Accountability Through Communication

Anne-Katrin Arnold
Helen Garcia
GENERATING GENUINE DEMAND FOR
ACCOUNTABILITY
THROUGH
COMMUNICATION
Trainers Guide
THE
WORLD
BANK
AA_Cover.indd i 04/11/11 3:31 PM
Anne-Katrin Arnold
Helen Garcia
Generating Genuine
Demand for Accountability
through Communication
Trainers Guide
THE
WORLD
BANK
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2011 Te International Bank for Reconstruction and Development / Te World Bank
Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP)
External Afairs
1818 H Street NW, MSN U 11-1102
Washington DC 20433
Telephone: 202-458-7955
Fax: 202-522-2654
Website: http://www.worldbank.org/commgap
Blog: http://blogs.worldbank.org/publicsphere
E-mail: commgap@worldbank.org
All rights reserved
Te fndings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed herein are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily
refect the views of the Board of Executive Directors of the World Bank or the governments they represent.
Te World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data included in this work. Te boundaries, colors,
denominations, and other information shown on any map in this work do not imply any judgment on the part of the
World Bank concerning the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of such boundaries.
Rights and Permissions
Te material in this work is copyrighted. Copying and/or transmitting portions or all of this work without permission
may be a violation of applicable law. Te World Bank encourages dissemination of its work and will normally grant
permission promptly.
For permission to photocopy or reprint any part of this work, please send a request with complete information to the
Communication for Governance & Accountability Program (CommGAP) at the address stated above.
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iii
Contents
About the Authors v
Preface vi
Introduction vii
Objectives of the Manual viii
Background of the Manual viii
Structure of the Manual viii
Part 1 Foundations of Social Accountability 1
What does it Mean to Make Governments Accountable to their Citizens? 1
Accountability Happens in the Public Sphere 2
What is the Public Sphere? 2
The State Interacts with the Democratic Public Sphere 3
Citizens and the Private Sector Participate in the Public Sphere 3
A Free and Independent Media is A Critical Pillar in the Public Sphere 3
Citizens Need Access to Public Information 4
An Empowered Civil Society Can Actively Inuence Change 5
Part 2 Social Accountability and Communication 7
What is Communication, and why do we care? 7
What is Public Opinion? 8
Why does Public Opinion Matter? 10
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Contents
iv
Forms of the Public 10
Mobilizing the Public 12
Accountability and ICT 13
Part 3 Communication Campaigns 19
Designing a Communication Strategy 19
Steps in Planning a Communication Strategy 20
Communication Decisions Template 21
Framing 22
Public Narrative 23
Part 4 Mobilizing Public Opinion and Public Action Case Studies 25
Case 1. Independent Budget Analysis in South Africa 26
Case 2. Citizens Audit of Public Works Projects in Abra, Philippines 28
Case 3. Strengthening Consumer Voice in Water and Sanitation: Citizen Report Card Roadshows in Kenya 30
Case 4. Bogota Como Vamos? Citizen Voice in the Evaluation of Public Services in Bogota 32
Case 5. Citizens Complaint System in Mumbai 34
Summary: Creating Genuine Citizen Demand for Accountability Through Communication 44
Trainers Brief 45
Part 1: Foundations of Accountability 45
Part 2: Social Accountability and Communication 47
Part 3: Designing a Communication Strategy 50
Part 4: Case Studies 53
Appendix 59
Glossary 59
Readings 62
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v
About the Authors
Anne-Katrin Arnold is consultant and Governance Specialist at the World Banks Communication for
Governance and Accountability Program (CommGAP). She studied political communication at the
University of Pennsylvanias Annenberg School for Communication and at the Institute for Journalism and
Communication Research in Hannover/Germany. Ms. Arnold has worked as a journalist and radio news
anchor, speech writer, public relations of cer, researcher, and lecturer in social science methods and political
communication. Her publications include articles on public opinion theory, on social capital, and on ethnic
journalism in peer-reviewed journals, as well as a book on social capital and the media.
Helen Garcia is Consultant at the World Banks Communication for Governance and Accountability Pro-
gram (CommGAP) where she focuses on training and capacity building. Prior to CommGAP, she was
involved in various World Bank projects in Africa, Asia, Latin America, Eastern Europe and Central Asia,
working on poverty and social development issues. She also served in the World Banks Executive Board
where she provided advisory and technical assistance in the Of ce of the Executive Director for Brazil,
Colombia, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Haiti, Panama, Philippines, Suriname, and Trinidad & Tobago.
Before the World Bank, she worked at the International Food Policy Research Institute where she supervised
household survey teams and trained local partners and researchers. In the Philippines, she worked in the
public sector as Director for Social Development in the Of ce of the Prime Minister.
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vi
Preface
The Communication for Governance and Account-
ability Program (CommGAP) of the World Bank
is dedicated to exploring and documenting the
role of communication tools and approaches to
improving governance and, as a result, develop-
ment effectiveness. To further the understanding
of the role of communication in generating genu-
ine citizen demand for accountability, CommGAP
published the volume Accountability Through
Public Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action
in 2011 (edited by SinaOdugbemi, CommGAP
Program Head, and Professor Taeku Lee from the
University of California). This Training Guide
is derived from the book and from CommGAPs
work on accountability over the years.
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vii
Introduction
P
rocesses of public opinion matter if governance-reform initiatives are to succeed. In this core learning
component, we introduce the concepts of public opinion and the public sphere as dynamic elements
in governance reform eforts.
Public opinion and the public sphere are at the core of a structural understanding of communication. Tey
represent institutions, platforms and infrastructure for interactions between citizens and state. As an actor in
the public sphere, the state is accountable for its actions in providing service delivery to its citizens. Citizens,
in return, provide legitimacy to the state through public opinion. Both the state and citizens have communi-
cation processes and tools at their disposal that hold them accountable. Tese processes are communication
campaigns that are directed at information, attitude change, behavior change, and sustainability. Te efective
use of structures and processes of communication for accountability can result in better relations between
the state and its citizens, improved governance and, in the long run, increased efectiveness of development
eforts for the poor.
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viii
Introduction
Objectives of the Manual
Tis Trainers Guide is designed for development practitioners in donor organizations, governments and
civil society, who are setting up capacity-building programs forpromoting sustainable accountability and
governance reform, and intends to include an exploration of the role of communication to create genuine
and efective citizen demand for accountability. A conceptual framework for communication and account-
ability provides trainers with an understanding of the role of communication, while several case studies
exemplify communication for accountability in developing countries.
Background of the Manual
Tis material was originally designed to be part of a 10-module Core Course on Social Accountability, pre-
pared by the World Bank Institute (WBI). All ten modules of the core course were piloted in South Africa
in June, 2009. Te excerpt presented here is designed to illuminate the particular role of communication
approaches and techniques to create genuine citizen demand for accountabilitya demand that govern-
ments cannot ignore. Te module is available online as part of WBIs core course and has been adapted by
other organizations, including the Af liated Networks for Social Accountability (ANSA) East Asia/Pacifc.
Structure of the Manual
Te Trainers Guide starts with an introduction into the conceptual framework of accountability and com-
munication. Teoretical basics are illustrated by relevant case studies, mostly taken from CommGAPs vol-
ume Accountability Trough Public Opinion. Tis conceptual narrative is designed to familiarize trainers
with the issue and its foundations, and is followed by a suggested training structure that includes learning
objectives, presentation slides and key points to be communicated to an audience of a capacity building
efort. Te second part of this manual contains case studies that display communication for accountability
in action in developing countries. Tese case studies and a related exercise may be used by trainers to dem-
onstrate and exemplify how communication can be used in order to empower citizens to hold their govern-
ments accountable.
In addition to the conceptual introduction and case studies, this manual provides a brief for trainers
suggesting a structure for a course on Generating Genuine Demand for Accountability Trough Commu-
nication. Presentation slides and core lessons are proposed to enable development practitioners to launch a
training session of approximately one day.
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1
What does it Mean to Make Governments
Accountable to their Citizens?
Accountability is central to good governance. Donors and practitioners use a number of diferent terms for
accountability, which are substantially diferent.
Social accountability
Multi-stakeholder engagement
Multi-stakeholder initiatives
Civic empowerment and rights
Public engagement in policy making and government
Institutions of accountability
Demand for good governance/demand side
Aid and domestic accountability
Accountability is about strengthening non-state institutions such as
civil society. Accountability can also be about processes such as citizen
engagement in policy making and service delivery, particularly in health,
education and rural livelihoods. In the state, accountability mechanisms
P A R T
Foundations of Social
Accountability
1
Whichever accountability
tool is used, it is crucial
that the public and public
opinion are engaged.
Otherwise tools would
merely be technocratic and
not actually benet citizens.
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Part 1
2
include ombudsmen and parliamentary oversight. For instance, accountability mechanisms outside the state
include citizen scorecards and regular public opinion polling.
Whichever accountability tool is used, it is crucial that the public and public opinion are engaged. Oth-
erwise these tools would merely be technocratic not actually beneft citizens.
Accountability Happens in the Public Sphere
Te public sphere is a space between state and civil society. In this space government and citizens exchange
information and services: Citizens communicate their demands to the government and, if satisfed with
how these are met by the government, reward legitimacy to the government in of ce. Te government pro-
vides rules, regulations, and public goods and services to the citizens. Te mere delivery of services without
accountability is insuf cient to achieve good governance.
What is the Public Sphere?
