
Department of Infrastructure, Transport, Regional Development and Local Government
Australian Local Government Association
New Zealand Transport Agency

The success of Austroads is derived from the collaboration of member organisations and others in
the road industry. It aims to be the Australasian leader in providing high quality information, advice
and fostering research in the road sector.


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SUMMARY
This is a literature review on overseas and Australian experiences in using bitumen emulsions for
road surfacings. Emphasis is placed on reviewing emulsion road trials conducted in Australia and
New Zealand between 1993 and 1997. Specifically, the review focussed on whether the use of
emulsions could:
extend the sealing season
lower the energy consumption
reduce the emission of greenhouse gases
provide an alternative to the use of hot cutback bitumen.
Bitumen emulsions are made up of three components: bitumen, water and emulsifier. It is a two
phase system consisting of two immiscible liquids. The emulsifying agents maintain the bitumen
droplets in a stable suspension and control the breaking time (time taken for the water phase to
separate from the bitumen phase and evaporate) of the emulsion.
The predominant use of bitumen emulsions in Australia is for sealing works. They are an
alternative treatment to hot cutback bitumen on low to medium trafficked roads during the cooler
months. Bitumen emulsions are less preferred to hot cutback bitumen because:
hot cutback bitumen is more cost-effective as it eliminates the manufacturing process
between the refinery and road
bitumen emulsions have run off (low viscosity) problems
of the delay between application and opening to traffic to ensure that the emulsion has
broken
of the lack of knowledge and understanding of emulsion technology.
Current high binder content emulsions, emulsified polymer modified binders (PMEs), tailored
emulsifying agent etc. have managed to overcome some of the problems mentioned above. High
binder content bitumen emulsions address the run off and slow breaking problems. PMEs provide
the same elastic properties as conventional PMBs as well as having the decreased viscosities and
low spraying temperatures of an emulsion. PMEs, with their lower viscosity, are better than
conventional PMBs at coating the sealing aggregate and so reduce the risk of early aggregate
stripping problems. The lower operating temperatures also reduce the risk of potential damage to
the product during storage and handling. High binder content PMEs also reduce the amount of
polymer additives and use up to 30% less water.
Solvents such as kerosene are used as cutback and are added to bitumen to decrease the
viscosity of the binder, hence making it more workable. Unlike bitumen emulsions which are water
based, cutback bitumen needs to be kept at high temperatures (160180 C). The evaporation of
kerosene is an energy intensive process and it emits greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide
and volatile organic compounds which are harmful to the environment. Staff working under such a
high temperature environment are exposed to a variety of safety hazards such as burns,
explosions, etc. The fumes and odours released from the solvent have also been known to affect
the workers making them feel nauseous.
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In conclusion, it was observed that the demand for emulsions is increasing overseas. The main
reasons for this are the possibility of extending the sealing season, lower energy consumption and,
particularly, the elimination of kerosene use which is seen as detrimental to the environment.
Reduction of greenhouse gases is often cited as a major advantage of emulsions but some studies
have suggested that the benefits may be reduced because of the energy involved in emulsion
production and the transport of the extra water incorporated in emulsions to the work site.
Emulsions can provide an alternative to the use of hot cutback bitumen but currently in Australia it
is only used as an alternative treatment during the cooler months. Emulsions is not preferred in
Australia because of the loss of aggregate and tight traffic control required at the early stage of
sealing.


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CONTENTS
1 INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................ 1
1.1 History............................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Development from Anionic to Cationic............................................................................ 2
1.3 Development from Low to High Residue........................................................................ 2
2 EMULSION CHEMISTRY............................................................................................... 3
2.1 Breaking of Bitumen Emulsions...................................................................................... 4
2.2 Curing of Bitumen Emulsions ......................................................................................... 4
2.3 Factors Affecting Breaking and Curing........................................................................... 4
3 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS ....................................................................................... 6
3.1 High Bitumen Content..................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Emulsifier........................................................................................................................ 7
3.3 Particle Size Distribution................................................................................................. 7
3.4 Applications .................................................................................................................... 7
4 POLYMER MODIFIED BITUMEN EMULSIONS............................................................ 8
4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................... 8
4.2 Manufacture of Polymer Modified Bitumen Emulsions ................................................... 8
4.3 Applications .................................................................................................................... 9
4.3.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 9
4.3.2 Sprayed Seal Binder in High Stress Areas (New Zealand) ............................ 10
4.4 Advantages................................................................................................................... 11
4.4.1 Improved Properties ....................................................................................... 11
4.4.2 Comparison with Non-emulsified PMBs ......................................................... 12
4.4.3 Environmental Aspects................................................................................... 12
4.5 Disadvantages.............................................................................................................. 12
5 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON BETWEEN HOT CUTBACK AND BITUMEN
EMULSIONS ................................................................................................................ 13
5.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 13
5.2 Occupational Health and Safety................................................................................... 13
5.3 Energy Consumption.................................................................................................... 13
5.4 Greenhouse Effect........................................................................................................ 13
6 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE OF BITUMEN
EMULSIONS ................................................................................................................ 16
7 OVERSEAS EXPERIENCE.......................................................................................... 17
7.1 New Zealand................................................................................................................. 17
7.1.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 17
7.1.2 Applications .................................................................................................... 17
7.1.3 Other Technical Issues................................................................................... 19
7.2 Europe.......................................................................................................................... 19
7.2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 19
7.2.2 French Road Network..................................................................................... 19
7.2.3 Applications .................................................................................................... 20
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7.3 South Africa.................................................................................................................. 21
7.3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 21
7.3.2 Emulsion Treated Bases................................................................................. 21
7.3.3 Other Applications .......................................................................................... 22
8 CHALLENGES FACED IN AUSTRALIA ..................................................................... 23
8.1 Introduction................................................................................................................... 23
8.2 Road Trials ................................................................................................................... 23
8.2.1 Precoating of Aggregate on Site with Low Binder Content Emulsions ........... 23
8.2.2 Precoating of Aggregate in the Quarry with Low Binder Content
Emulsions ....................................................................................................... 24
8.2.3 Sprayed Seals Using High Binder Content Emulsions ................................... 25
8.2.4 Weather Conditions ........................................................................................ 26
8.2.5 Priming Grade Emulsions............................................................................... 27
8.2.6 Primersealing Grade Emulsions ..................................................................... 27
8.3 Other problems faced................................................................................................... 28
8.3.1 Storage and Handling..................................................................................... 28
8.3.2 Stability of Emulsions in Cold Conditions ....................................................... 28
9 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................... 29

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TABLES
Table 1.1 : Seven highest users of bitumen emulsions ...................................................... 1
Table 4.1: Trial site details and performance.................................................................. 11
Table 5.1: 1992 emission estimates (CO
2
equivalent)..................................................... 14
Table 5.2: Carbon dioxide generated per tonne of sealing bitumen sprayed.................. 15
Table 7.1: Emulsion use on NZ State Highways ............................................................. 18
Table 8.1: Site details and inspection report.................................................................... 27


FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of a bitumen emulsion....................................................... 3
Figure 3.1: Relationship between viscosity and residue content in the emulsion............... 6
Figure 4.1: Post addition of latex........................................................................................ 8
Figure 4.2: Co-milling of latex............................................................................................. 9
Figure 4.3: Latex addition to bitumen.................................................................................. 9
Figure 7.1: Total consumption of bitumen in South Africa................................................ 21


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1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 History
Emulsions were first developed at the beginning of the 20
th
century. The use of bitumen emulsions
for road construction only started in the 1920s (Asphalt Institute & AEMA 2006). The earliest uses
of bitumen emulsions were mainly in sprayed sealing applications and to prevent dust from the
increasing traffic (Le Coroller 1999).
After World War II, the use of bitumen emulsions was greatly reduced. This was a result of the
increasing use of hot mix asphalt to counteract rising traffic loads and volumes. However, this did
not persist and bitumen emulsions began to experience an increase in demand. Some of the
contributing factors were (Asphalt Institute & AEMA 2006):
The energy crisis in the early 1970s prompted the conservation of oil by the U.S Federal
Energy Administration. Bitumen emulsions became favoured over hot cutback bitumen since
they contain less cutter and use less energy.
There were rising concerns about atmospheric pollution. Bitumen emulsions emit little to no
greenhouse gases.
Bitumen emulsions are capable of coating damp aggregate surfaces which reduces the
amount of fuel required for heating and drying of aggregates.
Cold materials are able to be used at remote sites.
Emulsions can be used on slightly distressed pavements.
At the end of the 20th century, the world production of bitumen emulsions was estimated to exceed
7 million tonnes (Le Coroller 1999). Table 1.1 shows United States as the main producer while
France is the highest user of bitumen emulsions. Today, an estimated 5-10% of the world paving
grade bitumen is used for emulsions and the United States remains the worlds largest emulsion
producer (J ames 2006).
Table 1.1 : Seven highest users of bitumen emulsions
Country Annual production of
bitumen
(Millions of metric
tonnes)
Consumption per head
(kg/ person)
Bitumen used in
emulsions (%)
United States 2.26 8.53 4.8
France 1.01 17.4 24.8
Mexico 0.51 5.65 37.2
Brazil 0.41 2.54 18.8
Spain 0.35 9.00 17.5
Japan 0.32 2.63 5.1
United Kingdom 0.16 2.72 4.7
Source: Le Coroller (1999)

When bitumen emulsions were first introduced in Australia, they were very much overshadowed by
the hot cutback bitumen process which was more economical. The performance of bitumen
emulsions was affected by a lack of understanding and the state of bitumen technology at that
time.
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1.2 Development from Anionic to Cationic
The continuing development of emulsifying agent used for detergent has contributed significantly to
the improvement of bitumen emulsions.
In the early days, the standard type of emulsions used in Australia were anionic with a bitumen
content of 55% (Austroads 2003). In 1958, cationic emulsions were introduced in Australia six
years after they had been used in France (AAPA 2004).
Cationic emulsions became increasingly popular in the 1950s due to their affinity to a wider range
of mineral aggregates. They promote better adhesion of bitumen to aggregate (mostly
electronegative aggregates) and are effective for use in all weather conditions (Gorman et al.
2004).
1.3 Development from Low to High Residue
Two of the main concerns faced by many roadmakers when using bitumen emulsions were the run
off problem and the necessary delay during breaking.
Bitumen emulsions have low viscosities at ambient temperatures and are capable of running off
the pavement surface. They are highly susceptible to being washed off the pavement during
inclement weather should this occur soon after spraying. Good weather conditions during
construction and relatively high pavement temperatures for at least one month are necessary to
ensure that adequate curing of the emulsions is achieved (Austroads 2003).
High residue bitumen emulsions were introduced to overcome the two problems mentioned above.
They were developed based on the knowledge that emulsion breaks and cures faster as the
percentage of water is decreased. These types of emulsions soon became the mainstay of sealing
in Europe, South Africa and many parts of the United States (Austroads 2003). In 1988, Australia
incorporated these products in the Australian Standard, AS 1160 (Standards Australia 1988). High
binder content emulsions contain a minimum binder content of 67% as compared to the
conventional bitumen emulsions with 60% or less.
Over the years, the development of high residue emulsions continued to progress. Emulsions with
binder contents as high as 78 to 80% have been used (Remtulla & Swanston 2000).
Bitumen Emulsions



2 EMULSION CHEMISTRY
Bitumen emulsion is made up of three components i.e. bitumen, water and an emulsifying agent. It
is a two phase system consisting of two immiscible liquids. The bitumen is dispersed in the
continuous aqueous phase in the form of discrete globules, typically 0.1 to 50 m in diameter. It is
held in suspension by electrostatic charges stabilised by an emulsifier.
Emulsifiers consist of polar (hydrophilic) and non-polar (hydrophobic) groups. This unique
arrangement enables the emulsifier to orientate itself amongst the bitumen soluble group which is
hydrophobic and the water soluble group which is hydrophilic.
The functions of an emulsifier in the bitumen emulsion system are (Gorman et al. 2004):
to reduce the interfacial tension between bitumen and water to form an emulsion
to stabilise the emulsion and provide long and short range stabilising forces when it is cooled
to support the adhesion between bitumen and mineral aggregates.
There are two fundamental types of emulsifiers available, anionic and cationic. Anionic emulsifiers
were the first to be developed in the 1920s. They were derived from fatty acids - a long
hydrocarbon chain that terminates with a carboxyl group which is activated in an alkaline solution
(Gorman et al. 2004). These emulsions are negatively charged. Hence, they work most effectively
with positively charged aggregates, such as limestone and marble. Anionic emulsifiers also work
best in warm and dry conditions.
Cationic emulsifiers are fatty amine salts derived from reaction of fatty amines (e.g. diamines,
imidazolines and amidoamines) with acidic solution. They are positively charged and work well in
all kinds of weather conditions. This emulsion reacts effectively with predominantly negatively
charged aggregates, giving a more rapid break and better adhesion. This is an important
characteristic which enables the cationic emulsion to be less dependent on the evaporative
breaking mechanism. Figure 2.1 depicts a schematic diagram of a cationic emulsion. The bitumen
droplet is suspended in the continuous water phase by the positively charged emulsifier.
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Bitumen droplet
(dispersed phase)
Water
(continuous phase)
Emulsifying agent
(positive surface charge)
Figure 2.1: Schematic diagram of a bitumen emulsion
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2.1 Breaking of Bitumen Emulsions
For the bitumen emulsion to behave like a binder, the water phase must be separated from the
bitumen phase. This phenomenon is termed breaking. Breaking commences once the emulsion
comes into contact with the aggregates, gravels or pavement surface. If the charges on the
bitumen particles are opposite to that of the aggregate surface, electrical attraction will take place.
The bitumen particles will then start to migrate to the aggregate surface. This migration will cause
the emulsion to break and start to separate into its original components: water and bitumen
(Gaughan 1992).
The breaking of emulsion is highly dependent upon the type and concentration of the emulsifying
agent. Various methods have been designed to accelerate the breaking process. Some of the
techniques are (Remtulla & Swanston 2000):
Use of surface sprayed chemical breaker. This method applies a layer of anionic mist after
the application of emulsion and before the aggregate is spread. However, this method poses
skinning problems, especially with modified bitumen emulsions, and the modification of
spraying equipment is fairly expensive.
Use of anionic precoat solution. This method precoats the aggregate with a mild anionic
solution prior to the application of the emulsion. This is to ensure a uniform break between
the aggregate-emulsion interface.
Use of an in-line blended breaking agent. This method involves in-line blending of a chemical
additive to break the emulsion within a controlled time frame. The additive neutralises the pH
of the emulsion, causing the water phase to separate/ break and promotes the formation of
cohesive bonds. This technique allows a more flexible breaking system with time.
2.2 Curing of Bitumen Emulsions
The emulsion is fully cured when the water and/ or any volatile oils have evaporated and cohesive
bond strength is established between the binder and aggregate. The water can be removed not
only through evaporation, but also by pressure (rolling) and by absorption into the aggregate.
Water evaporation is highly dependent upon the weather conditions, and it is difficult for bitumen
emulsions to properly cure when subjected to high humidity, low temperatures or rainfall soon after
application (Asphalt Institute & AEMA 2006).
2.3 Factors Affecting Breaking and Curing
Some of the factors affecting the breaking and curing process of bitumen emulsions include
(Asphalt Institute & AEMA 2006):
Weather conditions breaking favours warmer temperatures. However hot weather can
cause skin formation on sprayed seals, trapping water and delaying curing. Recently, some
chemical formulations had been developed to break rapidly at cool temperatures.
Surface area higher aggregate surface area, particularly excessive fines or dirty
aggregates, speeds up the breaking of emulsion.
Emulsion and aggregate temperature high temperatures favour breaking, especially in
micro-surfacing.
Type and amount of emulsifier determines the breaking characteristics of a seal and the
mixing grade emulsions.
Water absorption a rough textured, porous aggregate absorbs water faster, hence
speeding up the setting time.
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Aggregate moisture content high moisture content will slow the curing process as longer
time is required for evaporation.
Mechanical forces slow moving traffic helps to force the water out of the emulsion to attain
mix cohesion, cure and stability.
Surface chemistry the intensity of the aggregate surface charge and the emulsifier charge
plays an important role in the setting rate.
Bitumen Emulsions