Citizens are stakeholders in the public sphere. Efective communication among the stakeholders promises to
raise the citizen voice and thereby strengthen accountability. Te public sphere, represented by information
and communication processes, is the architecture of relationships and interactions among diferent politi-
cal actors. Drawing on a wide range of applied and academic sources, here is a visual representation of the
democratic public sphere.
The Democratic Public Sphere
The Private
Sphere
Citizens
Households
Firms
Constitutive Elements:
Laws and civil liberties (especially
freedom of speech, press,
assembly, & conscience)
Free, independent, and plural
media systems
Access to information
Empowered civil society
All sites for everyday talk about
public affairs
The State
(national,
state, local)
Executive
Legislative
Judiciary
PUBLIC OPINION
The Public Sphere
Public Debate
& Discussion
Issue-Based Public
Contestation
Issue-Based
Information Flows
Figure 1. The Democratic Public Sphere
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Foundations of Social Accountability
3
The State Interacts with the Democratic Public Sphere
Ideally, the government sets up channels for two-way communication between public servants and various
societal stakeholders. Trough these mechanisms the government informs citizens about actions taken on
their behalf. Te government of the United Kingdom, for example, employs at any one time around 1,000
communication specialists, including government spokespeople, public information and education of cers
and public opinion experts.
STATE CITIZENS
Legitimacy
Accountability
Rules, regulations, public goods and services
Demands
PUBLIC SPHERE
Citizen-State Interactions
Figure 2 Citizen-State Interactions in the Public Sphere
Citizens and the Private Sector Participate in the Public Sphere
Citizens should have the capacity to make known their needs and preferences. For instance, in Port Phillip,
Australia, citizens were asked to deliberate on city-wide priorities and, together with the government, craf
an action plan. Another example is how citizens of Porto Alegre, Brazil deliberate annually, since 1989, on
how to allocate part of the municipal budget. Private frms also participate in the public sphere through Cor-
porate Social Responsibility initiatives, which include eforts ranging from enhancing educational oppor-
tunities to protecting the environment. Public-Private Partnerships have also been found to be helpful in
improving the delivery of public services in various sectors, such as transportation and health care. All of
these actorsthe government, citizens and private frmsinteract through the public sphere, which has a
number of characteristics and constitutive elements. Tese include laws and civil liberties, such as citizens
right for free assembly and freedom of speech.
A Free and Independent Media is a Critical Pillar in the Public Sphere
Te media should be free from political pressure, and should give voice to all groups in society. Public-
service broadcasting in Europe, such as the BBC in Great Britain and ARD in Germany, does attempt to
keep the media absent of commercial and political interests so that it can serve the public. In a free media
system, newspapers are usually not regulated, and journalists should have the right to publish information
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Part 1
4
without fear of recrimination from political or economic powers. Of course, this does not mean that journal-
ists are allowed to publish anything; they must remain within the bounds of the law. But politicians and, for
example, big corporations should not be able to infuence journalistic work.
Citizens Need Access to Public Information
Without information, analysis and opinion citizens are prevented from participating in governance reform.
Mexico is considered international best practice with regard to access to information. It has one of the most
ef cient Right-to-Information laws in the developing world. Since 2003, the Federal Law on Transparency
and Access to Public Government Information ensures that all information under the purview of the state
is available to the public. Te government can only restrict access to information when there are important
reasons to keep some information confdential. Every citizen can request information from government
of cials. An independent oversight body watches over the authorities compliance of the transparency laws.
India is another good example. India passed a Right to Information Act in 2005. Any citizen may request
information from any public authority. Te authorities are required to appoint a Public Information Of -
cer, who has to reply to citizens requests within 30 days. Moreover, every government of ce is required to
store its records on computer and make them widely available to the public. Te lawmakers in India wanted
to make sure that citizens need only minimum recourse to request for information formally. Terefore,
the government agencies are required to proactively publish information on certain issues, such as budget
Philippines: Corruption and the Watchdog Rule of News Media
The media can help bring about reforms when it acts as a watchdog to those in power. One powerful
example comes from the Philippines, where a team of investigative reporters uncovered the corrupt
behavior of President Joseph Estrada. Reporters revealed that he built expensive houses and bought
expensive cars for a number of mistressesacquisitions that were never revealed in his asset disclo-
sures or tax returns. This reporting led to a massive public outcry and eventually to an impeachment trial.
Estrada was ousted in 2001 after hundreds of thousands Filipinos marched in the Center of Manila.
Source: Sheila Coronel, 2010, Corruption and the Watchdog Role of the News Media. In Public Sentinel: News
Media and Governance Reform,edited by Pippa Norris.
Embedding the Right to Information:
The Uses of Sector-specifc Transparency Regimes
Development practice shows that national Access to Information legislation alone is not necessarily suc-
cessful. Transparency provisions need to be integrated into sectoral legislation. In India, the National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act creates job opportunities for unskilled workers and includes attempts
to close avenues for fraud and abuse by officials by including provisions that enable workers to monitor
the actions of project administrators. Officials must provide information regarding work sites, number of
workers employed, hours billed, quantities and price of building materials etc.
Source: Rob Jenkins, 2011, Embedding the Right to Information: The Uses of Sector-Specifc Transparency Regimes.
In Accountability through Public Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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Foundations of Social Accountability
5
allocation and the monthly remuneration of its of cers. Te Central Information Commission watches over
the enactment of the law and deals with complaints.
Te implementation of Right-to-Information laws is just as important as the existence of the regulations.
Laws must be put into practice in order to truly guarantee citizens access to information needed to partici-
pate in the political process.
An Empowered Civil Society can Actively Infuence Change
Te government exchanges information and opinions with civil society through a two-way-fow of com-
munication. Civil society can exert infuence over the state by being active in the public sphere and voicing
its concerns. It is important to note that when we speak of empowered civil society: we mean people coming
together to actively and jointly work on changing things for the betterment of society. Increasingly at the
heart of the governance agenda in international development today is a concern for building up associa-
tional life in developing countries as countervailing centers of power.
Large international civil society organizations have ofen been successful in infuencing policy making.
For instance, Greenpeace has always played an important role in the global public sphere. Te organization
advocates for awareness of the environment and has infuenced global as well as national policy making with
regard to issues such as conservation and climate change.
Citizens need places where they can talk freely about public afairs. Tis is the ffh constitutive element
of the public sphere. Colleagues at work get together during their breaks to discuss what they learned about
politics in conversations with their families or from radio shows or newspapers the previous night. Tis
allows citizens to form opinions about politics and public policies. Tese opinions can then be the basis for
political decisions, for instance, whom to vote for in an upcoming election. All these elements interact with
each other to create the public sphere. Tis interaction can only work ef ciently if information fows freely
and if people can openly debate their knowledge and opinions about politics in a society.
Te model presented here is an ideal case and rarely, if ever, exists in reality. Social-accountability mecha-
nisms, including communication, aim to improve existing public spheres, so that they get closer to this ideal.
Te stronger the elements of the public sphere, the more empowered the civil society, and the more ef cient
citizens can be in holding their governments accountable.
Argentina: Training Journalists for Accountability
Access to Information legislation alone may not be effective if media and citizens do not use the legal
avenues provided to hold governments accountable. At the University of Buenos Aires, a program teaches
communication students to exercise their information rights by requesting information from the govern-
ment through avenues provided by law. Students request information from diverse ministries and monitor,
together with faculty, the responsiveness of government agencies. Between 2004 and 2007, students
presented more than 800 requests for information, about half of which received replies from ministries.
Results of the monitoring were published in La Nacion, which increased government responsiveness
following publication.
Source: Laura Zommer, 2011, Training Journalists for Accountability in Argentina. In Accountability through Public
Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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Part 1
6
Table 1 Analyzing the public sphere and the political context*
Approaches and Techniques
Assess the macro-level context
through a public sphere analysis
This approach provides a systematic framework for
delineating the features of the public sphere, including
its constitutive components: civil liberties; freedom of
information; access to official information; public culture
of transparency; free, plural, and independent media
systems; civil society; and associational life.
Assess the legal/regulatory
environment
The passage of a national access to information law
may not be a necessary or sufficient condition for SA to
fourish, but it goes a long way in assisting SA advocates
in their work.
Build a coalition supporting an
access-to-information regime
Access to information undergirds the ability to adopt
and deploy SA mechanisms. As a prerequisite for the
work of SA, a broad coalition, driven by civil society,
should advocate for it where it doesnt exist. This should
also serve as the basis for a permanent community of
practice gravitating around these issues.
Build legal capacity on access to
information issues
Civil society should be the focus of these capacity
building initiatives, as they serve as permanent checks
against corrupt authority.
Deploy the Critical 8 The Critical 8 provides a set of criteria for stakeholder
to use in evaluating the merits of a social accountability
tool and its contextual ft. It examines the (1) political
context, (2) level of decentralization, (3) environment for
citizen feedback, (4) citizens right to voice, (5) presence/
activism of CSOs, (6) local capacity to do survey and
analysis, (7) quality of media, and (8) responsiveness
of service providers. The awareness-building phase for
SA tools asks the question: Is this tool applicable in a
particular context? Making this judgment can be carried
out by the Critical 8 framework. Stakeholders are asked
to rate the Critical 8 and explain how they made scoring
determinations.
Challenging governments in
international courts
The system of international courtsand perhaps
more importantly, international norms underpinning
international lawcan be powerful allies of SA
advocates who experience difficulty operating in the
domestic context.
*Global Dialogue, Generating Genuine Demand with Social Accountability Mechanisms, CommGAP 2007
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7
What is Communication and why do we care?
Communication connects citizens, civil society, the media system, and government, forming a framework
for national dialogue through which informed public opinion is shaped. According to this defnition, the
key actors in communication are government, citizens, civil society, and the media system, consisting of
both the media professionals and the media environment where they operate. Tis defnition takes a broader
view of communication, one which consists not only of processes and principles but also of structures or
institutions that determine the way that communication takes place.
Tis takes includes structures and spaces for debate that allow people to
access information and shape public opinion including the media and
the legal and regulatory environment. Tese elements afect the free fow
of information between the government and its citizens.
Understanding the processes of communication in implementing
social accountability mechanisms is necessary to efectively support
these mechanisms as well as to efectively support governance reform.
P A R T
Social Accountability
and Communication
2
Communication links citizens,
civil society, the media
system, and government,
forming a framework for
national dialogue through
which informed public
opinion is shaped.
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Part 2
8
What is Public Opinion?
When people can discuss openly and possess all necessary information, they form public opinion. Public
opinion is a critical force in governance. Traditional interpretations of the public include all the peo-
ple who are afected by an event, policy, or decision and who have beliefs, attitudes, and opinions. While
private actions concern only those who participate in them, public
actions afect both participants and the rest of society either directly
or indirectly. Public action represents the public good, as opposed to
the private interests of individuals who represent only a segment of the
broader public.
Philosopher David Hume asserted, It is therefore, on opinion only
that government is founded. Legitimacy in the public sphere is an
essential part of efective governance. Te modern sense of public opin-
ion is multidimensional and has diferent characteristics. It refers to the
most dominant, widespread, or popular opinion even though there will
always be a plurality of existing public opinions. It is jointly produced
by elite opinion leaders who express and publish opinions, have access
to media outlets and technologies, and have high degrees of social infu-
ence or institutional power; by statistical records, which represent and
measure opinions collected through polls and surveys; and peoples per-
ceptions of which opinions prevail in their social and media environ-
ments, as well as how their own opinions match up with those of others.
Public opinion is important because it generates genuine demand for
accountability. Trough a process of consensus and deliberation, public
opinion forms policy that government must implement.
Public Opinion is created
and shaped in discourse
and affected by:
elite opinion leaders
statistical records, polls
and surveys
peoples opinions in
their social and media
environments
Public Opinion is the result
of discussion and debate.
Citizens reach a consensus
after deliberating on
issues, policies or events
of common concern.
This consensus we call
public opinion, and it
is widespread in the
population and represents
a position that most people
can agree with.
Public Opinion is
Accountability.
Deliberation and Institutional Mechanisms for
Shaping Public Opinion (Baogang He)
Public opinion resulting from deliberation about a public problem needs to be taken particularly seri-
ously by those in power. China has been incorporating deliberative elements in local politics in recent
years. Consultative meetings or public hearings often take place in rural areas. In the Shangchen district
of Hangzhou, a public consultation is held once a month. A few politicians have even given up some of
their power in favor of public choices resulting from deliberation: In Zeguo Township, officials were only
allowed to observe a public meeting, but were not permitted to speak to infuence the choice of the group.
The fnal decision of the citizens was then endorsed as official policy by the Zeguo Township Peoples
Congress. Although it remains to be seen what effect deliberative institutions can have on a power-
ful state, they do in fact solve complicated problems, help to maintain local stability and security, and
enhance collective solidarity.
Source: Baogang He, 2011, Deliberation and Institutional Mechanisms for Shaping Public Opinion. In Accountability
through Public Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by SinaOdugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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Social Accountability and Communication
9
Table 2 Building media capacity and an informed public*
Broaden journalists
knowledge of SA
Journalists often lack formal training, but play a key role in building an
informed citizenry. To achieve greater dissemination on SA issues and
information about the roles and responsibilities of the government,
journalists must understand what those are and have a protective
space to report on these issues and the concerns of the community.
Furthermore, this approach should provide journalists an opportunity for
innovation and creativity in reporting.
Enhance
coordination among
development
partners to think
and act strategically
about media support
and regulation
An independent and pluralistic media system contributes to a better-
informed citizenry and enforces action to hold governments accountable.
However, even in a plural and competitive environment, there are issues
such as a tendency to sensationalize, and difficulty in getting media
attention on SA issues.
Techniques to enhance coordination may include better sharing of
research and good practices, and collaboration with local media to
create independent media stations.
Engage citizens
in dialogue via
different modes
of structures and
mechanisms
There are many ways to engage citizens in public debate such as
consultative programming (call-ins, listeners surveys, etc.). However,
there are other strategic communication channels than media that
should be considered in engaging citizens and building competence.
Innovative, participatory mechanisms should be deployed using a two-
way communication model with new and appropriate technologies, such
as blogs and cellular technology (SMS).
Techniques can include providing easy access to information and
government officials. Content should be developed both in an
educational and entertaining way, using narrative communication formats
in an easily understood language.
Promote and
develop training for
journalists
Investigative reporting, training on governance structures and issues are
essential, as well as training on the business side of journalism to create
an independent voice.
Engage with
marginalized groups
Reach out to marginalized groups and provide training on basic
communication skills, and exercises on rights to information and freedoms,
as well as inform marginalized groups in ways to participate in public debate.
Utilize and raise
awareness regarding
existing information
sources, as well
as consultative
structures and
mechanisms.
To build an informed citizenry and engage citizens in public debate,
information sources and feedback mechanisms must be promoted and
easily accessible. For example, in the case of Argentina, many students
were requesting information that was already accessible, but not easily
found, on the government website. Also, existing consultative programming
mechanisms should be promoted and new information technology should
be explored to engage citizens in public debate.
* Global Dialogue, Generating Genuine Demand with Social Accountability Mechanisms, CommGAP 2007
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Part 2
10
Why does Public Opinion Matter?
Public opinion, when it has crystallized into a strong and mobilized force, can be powerful in efecting
real social change. Mobilizing public opinion is an important step in changing the incentives for decision
makers. Even authoritarians must take pub-
lic opinion seriously. If governments ignore
public opinion, hostility can build beneath
the surface. Ignorant and uninformed pub-
lic opinion, prone to manipulation, can
grow. In such a context, divisive groups can
threaten to fracture the public sphere. And
opponents of positive change can frame
reform proposals in ways that make it more
dif cult to succeed.
Public opinion is a critical force in gov-
ernance and its power cannot be ignored by
any movement that seeks to afect change
on a large-scale.
Forms of the Public
With regard to the public sphere, there are at least fve groups in the population that need to be considered
separately when thinking about accountability.
Te broadest group is the general public. Tis includes the entire given population, which is unorga-
nized and disconnected. Individual opinions are formed outside the arena of public debate; the opinions
may be called mass opinions. In the general public there is no demand for accountability, little interest in
political afairs, and no political participation. People are generally orientated toward their own gain.
Te voting public is a little smaller than the general public. Tis group stands for the unorganized elec-
torate. Elections are the most visible manifestation of public opinion. Elections are also the only means for
Why Does Public Opinion
Matter?
Changes the incentives of
decision-makers
Once mobilized, it cannot
be ignored
It is a critical force in
governance
South Africa: Overcoming Inertia and Generation Participation
(Janine Hicks and Imraan Buccus)
In South Africa, citizen participation is guaranteed in the Constitution. Both on a national and a local level,
the constitution requires encouragement and facilitation of community involvement in legislative and
other processes. The civil service is bound by the 2001 policy of BathoBele(People First) to be service
oriented. But participation must be meaningful and must result in direct engagement of citizens with the
policy process. Imraan Buccus and Janine Hicks report how they created a provincial policy forum to cre-
ate spaces for policy deliberation for citizens. Civil society organizations have come up with a number of
recommendations and key lessons for making public participation more effective. Among other issues,
these recommendations concern the scope and timing of public participation, the design of public hear-
ings, constituency offices, and monitoring and evaluation.
Source: ImraanBuccus & Janine Hicks, 2011, Overcoming Inertia and Generating Participation: Insights from Par-
ticipatiry Processes in South Africa. In Accountability through Public Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited
by Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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11
holding the government accountable. Te voting public has cyclical interest in political afairs, which is focused
during elections, and engages in basic forms of political participation such as voting or charitable giving.
Individuals in the attentive public are those informed and interested in public afairs. Tey are the audi-
ence for political actors. Tere is basic demand for accountability, but no action is taken to realize this
demand. Members of the attentive public engage in political participation irregularly. Tey are very atten-
tive to political news and frequently have conversations about politics. However, they rarely participate in
organized action.
With the active public we move into the realm of efective participation. Elites belong to the attentive
public, and they engage in regular formal and informal political participation. Tey recruit supporters for
their positions and opinions in the realm of the attentive public. Tey actively demand accountability, but
their participation is still not organized or regular. Examples are signing petitions and infrequent attendance
of participatory meetings.
Te most important group for accountability is the mobilized public, with its attentive and active mem-
bers who are well informed and have long-term interests in specifc issues. Interest groups and advocacy
organizations belong to the mobilized public. Tere is active demand for accountability and regular partici-
pation in and organization of civic forums. Mobilized citizens voice their opinions vigorously and engage in
organized action to realize civic goals.