3 CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS
3.1 High Bitumen Content
As discussed in Section 1.3, high residue emulsions are capable of addressing problems
associated with run off and slow breaking. High residue emulsions contain between 78 to 80% of
binder content depending on the bitumen source (Remtulla & Swanston 2000). Figure 3.1 shows
the relationship between the residue content and the viscosity of the emulsion. The viscosity
changes exponentially as the residue content increases.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82
Residue (%)
V
i
s
c
o
s
i
t
y

(
m
P
a
.
s
)
,

2
5
0
C


Figure 3.1: Relationship between viscosity and residue content in the emulsion
With a minimum amount of water in the system, the closely packed emulsion is still mobile enough
to flow as a cluster whilst maintaining the non-Newtonian behaviour. Any small displacement of
water will result in an immediate coalescence and partial inversion of the emulsion, hence driving
the breaking mechanism of the emulsion. The time required for a high residue emulsion to set was
also proven to be one-third of that needed for a conventional low residue emulsion (Remtulla &
Swanston 2000).
Advantages of a high residue emulsion include:
high viscosities which allow for high application rates. Even though at high viscosities, this
material can still be sprayed easily without streaking problems
rapid break because of the low water content. Therefore, traffic can be opened within an hour
of application
greater independence from weather conditions. However it is not applicable when it is raining
or rain is forecast soon after the emulsion application
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the ability to adhere to wet aggregates at low pavement temperatures
allowing the use of high polymer (e.g. styrene- butadiene- styrene, SBS) content by up to 8%
in sealing applications without the risk of aggregate stripping and polymer degradation
being environmentally friendly as it does not contain any cutter, compared to most
conventional low residue emulsions which have a very small amount
being easy to handle and requiring less heating.
3.2 Emulsifier
The emulsifier is the critical element of a bitumen emulsion. It stabilises the emulsion and keeps
the bitumen droplets in a stable suspension. Current innovation focuses on the chemistry of the
emulsifier, especially formulations for slow setting (SS) emulsions (J ames 2006).
Hydrochloric acid is often used to ionise the cationic emulsifier to enhance performance. However,
hydrochloric acid has gradually been replaced by phosphoric acid especially in emulsions for
microsurfacing and cold mix in Europe, Asia and in the United States. Phosphoric acid is claimed
to be more user friendly as it allows a wider range of bitumens to be used in the emulsion (J ames
2006).
3.3 Particle Size Distribution
The stability, application rate, breaking rate and curing rate of an emulsion is highly dependent on
its particle size distribution. The particle size of a bitumenemulsifier system is determined by the
mill shearing effect and residence time.
Various methods have been devised to formulate and adjust the bitumen chemistry in order to
improve the formation and distribution of the bitumen particles by the mill and stabilise the resulting
emulsion. These methods include improving the dispersed phase, doping the binder with
surfactants, tailoring bitumen compositions and optimising the manufacturing conditions
(Baumgardner 2006, Holleran et al. 2005).
3.4 Applications
New emulsions based technologies for road construction and maintenance have been developed
over the last 20 years. These include (J ames 2006):
ultrathin hot mix friction courses with modified emulsion bond coat
spray-applied crack seal with emulsion seal surfacing
scrub seal with modified emulsified binder (scrub seals are a process where the membrane
of the modified binder is pressed or scrubbed into a cracked and aged surface)
glass fibre-reinforced chip seal
trackless tack coats
warm mix asphalt.

Bitumen Emulsions



4 POLYMER MODIFIED BITUMEN EMULSIONS
4.1 Introduction
Emulsified polymer modified bitumen (PMEs) combine the high performance properties of the
polymer with the unique properties of an emulsion such as the decreased viscosities and low
spraying temperatures. This material is environmentally friendly and energy efficient.
Latex is a common additive used for modified emulsions in Australia. It can be added either by post
addition to a CRS emulsion or by direct addition during the milling process of the emulsion. Often,
latex can also be added to the bitumen through specialised equipment to gradually vent the water.
Latex modified bitumen emulsions are generally more stable than a conventional CRS emulsion.
They contain a residual content of 6065% and demonstrate low viscosity behaviour (Remtulla &
Swanston 2000).
Increasing the binder content of emulsions would inevitably increase the viscosity. However, this
poses a problem to the sprayer the sprayer faces difficulty in achieving an even distribution of the
emulsion. Nonetheless, a high binder content PME (containing up to 80% binder) has been
developed. This material has proven to be a success and demonstrates good spraying
performance. According to Read and Whiteoak (2003), the spraying performance of a high residue
PME is as good as a standard bitumen emulsion.
High binder content PME not only reduces the amount of water used by up to 30% but also the
polymer additives. The polymer content could be as low as 1%. The dramatic reduction in water
content is highly beneficial to the evaporative breaking system of the emulsion after application. In
addition, this is also a very cost-effective method in terms of the storage and transport of water
(Read & Whiteoak 2003).
4.2 Manufacture of Polymer Modified Bitumen Emulsions
PME is manufactured through a two stage process. The first step is the manufacture of PMB
followed by the emulsification of PMB. The emulsion type (cationic or anionic) and pH issues are
both very important aspects of the manufacturing process (Holleran 1998).
Various types of PMBs can be emulsified. The polymers used include styrene-butadiene-styrene
(SBS), ethyl vinyl acetate (EVA), polybutadiene (PBD), polyethylene (PE) composites, atactic
polypropylene (ethylene), epoxies, urethanes and tyre rubber (Holleran et al. 2001).
Generally the polymers can be blended with the bitumen via three systems:
1. post addition of latex

+ Latex emulsion Emulsion mixture Emulsion
Figure 4.1: Post addition of latex

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Bitumen Emulsions



2. co-milling of latex by direct injection into the binder emulsion dispersing phase (soap phase)
Soap
(water phase)
Latex
Bitumen PME