For us, it is important to move people from passive to active engagement. We need people to move
through the stages of the general public, the voting public and the attentive public to becoming members
of the active, and fnally of the mobilized public. However, the costs of participation grow with every step
through the publics. Active participation demands more time and engagement and possibly means greater
risk taking. Tat is why the groups have fewer and fewer members as the degree of activity increases.
Forms of the Public
Voting Public
Active Public
Attentive Public
General Public
Mobilized Public
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Mobilizing the Public
Te following Stairway of Mobilization represents the mobilization process from the perspective of civil
society. In addition the obstacles that civil society organizations must overcome in order to mobilize public
opinion there are institutional constraints that will have to be overcome. Tese constraints include among
many other things: a weak organizational environment, legal restrictions for engagement, a repressive politi-
cal culture that curbs participation through fear.
Te Stairway to Mobilization begins with the general public. Among those there will always be people
who are sympathetic to your specifc cause, but they will also always be people who really dont care. It is
unlikely that they can be won to support you. To move the sympathetic members of the general public one
step ahead to the voting public, CSOs need to design information campaigns.
Information campaigns put issues on the media and public agenda, inform about goals, motivation and
strategies of your project or organization. With information campaigns, CSOs can put the problem on the
agenda by providing information (through personal communication or the mass media).
Participatory Constitution-making in Uganda (Devra Moehler)
Uganda has introduced an innovative process of constitution-making by extensively involving citizens
over an eight-year period. Participation increased citizens exposure to political information and their
ideas about politics, but it also changed the standards by which citizens were evaluating that informa-
tion. As a consequence, activism eroded trust in political institutions. Engagement in constitution-making
created distrusting democratscitizens who are democratic in their attitudes but suspicious of govern-
mental institutions. This effect may ironically be due to the increased exposure to political information:
citizens uphold democratic value, but realize that their government does not always deliver it. Participa-
tion provided citizens with new tools to critically evaluate government performance.
Source: Devra Moehler, 2011, Participatory Constitution Making in Uganda. In Accountability through Public
Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
The Stairway of the Mobilization Process
Information Attitude
Change
Behavior
Change
Sustainability
Sympathetic
Indifferent
General Public
Targeted by
organization
Not targeted by
organization
Voting Public
Motivated to
participate
Not motivated
to participate
Attentive Public
Bystanders
Participants
Active Public
Members
Mobilized Public
Figure 3 The Stairway of the Mobilization
Process
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13
It will probably be impossible to reach every sympathetic member of the general public with your infor-
mation campaign. Some will not hear from you; we call this group not targeted. Te people who were
reached by the information campaign now know about your goals, but that does not mean that they agree
with your evaluations and suggestions. Te next step in the communication campaign that is aimed at atti-
tude changechanging peoples attitudes so that they believe your positions are right. Tis way you move
the members of the voting public into the attentive public, because people that care (are sympathetic) and
believe that youre doing the right thing will be more likely to be motivated to participate. Attitude-change
campaigns aim at changing values, beliefs, and world views. Tey explain the why through directing peo-
ples attention to specifc problems and moral evaluations. Framing and persuasion are among the commu-
nication techniques which should be used here.
A communication campaign will probably not change the mind of every person that you target. But
where it worked, you will now have the chance to move people from the attentive public to the active-public.
Many people are motivated to do something, but do nothing in the end for a variety of reasons. A commu-
nication campaign that aims at behavior change will help you to convince the motivated members of the
attentive public to actually participate in your cause. It is very dif cult to achieve behavior change, to engage
hearts, heads and hands. To do so, you must translate values into action. You must explain the why as well
as the how by embedding your message in a comprehensive story. Public narrative is a communication
technique that makes this possible.
Te ideal public is the mobilized public, whose members regularly participate and stand up for their
cause in an organized manner. Te people whom you moved to action will not always stick with it; some may
ultimately become bystanders. Te participants, however, can be won for long-term engagement. For this, a
communication campaign must change the incentive structure for public of cials and alter norms by cultivat-
ing new behaviors. Tis is only possible through long-term and multi-channel communication. Membership
in organizations can be strengthened through incentives, rituals, social relations, and leadership experience.
Accountability and ICT
Te global expansion of information and communication technologies (ICT) and coordinated eforts of
development institutions and the private sector has opened up signifcant opportunities for innovation and
the conversion of knowledge into action. Earlier we have explained that citizens and governments com-
municate in the public sphere. For these exchanges to happen and to happen efectively, the public sphere
needs an infrastructure for two-way fows of communication. Te mass media has traditionally fulflled this
Rural China: Solidary Groups and Public Goods Provision (Lily Tsai)
In developing countries, formal institutions of accountability are often weak. Research from China shows
that informal solidary groups, based on deliberative principles, substitute for those weak institutions
if they are structured to overlap and mesh with government structures. Solidary groups confer moral
authority on local government officials and thereby provide incentives to provide public goods and ser-
vices. Solidary groups should be encompassing (open to anyone under the local governments jurisdic-
tion) and embedding (incorporate local officials into the group as members).
Source:Lily Tsai, 2011, Holding Government Accountable through Informal Institutions: Solidary Groups and Public
Goods Provision in Rural China. In Accountability through Public Opinion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by
Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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14
role and provided communication channels and platforms for
citizen demand. Trough political and economic pressures,
traditional media are ofen not able to properly fulfll this
function anymore. ICT can level the distortions in the public
sphere that are caused by political and economic power by
giving access to a much larger number of groups and indi-
viduals than is possible through traditional media.
Roughly speaking, we can identify four categories of account-
ability projects that utilize ICT: service accountability, democratic
accountability, performance accountability, and transparency.
Service accountability initiatives focus on the quality of
service delivery and aim to provide citizens with a feedback
channel into the government. Citizen report cards are a clas-
sic example of service accountability tools.
Democratic accountability subsumes projects that work
toward improving the political performance of governments,
making them more accessible to citizens and providing citi-
zens with a channel to monitor the behavior of governments
as political entities. Examples here are e-government, elec-
tion monitoring, and the monitoring of elected of cials.
A category that is relevant for the broader international
development community is performance accountability: tools
and projects that assess the overall performance of a state as
compared to other states. Relevant tools in this category include indicators such as Freedom Houses Freedom
of the Press and Transparency Internationals ranking, as well as other aggregate measures that allow for com-
paring one countrys performance with other nations in specifc areas of governance.
Transparency, the fourth category underlies the other three because accountability rests on information.
Transparency projects focus more generally on making information available and accessible, without dis-
criminating according to government functions.
Using ICT to empower citizens
A growing number of examples demonstrate how mobile services and particularly the Internet can be a
vehicle for empowering citizens to hold their government accountable.
Service accountability
Te Malaysian Penang Watch is a group of citizen activists that collects complaints about local services on
its website, forward them to the appropriate authorities, remind the responsible of cials to take action, and
shame them publicly if they dont. According to the initiators, half of the complaints are successful, although
slow Internet connection and lack of access to the Internet complicate their work.
The burgeoning growth of
information technology offers
numerous and promising alternatives
for renewing direct means of
communication, while at the same
time, providing greater user-control at
reduced cost.
This approach brings informed
citizenship back by circumventing
the market-driven environment that
has reduced news media to shallow,
supercial and entertainment-
heavy forms of reporting and
journalism. Various media platforms
that incorporate education with
entertainment offer interesting and
cost-effective options for citizens to
escape the barrage of manipulative
and non-substantive content in news
programming.
CommGAP, 2007
F OL L OW YOUR COMPL AI NT T I L L T HEY ARE SET T L ED - I T S YOUR RI GHT ! DON T GI VE UP.
Source: Penangwatch. net
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15
Democratic accountability
Te Brazilian House of Representatives practices a specifc form of e-government with their e-Democracia
Project, which was launched in 2009. Trough social media and face-to-face meetings, citizens are encour-
aged to contribute their ideas and concerns regarding lawmaking. Citizens are encouraged to provide input
for laws that are under consideration by providing information about a problem that they think needs to
be regulated by law, or by suggesting solutions and providing input into drafing the bill. Cristiano Faria,
one of the implementers of this project, confrms the impact of this form of citizen consultation, as several
concerns voiced by citizens online have made it into the language of a new legislation.
Te group Ushahidi in Kenya runs a website that was developed to report instances of violence afer the
2008 elections. Ushahiditestimony in Swahilideveloped a mapping program that citizens can use to
report on any kind of incidence, and that is now used by many civil society groups around the world.
Information Collection, Visualization, & Interactive Mapping
Ushahidi builds tools for democratizing information, increasing
transparency and lowering the barriers for individuals to share
their stories.
Source: www.ushahidi.com
Te Adote um Vereador project in Brazil provides a wiki-platform to encourage citizens to adopt a local
politician, follow his or her work, and blog about their observations. Te initiators of this project aim at rais-
ing political involvement outside the election season and giving the electorate better control and infuence
over the local politicians they elect.
Performance accountability
Freedom House provides a large resource of information through their indicators, Freedom of the World
and Freedom of the Press online. Citizens can use the information provided on the methodological back-
ground of those indicators to assess the reliability and viability of the data for their own interests. Tey can
also learn about their governments performance in comparison to other countries. Freedom House is an
example where a large amount of information on the performance of a country in a specifc area is available
centrally and relatively easy to use. Tis information, however, will not reach those that do not have access
to the Internet.
Transparency
In East Africa, the project Twaweza (we can make it happen in Swahili) is getting citizens involved in gath-
ering information on water, health, and education. Te project uses mobile phones because the Internet is
not prevalent in that region. Te information that is needed to hold governments accountable are gathered,
bottom-up, by those who can eventually use it. Tis circumvents not only governments inability to provide
access to information but also its frequent unwillingness to do so.
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Table 3 Mobilizing public will and inspiring citizen action*
Map out types of
publics, participatory
inputs and degree of
infuence
A diverse menu of possibilities for mobilizing public will can be
derived by using a framework that applies key dimensions which
defne degrees of public representation, the cost of participatory
inputs (cheap to costly) and the extent of infuence that ruling elites
are willing to surrender.
Applying these dimensions on a linear scale provides a more
nuanced view of the public to be mobilized. For example, a linear
scale that represents participation on a range of inclusive (more
representative) to exclusive (more mobilized) and corresponding
types of publics can offer a choice of possible publics to be activated,
depending on the political context and type of social accountability
mechanism utilized.
Use local, political
context and people as
the starting points
A people-centered and context-specifc approach provides a reliable
guide for effectively mobilizing public will and inspiring civic activism.
Start by understanding peoples needs and aspirations, the obstacles
to their participation, as well as their living conditions and external
environment (social, political, cultural, media). Recognizing the
shifts in peoples interest and motivation helps identify other drivers
of infuence that can be tapped to ensure the sustainability of
engagement. Use local leaders as key messengers and advocates of
citizen activism.
Enlist educational
institutions as partners
and target the youth as
an audience
Educational institutions could be tapped as active partners in
broadening public access to information using digital media. For
example, the impact and reach of information campaigns on
CD-ROMS, given their pedagogical value, could be enhanced
by bringing them into classroom discussions. Targeting the
technological-savvy youth who represent a signifcant segment of the
population will broaden exposure and visibility.
Make strategic use of
the media, traditional
and modern
Media plays a central role in building informed and competent
citizens who are capable of demanding accountability from public
officials. Results of social accountability mechanisms should be
broadly disseminated and translated in a simple, easy-to-understand
way. Key messages should be clear, consistent and compelling,
using effective channels of communication such as print, radio, TV,
as well as creative platforms such as local plays, street theater,
posters, and billboards in strategic locations to reach as wide an
audience as possible. The path from awareness creation to citizen
activism has several intermediate steps, which include building
knowledge, changing attitudes, and empowering citizens.
* Global Dialogue, Generating Genuine Demand with Social Accountability Mechanisms, CommGAP 2007
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17
Global Voices is an ambitious project that provides
a platform for news from all over the world. Hundreds
of bloggers provide this community with reports and
translations of reports from blogs and citizen media
from countries and sources that are not usually covered
by the mainstream media. In this sense Global Voices
provides a platform for organizing information from a
vast variety of sources.
Kubatana.net fulflls a similar function, but with a
diferent approach. Established in 2001 in Zimbabwe,
the portal aggregates and publishes material on human
rights and other civic issues. Te portals aim is to fll
information gaps between NGOs and civil society orga-
nizations in Zimbabwe and provide them with a one-stop-shop for relevant publications. Over 250 mem-
ber organizations in the electronic network contribute and access information relevant to their work and
thereby provide a central gateway for civil society issues.
Te Women of Uganda Network is an online Community of Practice with regard to gender issues.
WOUGNET, an NGO based in Kampala, combines online, of ine, and mobile tools to share information,
network, provide technical support to women and advocate for gender issues. Te project provides a com-
mon platform for diferent eforts concerning womens rights and thereby organizes information and focuses
initiatives working toward similar goals.
Source: twaweza.org
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19
A
s seen in the Stairway to Mobilization, diferent interventions are needed to move the public up
the stairway to a sustainable movement for accountability. Tese interventions are communica-
tion interventions. Information campaigns educate the general public about relevant issues. Mobi-
lization happens through changes in attitudes and behavior. Tis also requires communication campaigns
aimed at specifc attitudes and behaviors. Communication campaigns must be planned carefully in order to
make them efective toward specifc goals.
Designing a Communication Strategy
Te most important step in the design is defning the communication objectives. Without knowing what the
communication is supposed to convey, to whom, and with which desired efects, a communication strategy
is likely to fail. To defne objectives, identify the problem that you want to address as well as its causes and
solutions. Te objectives should be specifc, measurable, achievable, realistic, and timely.
Te next step is defning your target group or audience. It is relatively easy to identify the group or groups
of people that you want to reach with your messages. Audiences can be women, teenagers, farmers, etc.
Choose your target group as narrowly as possible so that you will be able to design meaningful messages.
For messages to be meaningful, it is also necessary to understand the cultural background of your audience,
their opinions, and feelings. For instance, you should know whether there are specifc words or practices that
P A R T
Communication
Campaigns
3
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Part 3
20
have negative connotations in a specifc culture, and should therefore be avoided in messages. Understand-
ing the background of the audience requires research or a high degree of empathy for the relevant culture.
Stakeholders are a larger group than the audience. Te audience is a stakeholder, but there are other
stakeholders in a situation beyond your primary audience. Basically, stakeholders are all groups which are
directly or indirectly part of the problem or the solution. For instance, if you want to promote infant immu-
nization, your audience may be mothers of young children, but your stakeholders include hospitals, doctors,
the health minister, and even the parliament that can pass a law about immunization as well. Stakeholders
are important for realizing your goals. Ofen separate communication strategies are needed for diferent
stakeholders. Government of cials, for instance, are better addressed through personal conversations than
through broad media campaigns, while mothers of young children are easier to be reach through the media.
Finally, your messages should be carefully designed to reach your audience. Te audiences cultural back-
ground is very important here. Tere have been advertising campaigns for cars that described the car with
terms that were culturally ofensive words in that particular country. Situations like this should, of course,
be avoided through careful research and targeting. Messages must be clear and easy to understand, and they
must somehow appeal to the targeted audience. Humor can be appealing (but not in every culture) and per-
sonal stories have been proven to be appealing.
Steps in Planning a Communication Strategy
Te process starts with an analysis of the situation and of the stakeholders who are involved in the situation. In this
phase, review relevant documentation about the project, its objectives, and the problem that it is trying to address.
Te second step is building trust and engaging stakeholders in exploring and assessing the situation:
identify, engage in dialog, and explore stakeholders perceptions on key issues.
Next, it is necessary to identify, analyze, and rank challenges, problems, risks, and opportunities by ana-
lyzing the communication and information systems of the relevant stakeholders.
How to plan a communication strategy
Objectives
Key step, critical for success of communication campaign
Define problem and its causes
Define specific, measurable, achievable, realistic , and timely objectives
Target groups
Audience
Groups that the messages are supposed to reach
Understand cultural background, opinions etc. through research and
empathy
Stakeholders
Proactive role
Includes people indirectly affected by the problem
Includes people that have anything to do with the problem and the proposed
solution
Messages
Aimed at audience
Design according to cultural background etc.
Target narrowly
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Communication Campaigns
21
In the fourth phase, you need to analyze causes of major problems/ challenges, taking into account dif-
ferent perspectives by exploring causes of problems and assessing political, technical, and economic risks
and opportunities.
Best options and viable solutions are identifed in the ffh stage. Tis means analyzing and discussing
possible solutions to achieve the intended change.
Tose possible solutions need to be transformed into feasible and measurable objectives in the sixth step
of planning a communication strategy.
Te seventh step is about defning and positioning relevant audiences or stakeholder groups by identify-
ing the main groups of interest or audiences, including those indirectly related to the issues.
Ten you need to delineate the level and type of the intended change: defne if desired change is related
to awareness, knowledge, attitudes, behaviors, mobilization, collaboration, or mediation.
Te ninth stage includes selecting communication models and approaches that are most efective for
your campaign.
Tis is followed by the selection of appropriate channels of media and other communication channels
that are likely to reach the largest share of your target audience.
Toward the end of the planning process, in the eleventh phase, you will need to package content themes
and design the messages which you want to convey.
Ten, of course, it is time to implement the strategy, monitor the strategy, and evaluate outcomes with
regard to the desired level of sustainable change.
Communication Decisions Template
A useful tool in mapping key decisions in designing a communication strategy for social accountability
initiatives is shown in Figure 5. It identifes the diferent target audiences, the behavior change needed to
help achieve project objectives, the messages that will resonate with specifc target audiences, the appropri-
ate channels of communication, and the benchmarks to evaluate the success of the communication strategy.
How to plan a communication strategy II
Become
acquainted with
the situation and
stakeholders
Build trust, engage
stakeholders in
assessing
situation
Identify, analyze,
rank challenges,
problems, risks,
opportunities
Analyze causes of
major problems
from different
perspectives
Define best
options and viable
solutions
Select
communication
models and
approaches
Transform them
into objectives
Define & position
audiences or
stakeholder
groups
Define level/ type
of intended
change
Select appropriate
channels and
media
Package content
themes and/ or
design messages
Sustainable
change
Figure 4 Steps in Planning a Communication Strategy
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Framing
Framing is about communicating in a way that leads audiences to see something in a certain light or from
a particular perspective. Efective framing taps into pre-existing beliefs, attitudes, and opinions, and high-
lights certain aspects of an issue over others. Framing is signifcant for civil society organizations; it may
even determine the success or failure of a cause. By learning how to frame a message, CSOs can use the
media as a vehicle to drive campaigns.