Figure 4.2: Co-milling of latex
3. direct latex addition to bitumen
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Steam
+
Figure 4.3: Latex addition to bitumen
The post addition method gives a weak suspension of latex in the emulsion mixture (Figure 4.1). If
the emulsion mixtures were not thoroughly mixed, the inconsistency of the mixture would be seen
when it is applied on the road. Therefore it is essential to ensure thorough mixing is achieved to
attain uniform distribution of the polymer (Remtulla & Swanston 2000). The polymer is more
homogenously distributed in the co-milling process (Figure 4.2) and has a higher viscosity
(Holleran 1998). Nonetheless, the direct addition of polymer into bitumen is claimed to be the most
effective system to ensure complete solubility of polymer prior to emulsification (Figure 4.3).
The addition of ground tyre rubber is not a simple process. Ground solid crumb rubber may be
added as a dry ingredient into slurry mixes through the post addition approach. The rubber will
then become a part of the aggregate phase and mainly acts as a filler. This method is typical in the
United States (Holleran et al. 2001).
In the emulsion design, it is important to acknowledge that latex contains its own emulsifying
system. If this is not considered and compensated for, there will be an increase in mixing times and
slow setting.
4.3 Applications
4.3.1 Introduction
The applications of PMEs for road maintenance have increased considerably over the years. Since
the mid-eighties, polymers have been successfully incorporated into the cationic emulsion system
of bituminous slurry surfacing to produce a quick set which allows opening to traffic relatively
quickly. It was claimed to provide effective rutting and bleeding resistance, minor improvement to
shape correction, improved aggregate retention and moderate resistance to low temperature
cracking (AAPA 2004).
Bitumen Latex emulsion PMB (latex) +
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The typical types of polymer used for slurry surfacing include SBR, EVA, natural rubber and SBS
(AAPA 2004). Although each of the polymers appears to improve the mix performance in critical
applications, there is still insufficient information to grade the polymer types based on performance.
4.3.2 Sprayed Seal Binder in High Stress Areas (New Zealand)
Treatment with conventional polymer modified seals were perceived as suitable to overcome the
aggregate retention problems faced in New Zealand (Patrick 1994). However, this benefit is often
offset by its poor wettability characteristics.
Emulsified PMBs were later claimed to be a better choice of material. Their unique characteristics
are capable of overcoming the wettability problem even in damp and cool conditions and require a
lower temperature (<100 C) for storage and spraying. Further elaboration on the comparison
between PMBs and PMEs is discussed in Section 4.4.2.
In 1993, road trials were conducted by Transit New Zealand and the private sector to test the
emulsified PMBs ability in handling high traffic stresses. The PMEs used contained a high binder
content of 77%, hence reducing the amount of water required. The construction system used the
racked in method with precoated aggregates. The weather condition during construction was in
the range of 1427 C, with pavement temperatures from 16-43 C (Patrick 1994).
Controlled traffic was allowed within 15 minutes of spraying. The thixotropic characteristic of the
emulsion prevented any run-off and the racked in system (with one application of binder followed
by two aggregate sizes) was faster to construct than traditional double/double seals.
The performances from the road trials were recorded four months after construction and before the
onset of winter in New Zealand (Table 4.1).
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Table 4.1: Trial site details and performance
Location Site Traffic (v/d) Aggregate
sizes
Site details Performance
New
Plymouth
Waiwakaiho Hill

Cemetery Hill
16,700

6,400
3/5

4/6
State highway open road

State highway open road
Excellent condition. Slight flushing over
previously flushed areas
Slight flushing in wheeltracks of uphill
lane
Auckland Coronation Road

Hastle Avenue

Roundabout
4,100

600

4,500
3/5

3/5

3/5
Residential with one bend subject
to buses
Industrial and residential traffic
with industrial crossing
33 m diameter servicing
commercial and light industrial
crew
Excellent condition

Slight flushing at industrial crossing but
no aggregate loss
Some chip loss and rollover on inside
wheeltrack, less than 5% of area
Wellington Newlands
Roundabout

Crawford Road
7,500


8,000
3/5


3/5
7m diameter on route to landfill
area

Winding grade on trolley bus route
at 10% gradient
Slight flushing on hand spray areas.
Scabbing on inside wheeltrack close to
centre island. Majority of area in good
condition
Aggregate loss inside the bends with
higher traffic speeds. Major
intersections in excellent condition.
Control double/double seal in good
condition
Christchurch Porter Pass 940 3/5 Area subjected to snow grading in
winter at 9.8% gradient
Excellent condition, double/double seal
in excellent condition
Source: Patrick (1994)

The performances shown above have demonstrated PMEs ability to withstand high traffic stresses
on variable surface texture. Patrick (1994) claimed that the emulsified PMBs are a more efficient
treatment than the conventional New Zealand single/single or double/double seals. PMEs also
reduce the risk of polymer degradation because of the low storage and application temperatures,
and have good adhesion with the aggregates.
4.4 Advantages
4.4.1 Improved Properties
A series of tests was conducted by Holleran et al. (2001) on some American emulsion slurries
under the International Slurry Surfacing Association (ISSA) guidelines. The results showed an
improvement in the properties when using a PME as compared to a standard PMB.
The improved properties were:
higher resistance to stone loss which could potentially reduce the binder content
an increase in cohesion strength which improved the deformation resistance and surface
abrasion resistance (Forbes et al. 2001)
improved crack resistance.
Unlike conventional bitumen emulsions, PMEs are suitable for cool climatic conditions. The
polymer additives improve aggregate adhesion and provide early green strength during curing
(Austroads 2002). Green strength is the cohesive strength developed between the application and
complete cure of the binder (Tredrea 1998).
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4.4.2 Comparison with Non-emulsified PMBs
PMEs have been seen as an alternative to conventional PMBs. Polymers are generally heat
sensitive. Any heating to high temperatures required during spraying, pumping and/ or other
practices can potentially damage the quality of the polymer. The addition of polymers into an
emulsion does not only offer the advantages of a PMB but can also extend the sealing season of a
PME (OHara 1994).
Remtulla and Swanston (2000) report that high binder content PMEs may be the solution to the
polymer degradation problem faced by conventional PMBs transported over long distances. The
quality of PMB delivered through this method could then be guaranteed.
Conventional PMBs are often faced with difficulties attaining an even film thickness offered to the
aggregates because of its high viscosity. PMEs, on the other hand, have a lower viscosity and will
consistently achieve a more even film.
4.4.3 Environmental Aspects
PMEs are safe to use and environmentally friendly. They contain little to no cutter and can be
handled easily. There is potential for the use of recycled tyres and rubber materials in the
manufacturing process of PMEs. This is desirable in terms of cost and the environment.
4.5 Disadvantages
The disadvantage of using PME was the change in morphology/ structure of the composites after
the addition of the polymer (Holleran et al. 2001).
In road trials conducted in Australia and New Zealand using a PME, problems related to the
materials breaking rate were recorded. The cause of the problem was later attributed to the extra
stability built into the emulsion to allow for its transportation from Australia. Gillespie (1994)
concluded that this problem could have been eliminated if it was manufactured in New Zealand.
The breaking rate of this material was also found to be affected when it is used during cold damp
conditions (e.g. pavement temperatures in the range of 5-12 C).
In an email correspondence with Steve Halligan from Main Roads Western Australia on 14 J une
2007, he reported that PMEs are faced with very rapid skinning when the pavement temperature is
in the 30 C range. A thick skin is formed on the surface with the unbroken emulsion underneath.
When aggregate is applied, the skin tears apart and the fluid binder squirts to the top of the
aggregate resulting in pickup of the aggregate.