Te area of climate change provides a great example for how framing can change public opinion about an
issue. For instance, the term global climate change is broader than global warming and brings to mind
diferent aspects of the issue. Diferent aspects, in turn, call for diferent solutions.
Framing helps by making sense of an issue in the way that you want it to. When an event or issue is
described, the speaker can emphasize certain considerations while ignoring others. Te public will then
focus on the aspects that the speaker emphasized. For instance, a study undertaken in Africa revealed that
the media ofen reported on diseases such as HIV/AIDS with negative and derogatory descriptions. On the
other hand, diseases such as tuberculosis were presented without using negative terms or examples, and
without using derogatory language. Because of this, it is more likely that people with HIV/AIDS will be seen
in a negative way, possibly for having brought the disease on themselves through bad behavior. Tuberculosis
patients would be more likely to receive sympathy from the public.
When news is reported in the form of specifc events or particular cases we call this episodic framing.
When news is reported in an episodic way, citizens are less likely to consider society responsible for the
events and more likely to think that individuals are responsible. Tematic framing is when political issues
and events are framed in a general or collective context. Citizens who view news in a thematic frame are less
likely to consider individuals responsible, but more likely to believe that society is at fault.
When an issue is presented while pointing out potential gain, the story points out good things that will
happen when something specifc is done. Te audience is therefore motivated to act in a certain way in order
Communication Management Decision Tool
AUDIENCE BEHAVIOR CHANNELS EVALUATION
MESSAGES
Take-away
Messages
Supporting
Data
Management Objective:
Figure 5 Communication Management Decision Template
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Communication Campaigns
23
to gain something good. Gain frames are used to inspire hope in the audience. A loss frame, on the other
hand, is a more urgent call to action and points out what can happen if you dont do something to prevent a
bad thing from occurring. Te health message about cancer screening would in this case portray a grieving
family from having lost a loved one because the cancer was not detected in time to treat it. Loss frames raise
negative feelings, but also point out the urgency of an issue.
Other frames that CSOs can use in their messages are injustice frames that incite moral indignation;
identity frames that promote a sense of identifcation with a specifc group; and agency frames that promote
their belief in collective action.
Public Narrative
Te public narrative is about translating deeply held values into action by engaging heart, head and hands.
As the next chart illustrates, mobilizing people can be done by encouraging action and challenging mind-
sets and action-inhibiting emotions. A public narrative underpins pro-accountability movements which
have worked towards building a mobilized public. Well-informed, attentive and active members, driven by
specifc long-term issue interests, are motivated to actively engage and demand accountability. With a well-
articulated message embedded in its public narrative, a mobilized public translates its shared values into
organized action.
Framing
Activates information that already exists in peoples long-term
memory
Episodic frame: Present an issue in terms of personal
experience
Responsibility assigned to individuals
Thematic frame: Present an issue in terms of general trends
Responsibility assigned to society
Gain frame: Point to something positive that will happen if something
specific is being done
Inspires hope
Loss frame: Points out what can happen if you dont do something to
prevent a bad thing from happening
Communicates urgency
Injustice frame: Incites moral indignation
Identity frame: Promotes a sense of identity with a group working on a
common cause
Agency frame: Promotes the belief that conditions and policies can be
changed through collective action
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24
Public Narrative
Inertia
Fear
Apathy
Self-Doubt
Isolation
Urgency
Hope
Anger
You Can Make a
Difference
Solidarity
Urgency captures attention and creates space for new
action. If we dont change our carbon footprint now, our
children will see the poles melting.
Provide credible solutions and report of success
elsewhere. Ground hope in faith and traditions.
Charismatic leaders can inspire hope.
Outrage and indignation at unjust conditions. Invoke an
injustice frame. Appeal to values, moral traditions and
sense of personal dignity.
Frame what you do around what people can do. Dont
demand the impossible. Recognize achievements and
contributions by participants.
Meetings, singing, common dress, shared language and
other rituals create the experience of belonging and
solidarity.
Source: Marshall Ganz, 2007
The Power of Public Narrative in Collective Movements (Marshall Ganz)
Marshal Ganz introduces the concept of public narrative as an approach to motivating organized collec-
tive action a social movement. He argues that the secret of motivating others lies in emotions. Emotions
inspire motivation, and motivation inspires action. Some emotions can hinder action, while others can
facilitate it. Leaders engage people in meaningful action by mobilizing those feelings that can motivate,
as listed in the chart above. Public narratives present a story of self: sharing the values that defne who
you are as a living experience. They also present a story of us: a story embedded in cultural values and
shared experiences. The story of now addresses the challenges that people need to address. These
three kinds of narratives aim at activating the emotions that help overcome inertia and apathy.
Source: Marshall Ganz, 2011, Public Narrative, Collective Action, and Power. In Accountability through Public Opin-
ion: From Inertia to Public Action,edited by Sina Odugbemi and Taeku Lee.
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25
P A R T
In this module we present real-world examples in mobilizing public opinion for social accountability. Tese
illustrate diferent approaches employed in the contexts of various countries and demonstrate how informed
and active citizens adopted efective communication processes to strengthen citizen demand for social
accountability. Te narrative in each of the case examples highlights the importance of civil societys role
in efectively mobilizing
public opinion as a critical
force in governance.
We ask you to read
the case study summa-
ries provided here. A case
study exercise will assess
your appreciation of the
diferent approaches in
mobilizing public opinion
to support social account-
ability.
P A R T
Mobilizing Public Opinion
and Public Action
Case Studies
4
Philippines
Citizens Audit of Public
Works Projects in Abra
Kenya
Citizen Report Card
Roadshows
Colombia
Evaluation of Public Services
in Bogot
India
Citizens Complaint System in
Mumbai
Mumbais rapid population
growth has posed significant
pressures on its urban public
services. The city, which has
the largest slum population in
India, suffers from a severe
shortage in housing and
infrastructure, poor water
supply and sanitation, and an
overall decline in economic
activity. The Brihan-Mumbai
Municipal Corporation (BMC) is
one of the public agencies
responsible for the overall
governance of municipal
services. Through its many
programs, BMC strives to
improve and expand the
coverage and quality of public
services... >> more
An election campaign in 1997
led to the creation of Bogot
CmoVamos (Bogot How are
we doing?), a citizen-based
social accountability
mechanism designed to monitor
political campaign promises
and their impact on the quality
of life in the city. Empowered by
the 1991 Constitutions
mandate granting citizens the
right to exercise oversight of
public administration, a group
of private sector
representatives developed an
educational monitoring ...
>> more
In Kenya, two key challenges
highlighted the need to go
beyond the technical surveys
one is the untested terrain of
citizen report cards in Africa and
the other is the inherently
contentious debates on water
issues. The Water and
Sanitation Program in Africa and
the Public Affairs Foundation
started off with awareness
creation and consensus building
efforts as important preparatory
work prior to the survey. An
innovative approach of Report
Card Roadshows was adopted
as part of the consultation
process in each of the project
sites >> more
An article in the local newspaper
sparked action from the
Concerned Citizens of Abrafor
Good Government (CCAGG), a
non-partisan group of individuals
committed to monitor public
spending. The news article,
which was based on a
government report, praised the
20 Successful Infrastructure
Projects in the Region. To the
\uninformed reader, this would
seem like a piece of good news.
The CCAGG members,
however, knew some of the
projects had not even started
yet. Since 1987, the group
began to actively mobilize
community
>> more
Mobilizing Public Opinion real change
from real-world contexts
South Africa
Independent Budget Analysis
In 1994, South Africa held
its first democratic elections.
It marked the beginning of
profound changes after two
decades under an apartheid
regime. It was the same year
that the Institute for Democracy
in South Africa (Idasa), a South
African public interest
organization committed
to democratic consolidation,
established the Budget
Information Service (BIS). The
BIS involves the analysis and
dissemination of critical, timely,
and accessible information...
>> more
MM_Part04.indd 25 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
26
In 1994, South Africa held its frst democratic elections. It marked the beginning of profound changes
afer two decades under apartheid. In the same year that the Institute for Democracy in South Africa
(Idasa), a South African public interest organization commit-
ted to democratic consolidation, established the Budget Infor-
mation Service (BIS). Te BIS is involved the analysis and
dissemination of critical, timely, and accessible information
about the budget and its impact on low-income people. Partic-
ipation of civil society and legislatures in the budget process is
a key dimension of BIS. It focuses on four main groups: (1) the
executive branch - to provide critical analysis of government
policies and processes, (2) legislators to help build and reori-
ent capacity to new challenges under a constitutional democ-
racy, (3) civil society organizations to build their experience
in parliamentary advocacy and policy infuence, and their
work with poor communities, and (4) the media to educate
journalists about budget processes and improve the quality of
media coverage.
Budget Week Preparation An informed media promotes an
informed public debate. Preparing the media before the budget is
released is a critical plank in BISs strategy. Journalists are briefed
on the budget process and the implications of the various policy
trends and emerging budget issues. Tis early engagement fosters a
positive media relationship ahead of the budget process.
BIS also prepares members of the parliament weeks prior to the
upcoming budget release. It produces a guide book on multi-year
budgets and an update of the data in each medium-term budget.
For community based organizations, a popular book on the same
topic was distributed. Flyers were also sent to radio stations and
NGOs explaining the issues.