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5 ENVIRONMENTAL COMPARISON BETWEEN HOT
CUTBACK AND BITUMEN EMULSIONS
5.1 Introduction
Bitumen is mixed with (0-8%) petroleum solvents such as kerosene to produce a cutback bitumen.
The solvent is used to decrease the viscosity of the bitumen, hence making it more workable.
Conversely, bitumen emulsions can be easily applied onto the road surface with or without the use
of any solvent. According to BP bitumen, standard grades of emulsion may contain up to 2% cutter
(Leach 1998).
The increasing pressure on the environment, energy conservation and health related issues have
led to an increased interest in the use of bitumen emulsions. For example, approximately 90% of
the sealed roads in the United Kingdom (UK) were constructed using emulsion (Slaughter 2004).
Government legislation such as the UK Environmental Protection Act of 1990 was enforced to
tighten emission controls from bitumen manufacturing plants (Read & Whiteoak 2003). However, in
Australia, the use of hot cutback bitumen is still the predominant option for most sealing works.
5.2 Occupational Health and Safety
Bitumen emulsions are generally water based and therefore not flammable or explosive. Further
heating is not required during application (although they are manufactured at high temperatures).
Since emulsions have a water based nature, they pose minimal health risk to workers.
Unlike bitumen emulsion, cutback bitumen needs to be kept at high temperatures (160180 C) to
enable it to be sprayed onto the road surfaces. At such elevated temperatures, the flash point of
the solvent at 61.5 C is exceeded i.e. the temperature at which the vapours will burn in the
presence of air and an ignition source (AAPA 2003).
Staffs working in such high temperature environments involving the solvents are exposed to a
variety of safety hazards such as fires, burns and explosions. Burns can occur at any stage of the
working process i.e. blending, transferring of cutback, spraying, etc.
The high volatility of the solvent can cause nuisance fumes and odour during the manufacture,
transportation and the use of the material. Some workers handling it may even feel nauseous.
5.3 Energy Consumption
In Australia, up to 7 or 8% of kerosene or gas-oil is added to the binder. According to the Asphalt
Institute, almost 40,000 kJ of energy is required to process one litre of cutter. In comparison only
1151 kJ of energy is required to process one litre of bitumen emulsion (Holleran & Reed 1996).
Spraying a litre of emulsion at ambient temperature could save up to 99% of energy. Before
cutback was phased out in the USA, the annual energy loss was estimated to be sufficient to fuel
588,000 cars (Holleran & Reed 1996).
5.4 Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and volatile organic compounds (VOC) are major
products from the combustion of fossil fuel. The production, heating and exhaust emitted from the
transportation of both cutback bitumen and emulsions will collectively generate CO
2
into the
atmosphere.
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Various studies have been done on the emission of CO
2
from hot cutback bitumen and bitumen
emulsions. Data from one Australian study is summarised in Table 5.1. This report examined the
emission of CO
2
from the manufacturing, transporting and application process of the binders. The
information in the report was summarised in terms of CO
2
equivalents.
The report found that the emission of CO
2
from both binders did not differ significantly. The main
difference is from the extra energy required to transport water for the emulsion (Leach 1998).
The secondary effect shown in Table 5.1 is related to the higher cost incurred for the use of
bitumen emulsions without any increase in road funding. Consequently, fewer kilometres of road
would be sealed or maintained and the overall condition of the network would decline (Leach
1998).
Table 5.1: 1992 emission estimates (CO2 equivalent)
Process Actual emissions using hot and cutback
bitumen
Hypothetical emissions using only
emulsions
Manufacture:
Bitumen
Cutter & flux

30.22
2.22

32.83
0.02
Total: 32.44 32.85
Transport:
Product
Solvent/ water

10.33
0.18

10.33
4.28
Total: 10.51 14.61
Application:
Evaporation
Heating

-
4.00

-
-
Secondary effects (fewer sealed roads) - 4.2
Grand total 46.95 51.66
Source: Leach (1998)
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Table 5.2: Carbon dioxide generated per tonne of sealing bitumen sprayed

Cutback (kg/tonne) Emulsion (kg/tonne)
Transportation 2 7
Production/ heating 60 16
Total 62 23
Source: Slaughter (2004)

In New Zealand, a similar study was done by Slaughter (2004) (Table 5.2). Since the measurement
units used in both studies were different, a quantitative comparison cannot be performed.
Nonetheless, it can be deduced that the NZ report favoured the use of emulsion over hot cutback
bitumen. Table 5.2 showed that the greenhouse gas emission from the production/ heating of
cutback bitumen greatly outweighed the emulsion. Slaughter (2004) explained that this can be
attributed to the heating needs for NZ sealing conditions and the higher use of hydroelectric power
in their bitumen industry.
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6 FACTORS AFFECTING QUALITY AND PERFORMANCE
OF BITUMEN EMULSIONS
There are many factors which can affect the performance and quality of a bitumen emulsion
including (Asphalt Institute 2006):
Bitumen
chemical properties
hardness/ viscosity
quantity
bitumen particle size in the emulsion.
Emulsifier
concentration and chemical properties.
Manufacturing process
manufacturing conditions such as temperature, pressure, shearing rate, etc.
order of addition
type of equipment used
addition of chemical modifiers and polymers properties and type
water quality hardness.
These factors cannot be graded or singled out as being the most significant. However, they can be
varied to tailor - make an emulsion binder to meet the available aggregates or construction
conditions.
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7 OVERSEAS EXPERIENCE
7.1 New Zealand
7.1.1 Introduction
Traditionally in New Zealand, hot cutback bitumens were predominantly used for chipseal
surfacings (known as sprayed sealing in Australia), while bitumen emulsions were used only for
special small-aggregate seals (Gundersen 2006). More recently, the use of bitumen emulsions
has expanded to include every application used by hot binders, whether straight, cutback or fluxed
bitumen binders (Austroads 2003). The proportion of road network in NZ covered by bitumen
emulsion is between 10-15%, whereas 85-90% is covered by hot or hot cutback binders
(Gundersen 2006).
The road construction and maintenance industry has claimed that bitumen emulsions are a high
performing material which has demonstrated improvements in terms of safe handling and the
environment. The performance related improvements include (Austroads 2003):
greater control over binder application rates
thinner bitumen films required
reduced bitumen oxidation which is related to better aggregate retention, high cracking
resistance in seals and ravelling mixes.
7.1.2 Applications
Sealing
There is an increasing use of bitumen emulsions in NZ. In 1992, 6 - 8% of the total volume of
bitumen in NZ was used in the form of emulsions (Simpson 1992). In 2006, this figure increased to
10 15% (Gundersen 2006).
Single coat and double coat seals are used extensively in NZ, regardless of whether cutback has
been added or not. The use of double coat seals has been considered to be cost effective - when it
is compared to the decreased life of a single coat and with the use of hot bitumen binders. The
benefits of using emulsion seals include (Simpson 1992):
less dependent on weather conditions which allows the sealing season to be extended
less sensitive (greater control) towards application rates
reduced flushing
safer handling and more conducive to the environment
no excessive delays associated with binder heating.
Even though the practice of using bitumen emulsions is on the rise in NZ, contractors were still
faced with a number of limitations (Simpson 1992):
sealing work could not be conducted during unreasonably poor weather i.e. imminent rainfall,
extreme cold weather, etc.
difficulty in establishing optimum binder application rates using the conventional sand circle
method for measuring surface texture. Ultimately, this might cause ravelling of sealing coats
rainfall immediately after sealing might cause run-off polluting the adjacent environment
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bleeding was seen occurring over smooth patches where uniform double/double emulsion
seals had been placed over non-uniform surfaces.
Maintenance
Maintenance applications such as resealing, texturising and void filling with emulsions are on the
rise in NZ. Table 7.1 shows average road length where emulsion used over a period of 10 years
(1991-2001) and data for 2000/2001. However, the use of this application is still very much
influenced by the contractors as they revert to using hot cutback bitumen to facilitate the efficient
use of their equipment.
Similarly, bitumen emulsions used for such purposes demonstrate flexibility in application rates,
are energy efficient and safer to handle. Nonetheless, it is still highly weather dependent and
inappropriate handling of the material can potentially lead to frothing and plugging of spray tips
(Simpson 1992).
Table 7.1: Emulsion use on NZ State Highways
Average yearly length (km)
(1991 2001 data)
Length (km)
(2000/2001 data)
Asphaltic concrete 0.07 0.18
Bicouche/ Sandwich 2.04 13.51
Locking coat seal 0.61 0.00
Open graded emulsion mix 0.57 0.00
Open graded porous asphalt 1.88 1.47
Other material type 0.46 0.00
Prime and seal 0.23 0.00
Single coat seal (1
st
coat) 3.96 0.32
Single coat seal (2
nd
coat) 15.92 8.27
Single coat seal (reseal) 61.35 39.23
Slurry seal 10.78 0.96
Texturising seal 36.80 8.01
Two coat seal (1
st
seal) 7.95 6.26
Two coat seal (2
nd
seal) 0.91 3.77
Two coat seal (reseal) 22.64 52.21
Void fill seal 33.44 46.56
Total road length : 199.61 180.75
Total State Highway network in NZ: 10,600 km (Austroads 2000)
Source: (Austroads 2003)