Day One: Budget Release BIS sends an advisory notice to jour-
nalists and radio stations informing them that BIS staf will be avail-
able for interviews two hours afer budget release. To reach mass
audiences, BIS radio interviews are conducted in 11 of cial languages. Tis generated a huge interest
from the largest non-English speaking community radio stations.
Budget release is done afer the presentation of the Minister of Finance. Te BIS teams then con-
duct a review of their respective sectors based on three key questions: (1) What are the overarching
political and economic themes of the budget? (2) What are the priority sectors? (3) Who are the win-
ners and losers? Afer internal BIS discussion, a set of talking points for the media interviews is fnal-
ized. BIS produces media briefs and issues press statements on the impact of the budget on the poor.
Te briefs were widely popular because they were simple, easy to understand especially designed for
those new to the budget debate.
Case 1. Independent Budget Analysis in South Africa

MM_Part04.indd 26 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Mobilizing Public Opinion and Public Action Case Studies
27
Day Two: Media analysis A review of media coverage and refection on issues overlooked or mis-
represented in the media guides BIS work in ensuring accurate and objective reporting on the budget.
Of particular importance are articles that help prepare civil society and the legislators for parliamen-
tary hearings on the national and provincial budgets. Issue-specifc articles on the budget impact on
women, children or the elderly and public sector reform are prepared in advance and updated to
include budget analysis. Tese are released to diferent newspapers.
Day Tree: Parliamentary hearings BIS prepares a detailed statement on the budget and its likely
impact on poverty which is presented at the fnance committee hearing. In-depth articles are written
for weekend newspapers and a short (10 to 15 minute) radio programs are produced for community
radio stations. For the hearing on provincial budgets, the same process is followed. Once the nine pro-
vincial budgets are tabled, BIS conducts inter-provincial comparative analyses of the sectors. Briefs are
written prior to the deliberations to help prepare the provincial parliamentarians. Local NGOs who
also receive the briefs are encouraged to directly support their respective provincial budget committees
to foster local capacity in budget analysis.
BIS has developed several dissemination tools which have proven very efective. Extensive use of
technology-based support, through email distribution lists and the Idasa website, helps in ensuring
ef ciency and cost efectiveness in BIS public dissemination eforts. Te Budget Watch, a magazine
published every six weeks has the executive branch and the legislature as its primary audience. It is
primarily a technical publication on budget documentation, efective legislative oversight, and the
budget-review process. Also included is an in-depth report on the budget and poverty. It has become
a credible communication channel for civil society issues to the executive. Te Budget Briefs are dis-
seminated to a broad range of NGOs and CBOs. A weekly current afairs radio program, called Democ-
racy Radio helps enhance public understanding and participation across broad sectors of civil society.
Advocacy tips and Advocacy stories of the week highlight national and provincial debate issues and
analyze the budgets implications for diferent groups. Te program is aired on community radio sta-
tions nationwide and is widely heard, including in poor and remote areas.
When BIS frst started, it barely received attention from the
media or the public. Only afer years of educational outreach, efec-
tively working with the media and maintaining high-quality work,
did interest slowly develop. BIS places a high premium on produc-
ing credible independent work. As public demand increased, BIS
has had to address important issues: (1) how to maintain a bal-
ance between the public demand for immediate commentary on
the budget debate and the desire to produce more in-depth, careful
analysis; (2) how to maintain positive working relations with gov-
ernment which ofen perceives quick-response commentaries as
criticisms of the budget, as opposed to civil society organizations
who support this approach of taking an independent, strong, anti-
poverty line.
As BIS continues to strike the right balance, its contribution to informing public debate and sus-
taining stakeholder interest on issues is critical to strengthening foundations of the countrys demo-
cratic processes and institutions.
Source: Adapted from Case Study: Analysis of the Executive Budget, Budget Information Service,
South Africa, A Taste of Success Examples of Budget Work of NGOs, Te International Budget
Project, October, 2000.
Questions for participants:
1. How was information
accessed?
2. How was public opinion
mobilized to strengthen
citizen voice?
3. How did they use the power
of the media?
4. What are the relevant lessons
of experience?
MM_Part04.indd 27 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
28
An article in the local newspaper sparked action from the Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Govern-
ment (CCAGG), a non-partisan group of individuals committed to monitor public spending. Te news
article, which was based on a government report, praised the 20 Successful Infrastructure Projects in
the Region. To the uninformed reader, this would seem like a piece of good news. Te CCAGG mem-
bers, however, knew some of the projects had not yet
even started. Since 1987, the group began to actively
mobilize community participation and the local media
in monitoring government development programs.
CCAGG received training from the central planning
agency, the National Economic Development Author-
ity, as part of a national policy to increase community
participation in development programs .Teir exposure
to infrastructure projects increased their knowledge of
government contracting and project management.
In Abra, a province located in northern Philippines,
most major bridges are either damaged or unfnished.
Te Abra River cuts through most of the provinces
rugged terrain, making travel rough especially dur-
ing the rainy season. A motorized ferry service runs
all day, even as late as midnight in some parts of the
province. Te ferries are a constant reminder that the
bridges are sorely needed in Abra, noted one inves-
tigative reporter. CCAGG head, Pura Sumangil con-
frmed the dire situation and said, In the interiors,
children have drowned because of the absence even of
hanging bridges. So a report that makes false claims
about successful projects in a province where much
public money has poured in but with little tangible
results can quickly trigger public outrage. And it did.
In 1987, the CCAGG mounted its frst investiga-
tion on the alleged successful projects of the Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH).
CCAGG collected all the necessary evidencedetailed documentation of the actual state of the proj-
ects, signed af davits from residents of project areas, and photographs from project sites. Te groups
feld visits were met with hostile reception. Some members received anonymous threats and were
ofered bribes. Politicians intervened; but CCAGG members persisted and were not intimidated. Tey
had support from various citizen groups, including the clergy of Abra and the business sector. Te
CCAGG investigation exposed the discrepancies and anomalies in the DPWH report. Tey uncovered
ghost projects and unfnished bridges that have run out of funds. Te group fled an administrative
case against 11 public works engineers, including the district engineer.
An of cial government audit concurred with CCAGGs fndings and several of cials were charged
with corruption. Te lawyers of the government of cials requested leniency, and instead asked for of cial
Case 2. Citizens Audit of Public Works Projects

in Abra, Philippines
MM_Part04.indd 28 11/11/11 3:21 PM
29
reprimands as form of punishment. CCAGG members were outraged. Tey mobilized public opinion
and citizens sent a barrage of angry telegrams to the Public Works Secretary demanded severe punish-
ment for the convicted of cials. Te citizens plea was heard and the Public Works Secretary conceded.
As a result, 11 government of cials were found guilty and suspended from of ce. Te Chief and the
Deputy Chief Engineer of DPWH in Abrawerealso suspended and permanently debarred from serving
in the province. Afer this frst CCAGG audit, the DPWH Regional Director issued a directive requiring
that projects in Abra province be funded only afer they had obtained clearances from CCAGG.
CCAGG has developed its own brand of monitoring government projects. Its members, compris-
ing mainly of housewives, students, and out-of-school youth, observe road construction projects and
report their fndings to colleagues who are engineers and accountants. Tese are the specialists who
conduct detailed investigations on project sites and are equipped with monitoring kits record books,
measuring tapes, cameras and voice recorders. Te group uses government technical reference guides
and of cial documents (approved plans, specifcations, budgets and work programs) as benchmarks
for determining gaps in the implementation of infrastructure projects. Tey watch for evidence of
corruption or poor performance, use of sub-standard materials in road construction projects or fraud
in contracting procedures. When the audit identifes problems with a project, a detailed report is sub-
mitted to the relevant government of cials along with specifc demands for corrective action. In one
project, CCAGG found evidence of substandard materials used and improper road preparation. In
another case, CCAGG found overbilling for construction materials. In both cases, the problems were
rectifed at the contractors expense.
Te media plays a crucial role in disseminating the results
of CCAGG investigations and in infuencing public opinion.
Although CCAGGs exemplary work has gained national atten-
tion, the group mainly engages the local media. It has a weekly
primetime Sunday radio program called Allangungan (which
means Echoes). Once CCAGG receives the list of projects in
Abra, it goes on the air to broadcast the information and dissemi-
nate details of the projects, its costs, the implementing agency, and
key targets. Te program is replayed each Wednesday giving it
double exposure and increased viewership. Te coverage area is
wide, reaching four other provinces.
CCAGG has forged partnerships with public agencies and other organizations in strengthening
accountability. In 2000, the group became the NGO partner in the participatory audit pilot of the
Commission on Audit (COA) and the UNDP. Despite the successful pilot, however, the new COA
administration declared other priorities and discontinued participatory audits. Trough DPWH
appointment, CCAGG members participate as observers in the Pre-bid and Awards Committee to
help monitor transparency in the bidding process. Across the NGO community, CCAGG joined the
Transparency and Accountability Network to broaden its links with other national partners. In 2003,
the Northern Luzon Coalition for Good Governance, a network of parish-based social action groups,
was established with CCAGG at the helm. CCAGG has been successfully replicated in 15 out of 79
provinces of the Philippines. While CCAGG has gained widespread public attention, it recognizes the
importance of strategic partnerships with broad-based networks to amplify citizen voice and infuence
policy dialogue and debate at the national level.
Source: Adapted from International Budget Project (2007), Transparency International (2005), Public
Afairs Foundation, Sirker, Cosic (2007), Rimban, PCIJ (2000)
accessed?
citizen voice?
of the media?
of experience?