Tack coat
This is an effective way to apply low rates of bitumen prior to patching or overlay (Austroads 2003).
No problems were cited with the use of emulsion tack coats.
Slurry mixes
The advantages of slurry mixes are:
good control of the finished texture
can be used over flushed areas
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provide good dense seals like those of conventional seals
reduce loose aggregate associated with conventional seals
effective levelling and skid resistance in one layer.
Emulsion mixes
Emulsion mixes which include open graded emulsion mixes and friction courses are appropriate
corrective work for the following reasons (Simpson 1992):
reduce tendency for bleeding
good overlays for flushed areas
safe handling, transport and practical storage
open graded mixes have a slightly elastic nature
economic
good storage stability
versatile.
However, difficulties associated with this application are:
establishing an optimum binder application rate on an open textured surface
ravelling
poor durability.
7.1.3 Other Technical Issues
Emulsions used for the first sealing coat were reported to have poor adhesion to the base course
substrate. This is due to the emulsions inability to penetrate and wet the fine dry dust layer
formed after the final preparation of a base course surface. This can be rectified by using a coarser
base course and altering the technique in order to prepare a clean stone mosaic final surface.
Streaking due to unevenness in the transverse spray distribution may happen when low shear
viscosity emulsion is increased to very high levels to prevent the run-off scenario. The solution for
this is to use two-application seals. A low binder application rate is used for the first application to
avoid run-off and a heavier rate for the second application after the aggregate has been spread.
7.2 Europe
7.2.1 Introduction
Bitumen emulsion was first discovered and used in Europe. Europe remains as the major bitumen
emulsion user (Table 1.1). France utilises almost 50% of the total European production
(Le Coroller nd).
7.2.2 French Road Network
The main reason for the extensive use of bitumen emulsion in France is due to the structure of the
French road network. Three-quarters of the network is made up of secondary and rural roads, and
therefore costs, reliability, flexibility and maintenance become the focal point for the choice of
construction work.
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Building on the experience gained by the French contractors and road authorities on these
secondary roads, the use of bitumen emulsions gradually extended to higher volume traffic roads.
As a result, more sophisticated technology, better defined specifications and mix designs were
developed through collaboration of the private sector and government authorities. An agreement
was signed in 1996 between the Department of Roads and the Association of Road Industries
(USIRF) to develop a method for characterising the behaviour of cold mix asphalt for base courses
(Le Coroller nd).
One of the direct consequences of this joint venture was the development of Grave Emulsion.
Grave emulsion was originally a continuously graded 20 mm material. However, modern
technology has now enabled the material to be reduced in nominal size to 14 mm with a bitumen
content of 4 - 4.5%. The advantages of this material are it can be stockpiled, compacted at ambient
temperature and can be easily laid using conventional paving equipment (Read & Whiteoak 2003).
7.2.3 Applications
Bitumen emulsions are used in various applications in Europe:
Sprayed sealing
Modern surfacings such as the racked in or sandwich sprayed sealing played an important part
in the successful use of emulsion in this application. Le Coroller (1999) observed that the use of
this treatment is comparatively higher in countries with high emulsion production.
The use of emulsion for sprayed sealing in France has increased by 50% between 1967-1997.
One of the reasons for this is the lack of funding for road maintenance which promoted the use of
sprayed sealing instead of asphalt overlay. Another reason is due to the lack of interest for the
traditional surface dressing on the secondary road network and is now treated with three coarse
sprayed seals (Le Coroller nd).
Tack coat
Tack coat is becoming more popular amongst European countries as the wearing courses become
thinner and thinner. Countries such as Italy use 85% of their emulsions for tack coats
(Le Coroller nd).
Slurry surfacing
This technique holds a less significant position in the European market as it is gradually taken over
by micro-surfacing.

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7.3 South Africa
7.3.1 Introduction
Bitumen emulsions are commonly used in South Africa. Almost 27% of the total volume of bitumen
in South Africa is used in the manufacture of bitumen emulsion (Emery & OConnell 1997) (Figure
7.1).

Emulsions
(modified)
5%
Asphalts
52%
Bitumens
21%
Emulsions
(unmodified)
22%








Figure 7.1: Total consumption of bitumen in South Africa
South Africa experiences large climatic variations. It can be extremely hot during summer (over
40 C) and cold during winter (down to 0 C). The warm to hot temperatures are believed to be one
of the main driving forces towards the development of fogsprays and rejuvenators as maintenance
treatments. Cationic emulsion is the most common emulsion type, taking up 65% of the market
share. Nonetheless, the use of anionic emulsion is still very strong (Emery & OConnell 1997)
7.3.2 Emulsion Treated Bases
Emulsion treated bases (ETBs) are widely used. They are made up of reclaimed aggregate treated
with less than 2.5% of bitumen emulsion to produce a base course quality type material. For the
past 30 years, ETBs, as part of the pavement structure in South African roads, have a good
performance record (Verhaeghe et al. 1997).
In 1981, an experimental trial was conducted using the milling and recycling procedure on a
cracked cement treated base. The trial was divided into two sections. Section 1 was treated with a
low percentage emulsion (1.4%), while Section 2 was re-compacted without the addition of any
emulsion. Heavy Vehicle Simulator (HVS) tests were performed and the conclusions were (Horak
et al. 1984):
Section 1 had better compaction, less permanent deformation and greater resistance to
shear forces.
Section 1 had a lower moisture sensitivity as a result of lower permeabilities and the binding
of fines.
Section 1 had a higher resistance to reflective cracking.
Section 1 could withstand heavy traffic for extended periods before being sealed.
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Section 1 required less construction time and eliminated the need for priming. Therefore, it
was a more cost-effective rehabilitation option.
In situ material could be used to its full benefit in Section 1. It eliminated the need to remove
existing materials and the replacement with new materials, thus reducing material costs,
handling costs, haulage costs and time.
Following the 1981 road trials, the Southern African Bitumen Association (Sabita) continued to
invest in the research and development of bitumen emulsions in the road construction industry. For
example:
1988-1992 Sabita sponsored a research program to develop nationally acceptable mixing,
testing and evaluation methodologies for Granular Emulsion Mixes (GEMs)
1993 Sabita launched a design manual equipped with recommended design procedures for
stabilised and modified GEMs
1996 Sabita launched a project to broaden the range of ETB applications as a base course
material in both rural and urban areas by expanding the design scope of the current
technology.
7.3.3 Other Applications
Some of the applications of bitumen emulsions in South Africa include (Emery & OConnell 1997):
fogspray as final spray in new seal construction
fogspray as a maintenance application
stone and sand double/double seal with SBR modified CRS
slurry/ microsurfacing
broom slurry.
Fogspray is a diluted emulsion with 30% binder content often used for new surface sealing
construction. It is generally used as a final spray for double/double seals. This method improves
the adhesion between the second layer aggregate with the seal as well as providing a uniform
surface.
Broom slurry is a 1-2 mm thick slurry applied on an existing asphalt surface, after which all excess
slurry is vigorously broomed off. This practice is to ensure only the voids and interstices of the
asphalt are filled with fine slurry. It uses an anionic stable grade 60% emulsion combined with very
fine dust.
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8 CHALLENGES FACED IN AUSTRALIA
8.1 Introduction
Emulsion sprayed seals have always been treated as an alternative to the use of hot cutback
sealing treatment on low to medium trafficked roads in Australia, especially during the cooler and
wetter periods of the year (May August). The emulsion sprayed seal treatment is not popular
because of a number of factors (Parfitt 1999):
high costs incurred with the manufacturing and transporting of emulsions
prolonged set-up period to achieve good aggregate retention under normal traffic conditions
emulsions are dependent upon the traffic and weather conditions during the initial stages of
construction
lack of knowledge and understanding of the characteristics of this treatment.
In November 1991, the Austroads Bitumen Emulsion Project Group was formed. This group is
made up of representatives from SRAs, ARRB and the industry. In 1992, the Group introduced the
Code of Practice for Bitumen Emulsion which contained information on the proper use and
handling of this material (Gaughan 1992). Later in 2002, it was superseded by the Guide to the
Selection and Use of Bitumen Emulsions (Austroads 2002). One year later, the group produced a
report on The State-of-the-art of Bitumen Emulsions in Australia and New Zealand (Austroads
2003).
A series of road trials were carried out in Australia and New Zealand between 1993 and 1997. The
aims were to develop guidelines, introduce new technologies and identify different applications of
bitumen emulsions based on laboratory and field results. These road trials are further elaborated in
Section 8.2.
8.2 Road Trials
The field trials focused on the following issues:
8.2.1 Precoating of Aggregate on Site with Low Binder Content Emulsions
The concept of precoating aggregate with emulsion is not new. In the past, many problems have
arisen from the instability of transporting and storing emulsion, and the uncertainty of the breaking
and curing time. Trials using high binder content (60-65%) emulsion to precoat the aggregate have
shown a large inconsistency in performance i.e. within a short period of time, stripping was evident;
while some low trafficked roads went eight to ten years without exhibiting any distress.
Between October 1995 and J uly 1996, field and laboratory trials were conducted on aggregates
precoated with cationic low binder content (30-35%) emulsions (Parfitt 1996).
There were two parts to these road trials:
Trial 1: Precoating wet and dry aggregate on site for immediate use
Trial 2: Precoating wet and dry aggregate on site for future use.
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There were no visual differences in the seals observed between the emulsion precoated
aggregates and the standard distillate based precoated material. Good surface mosaic was
evident. The wet aggregates were found to be easily precoated compared to the dry aggregates. A
more uniform film of binder coverage could be achieved with the emulsion based products. As a
result, less aggregate was picked up by traffic. Another observation was that the emulsion
precoated aggregates appeared to have better adhesion than the distillate precoated aggregates.
The advantages of precoating aggregate on site are:
It is environmentally friendly, with little or no hydrocarbon evaporation and reduces the
leaching of distillate based agents into the aground at the stack site.
Damp aggregate can be precoated.
The disadvantages are:
In the event of rainfall, emulsion could be washed off from the stockpiled aggregate before
the break time is achieved.
Emulsion precoated aggregate did not readily exit from the back of the truck.
Higher costs are incurred due to the increase in quantity of emulsion precoat required.
An unkempt aggregate stockpile site is left behind as a result of the excess use of lower
viscosity emulsion during the precoating process.
In trial 2, where the aggregates were precoated on site, restacked and left for future use, free
emulsion had fallen off from the aggregate loader and was found to have hardened and
required mechanical means to clean up the site. Loose lumps of excess binder were also
evident at the site.
8.2.2 Precoating of Aggregate in the Quarry with Low Binder Content Emulsions
In the trial reported in Section 8.2.1, a 30-35% binder content was used. In Parfitt (1997b), an even
lower binder content (15%) of emulsion was used to precoat wet aggregates at the quarry.
In this trial, wet aggregates were precoated at the quarry, transported to the site and stacked for
three months before being used. During the stockpiling period, there was extensive rainfall for two
months. The aggregates were inspected and found to be dry on the inside. The precoating material
did not leach out of the stacksite into the environment.
Numerous concerns were raised with regard to the time limit for stockpiling of precoated
aggregates prior to use. The contamination by dust or deterioration of the binder might also affect
the performance of the aggregate.
An inspection was conducted six months after the precoated aggregates had been stockpiled. The
materials were observed to have some agglomeration but could be readily broken apart.
Nonetheless, the aggregates still demonstrated sufficient adhesion to form near vertical faces for a
short while. The stockpile of precoated aggregates was less dusty than the uncoated aggregates.
The advantages of precoating aggregate in the quarry are (Parfitt 1997b):
It is environmentally friendly, with little or no hydrocarbon evaporation.
Wet aggregates can be precoated. Therefore, the aggregates can be precoated immediately
after washing in the quarry, saving time and costs.
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No contamination was seen at the stack site and there was no leaching of the emulsion
precoat.
There was no contamination of roller and vehicle tyres from the emulsion precoated.
aggregate sections. This eliminated problems related to early life low levels of skid resistance
associated with some of the distillate based precoat.
However, the length of storage time for the precoated aggregate is still unknown.
8.2.3 Sprayed Seals Using High Binder Content Emulsions
A series of road trials were conducted to investigate the use of high binder content emulsions at
various application rates and with two different sizes of aggregate (size 10 and 14) (Parfitt 1997a).
Trial 1: Western Highway - Two different grades (from different suppliers) of high binder
content (70 - 80%) emulsion and size 10 aggregate were used. The controlled section of the
trial used a standard cutback bitumen.
Trial 2: McIvor Highway - One grade of high binder content (70%) emulsion with a larger
size aggregate (size 14) were used for this trial. The controlled section used a standard
cutback bitumen.
Trial 3: Moorooduc Highway A high binder content emulsion was used (the aggregate
size was not disclosed) (Parfitt 1999).
After two to three hours, the emulsion seals appeared to be weak and may encounter an early
aggregate loss. To avoid stripping, a size 7 aggregate was applied as a rack-in coat to pin down
the emulsion and controlled seals (Parfitt 1997a). Long term inspection showed that there was no
residual evidence of the rack-in coat on the emulsion section in Trial 2.
Once the emulsion had attained the curing time, the original viscosity of the binder was returned,
unlike the cutback bitumen which required warm temperatures to evaporate the cutter. This may
take longer than in winter. In the presence of little (or no) cutter, emulsions can also reduce the
flushing of binders to the surface. From the point of view of occupational health and safety, fewer
risks are involved in emulsion spraying as a lower spraying temperature is required and less
solvent is used.
However, if the emulsion sealed road is subjected to high speed heavy traffic before the full
breaking and curing time has elapsed, the seal will encounter an early loss of aggregate. Therefore
it is very important to ensure that tight traffic control is implemented especially during the initial
stages of sealing and/ or a rack-in coat is applied.
An increase of 0.2 L/m
2
in the application rates was found to demonstrate better sealed surfaces.
Although this improved the texture of wheel paths which appeared to be hungry, flushing may still
be possible during extended hot temperatures.
Advantages of emulsion sprayed sealing include:
Emulsion is more environmentally friendly than cutback bitumen, with little or no hydrocarbon
evaporation.
Once the emulsion attains its curing time, the original viscosity of the binder is returned.
(unlike cutback bitumen which requires warm temperatures to evaporate the cutter).
In the absence of cutter, emulsion reduces the risk of binder flushing to the surface.
Lower spraying temperatures are required.
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Greater texture depth is achieved.
Disadvantages of emulsion sprayed sealing include:
During the first two to three hours of sealing, emulsion seals appeared to be weak and may
encounter an early loss of aggregate.
During the early stages, traffic control is required to monitor the traffic speed.
The length of breaking/ curing time is too long. This may also lead to possible early loss of
aggregate.
There is a possibility of long term stripping outside wheel paths.
8.2.4 Weather Conditions
During cooler periods, cutback is added into hot bitumen to reduce the viscosity and improve the
adhesion between binder and aggregate. When there is a high proportion of cutback in the binder,
the chances of aggregate stripping from the seals are greater; especially when the aggregate is
damp or wet weather occurs during or soon after sealing. However, if bitumen emulsions are used
under these conditions, chances of failure can be considerably reduced. Emulsions can coat damp
aggregates and are less susceptible to being washed out by rain shortly after application (Walker
1985).
Although emulsions can be used at lower temperatures than hot cutback bitumen the risk
increases as temperature decreases (e.g. <15 C). It is therefore important to have traffic and
speed control on newly laid emulsion surfacing.
In May 1988, trials were run on the Calder Alternate Highway and the Bass Highway to compare
the performance between emulsion and cutback sprayed seals applied during the cooler and
wetter seasons of the year in Australia (Austroads nd). Only precoated aggregates were used for
the cutback section of the road trial. Ten years later, the sites were revisited and the inspection
report is shown in Table 8.1.
Stripping was found between the wheel paths of the emulsion seals where non-precoated
aggregate was used. Nonetheless, the overall comments also suggested that emulsion sprayed
seal performed better than cutback bitumen sprayed seal on a long term basis.
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Table 8.1: Site details and inspection report
Trial site Description Comments
Calder Alternate
Highway
Emulsion CRS 70% binder
(non-precoated aggregate)
Stripping was evident in the areas outside the wheelpaths.
Surface texture in the wheelpaths was good
Patches were evident beneath the seal and although the surface
in places appears full, it had not flushed
Cutback bitumen
(6 parts cutter) distillate based precoated aggregate
Minor bleeding within wheelpaths.
Bass Highway Emulsion CRS 70% binder
(non-precoated aggregate)
Performing well, with a good texture and mosaic.
Cutback bitumen
(12 parts cutter) distillate based precoated aggregate
The section has been resurfaced.
Source: Parfitt (1999)
8.2.5 Priming Grade Emulsions
An emulsified primer is different from a conventional bitumen emulsion which does not penetrate
the pavement surface. A priming grade emulsion needs to have low viscosity properties for surface
penetration, coating of fine particles, sealing surface pores and bonding between pavement layers
(Austroads 2002). NSW has carried out laboratory testing and road trials to develop and evaluate
various priming grade bitumen emulsions. The primed surface on J enolan Caves Road was later
spray sealed and was found to perform well. However, its good performance could not be
attributed specifically to either the prime or the seal.
According to Austroads (2002), a pavement should be dampened before it is primed to optimise
primer penetration. If spraying is done during hot weather or where the base is highly absorbent, it
is advised that the emulsion be diluted up to 50% and applied with a higher application rate.
8.2.6 Primersealing Grade Emulsions
A two application road trial was conducted on the Hume Highway at Broadford using a high float
emulsion with 70% binder content. High float emulsions are specially formulated to allow a thicker
binder film coating without the danger of runoff. The high float emulsifying agents orientate
themselves to form a network gel structure to keep the cured binder from flowing.
The sequence of this three day trial was (Austroads nd):
Day 1 high float emulsion (70% binder content) was applied at a rate of 1.3 L/m
2
over a bed
of unprecoated but damp size 10 aggregates. This was done when the top 100 mm
pavement had reached a moisture content of 0.5% below optimum. Trafficking was not
allowed except for the continuous rolling by the multi-wheel rollers.
Day 2 high float emulsion (same as Day 1) was applied at 0.7 L/m
2
and covered with size 5
or 7 aggregate. No traffic was allowed.
Day 3 once the seal was observed to have set-up, slow traffic (maximum 60 km/h) was
allowed. If the seal was observed to be damaged, traffic was advised to be delayed by
another day.
The primerseal emulsion was seen to have set after 1 2 days and was not easily damaged by
traffic. However, aggregates did not adhere very well except in areas where more surface moisture
had been retained such as cement stabilised areas.
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8.3 Other problems faced
8.3.1 Storage and Handling
The storage and transport of bitumen emulsion needs to be done in full containers. However, many
emulsion consumers in Australia have a low rate of usage which does not justify bulk storage and
handling facilities. Manufacturers have difficulty cleaning and disposing waste product left in the
drums returned. Likewise, consumers find it tedious to dispose the drums as many Councils and
waste disposal authorities refuse to accept large drums because of the bulk.
8.3.2 Stability of Emulsions in Cold Conditions
Even though precautions were taken by covering the tanks during cold frosty conditions and tanks
are periodically agitated, abnormal settlement of emulsions in tanks still happen occasionally
during cold weather. Manufacturers may need to adjust the formulation or use additives to improve
the situation.
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9 CONCLUSIONS
This report has reviewed the development of overseas and Australian experience with emulsion
technologies. Although the use of bitumen emulsions is still rather limited the demand for this
material is increasing in most European countries, New Zealand, South Africa, etc. Some of the
contributing factors for the increasing use overseas include:
1. environmental awareness from the emission of greenhouse gases from hot cutback bitumen
2. reduced risk of staff exposure to safety hazards such as burns and explosions while handling
the solvents used in cutback bitumen under high temperatures
3. ability of emulsified PMBs to reduce problems related to the transport and storage of
conventional PMBs
4. good performance from the material
5. extended sealing season
6. lack of funds for asphalt overlays (France).
In 1993 1997, a series of road trials were conducted in Australia and New Zealand. The findings
from these road trials were:
1. No visual differences were observed between seals constructed with emulsion precoated
aggregates or with the standard distillate based precoated aggregates which had been
prepared on site.
2. Damp or wet aggregates can be precoated easily with emulsions.
3. Emulsion precoated aggregates showed no contamination of roller and vehicle tyres. Thus
reducing problems related to early life low levels of skid resistance.
4. Emulsion precoated aggregates prepared in the quarry which had been stockpiled for six
months demonstrated sufficient cohesion and adhesion to form near vertical faces.
5. Tight traffic control during the initial stages of sealing is essential to avoid early loss of
aggregate.
6. Size 7 aggregate was applied as rack-in coat to avoid stripping.
7. Length of breaking/ curing is too long. This could lead to early loss of aggregates.
8. An additional 0.2 L/m2 in the application rate was suggested because of the hungry
appearance showed on the area outside the wheeltrack.
9. Emulsion sprayed seals performed better than cutback bitumen sprayed seals on a long term
basis when applied during the cooler and wetter seasons of the year.
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INFORMATION RETRIEVAL


Austroads (2008), Bitumen Emulsions, Sydney, A4, 42pp, AP-T107/08
Keywords:
bitumen, emulsions, emulsifier, breaking, curing, emulsified polymer modified
binders, sprayed seals, cutback bitumen, road trials, environmental
Abstract:
This report reviewed overseas and Australian experience in using bitumen
emulsions. Increasing economic and environmental pressures have induced an
increase in demand for the use of bitumen emulsions overseas. However,
emulsion sprayed seals are only an alternative treatment to the use of hot
cutback bitumen on low to medium trafficked roads in Australia.
Bitumen emulsions use less solvent, are claimed to consume less energy, are
environmentally friendly, extend the sealing season and have no problems with
storage and handling.