MM_Part04.indd 29 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
30
Poor understanding of issues that impact the interests of the poor is a constraint faced by many local
organizations. Tis is particularly true in the urban sector where reforms involve technocratic solu-
tions that focus on institutional re-structuring, tarif-setting, private sector participation and legal and
regulatory frameworks. At the same time, civil society organi-
zations (CSOs) play an important role as partners; usually as
intermediaries or service providers for the poor. To bridge this
gap, the Water and Sanitation Program Africa has focused
on building the capacity of CSOs in proactive and construc-
tive engagement forthe reform process. Te Public Afairs
Foundation (PAF) was commissioned to support the capacity
building intervention in selected countries in Africa.
In Kenya, two key challenges highlighted the need to go
beyond the technical surveys one is the untested terrain of
citizen report cards in Africa, and the other is the inherently
contentious debates on water issues. Te PAF & WSP started
of with awareness-creation and consensus-building eforts as
important preparatory work prior to the survey. An innova-
tive approach of Report Card Roadshows was adopted as
part of the consultation process in each of the project sites.
It was a fve-day event held in two phases: Individual consul-
tations with key stakeholders utility managers, regulators,
civil society organizations, media, community-based organi-
zations, survey agencies and academia, and followed by a one-
day multi-stakeholder workshop with highly participatory
and transparent, open discussions. Te individual consulta-
tions focused on creating awareness and a better understand-
ing of the concept and methodology of the citizen report card.
And the multi-stakeholder workshop created the public space
for public dialogue and deliberation.
Citizens also had an opportunity to evaluate the merits of
the tool and its contextual ft, based on a set of criteria. Called
the Critical 8, it examines the political context, level of
decentralization, environment for citizen feedback, citizens
right to voice, presence/activism of CSOs, local capacity to
do survey and analysis, quality of media, and responsiveness
of service providers. Each stakeholder group discussed each
criterion and assigned a score from0-10 on a scale that rates the overall environment (0 for highly dis-
abling and 10 for highly enabling). Te results from the roadshows helped identify perceived obstacles
to change, such as public apathy and unprofessional media. Te participatory assessment provided
valuable information that guided the design and implementation of the CRC in three cities Nairobi,
Kisumu and Mombasa.
Case 3. Strengthening Consumer Voice in Water and

Sanitation: Citizen Report Card Roadshows in Kenya
MM_Part04.indd 30 11/11/11 3:21 PM
31
To facilitate open dialogue and ensure ownership of outcomes, there was broad participation of
diverse partners across stakeholder groups. Stakeholder alliances at two levels, implemented the CRC
process. At the national level, a stakeholder alliance was formed to facilitate policy dialogue on issues
around the CRC process. Te National Consortium comprised key policy and decision makers from
national institutions, including directors from the departments of water, health and local govern-
ment; chief executives of the regulatory board, water service boards and utilities; and key of cials from
NGOs and national civil society institutions. In each of the three project sites, a city-level consortium
was established to foster ownership of the process and the results. A broad range of local institutions
involved in the provision of water supply and sanitation services participated in the dialogue.
Te CRC launch was organized with the following objectives: (1) ensure public dissemination of
the fndings, (2) building legitimacy for the CRC process and outcomes, (3) improve engagement for
urban water and sanitation issues, promote public debate and continued citywide and nationwide
engagement through the consortiums, (4) use the media to shine a public glare on the performance of
service providers in water and sanitation, and (5) enable policy makers and service providers to make a
public commitment to dialogue and set monitorable performance benchmarks over the following two
years. About 500 participants attended the launch, including senior utility of cials, city mayors and the
Assistant Minister Wanjala of Water and Irrigation who of cially received the reports.
To unify citizens, service providers and policy makers in the spirit of dialogue, rather than con-
frontation, a slogan was created in Kiswahili, MajinaUsaf? NjooniTujadiliane (meaning Water and
Sanitation? Come all, lets discuss and agree.) Promotional materials carried this message. A concilia-
tory tone and the call for dialogue were welcomed by all the participants.
Media coverage included a press conference with 30 journalists representing both electronic and
print media. Some 15 stories were covered in the electronic (both radio and TV) media afer the
launch. Journalists adopted a range of angles to capture interest in the story - some focused on the
impact on the poor, others on the commitments made by utility companies to improve the situation.
Te coverage gave a glare efect to the performance of the service providers. On TV, discussions of the
CRC fndings and issues raised were featured on two stations, and
on radio, a live call-in discussion on urban sanitation and debate
with some politicians were aired. In the following weeks, in depth
stories and key television and radio shows were scheduled as well.
Senior policymakers made public commitments to address the
problems identifed by the dialogue. For example, the Ministry of
Water and Irrigation indicated that citizens consultations on the
National Water Strategy would focus on the urban poor; the Min-
istry of Health pledged to implement the National Environmental
Sanitation and Hygiene Policy and provide space for discussion
and debates and the Ministry of Local Government assured citi-
zens that a new solid waste management policy would be launched.
In his speech, the Minister encouraged consortiums to continue meeting in order to monitor improve-
ments and jointly explore solutions to the issues raised. Te Boards welcomed continued participation
and the Coast Water Services Board committed to share its work plans with the stakeholders to enable
them to monitor outcomes.
Te Kenya CRC experience revealed a number of signifcant fndings: (1) Power of Empirical
Data - the credibility, objectivity and neutrality of the tool helped to foster a more efective engage-
ment between the citizen and the state; (2) Context Setting & Consensus Creationan inclusive,
transparent and participatory process is critical. Te CRC Roadshows were instrumental in changing
the public of cials view of demand-led interventions; (3) Public opinion as a trigger for institutional
accessed?
citizen voice?
of the media?
of experience?
MM_Part04.indd 31 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
32
responsespublic of cials played a key role in using the citizen feedback as diagnostic pointers in
designing appropriate institutional responses; (4) Strategic Communication - the design of an efec-
tive and focused strategy depends on a series of important steps: a) Identifying the target audience/
stakeholders; b) Deciding the channels/network and specifc activities to reach the audience; c) Focus-
ing on project management considerations; and d) Consider strategic issues. Te media were efec-
tive partners in the process. Te interactive sessions to inform and educate journalists on the CRC
greatly improved the quality of media coverage. Balanced reporting of both the voice (demand) and
response (institutional) sides of the story were covered alongside the depiction of the major fndings.
Newspaper columnists and TV chat-show hosts helped sustain public interest on issues raised in the
CRC Roadshows long afer its successful launch.
Source: Adapted from Tampi (2007). From Brakes to AcceleratorsHow informed public opinion
facilitates behavior changes in public of cials, Public Afairs Foundation, Bangalore
An election campaign in 1997 led to the creation of Bogot CmoVamos (Bogota How are we doing?),
a citizen-based social accountability mechanism designed to monitor political campaign promises and
their impact on the quality of life in the city. Empowered by the 1991 Constitutions mandate which
granted citizens the right to exercise oversight of pub-
lic administration, a group of private sector represen-
tatives developed an educational monitoring strategy
to hold the district administration accountable. It
provided an evaluation tool for tracking changes in
the quality of life in Bogota based on a set of indica-
tors drawn up in the District Administrations Devel-
opment Plan.
Te initiatives political viability was ensured by
close consultation with the mayor and his team. A stra-
tegic alliance of private-sector representatives from the
El Tiempo Publishing House, the Corona Foundation,
and the Bogot Chamber of Commerce developed the
evaluation and communication tools which were feld
tested through focus groups involving experts and cit-
izens from diferent socio-economic strata. Now, the
Bogot Como Vamos project has emerged as a forum for debate on city issues and has achieved broad
acceptance within the district government and among experts, students and citizens.
Te process of monitoring and evaluation involves mobilizing people and implementing processes
to facilitate efective citizen oversight towards accountability. Access to information is made possible
through the district administration, in particular the mayor, secretaries and directors of city govern-
ment of ces who submit regular reports on the citys plans and programs.
Case 4. Bogota Como Vamos? Citizen Voice in the

Evaluation of Public Services in Bogota
MM_Part04.indd 32 11/11/11 3:21 PM
33
Te evaluation tool that was developed formed
a key set of indicators based on outcome, techni-
cal standards and public perception. Te technical
variables are based on information submitted by the
district of ces every six months. Te public percep-
tion variables are based on an annual opinion survey
of 1,500 individuals representing various zones and
income groups in Bogota. Public opinion on the qual-
ity of services is collected from these opinion polls.
Te project coordinators then prepare a preliminary
report which is presented to a group of experts and
specialists for in-depth analysis for developing con-
clusions and recommendations. Te results are pre-
sented and discussed at seminars where both public
of cials and citizens are present. In addition, the
project sponsors other types of forums and debates
on specifc issues related to quality of life in the city.
Tese initiatives have focused on issues such as street
people, people who have been displaced by violence,
and political reforms in the city.
Te mass media plays a central role in the dissemination and deliberation of evaluation fndings.
To reach mass audiences, information is published in El Tiempo, the national newspaper with the
largest circulation in the cityreaching 1.4 million people daily, and 3 million Sunday readers. Te
project also uses a local television station, City TV, with an audience of 2.9 million people. Other strat-
egies include publishing a quarterly bulletin with 3,000 copies for distribution to grassroots citizen
organizations; other publications from seminars and forums were also circulated to experts, libraries,
research and documentation centers, universities, and high schools. In addition to publishing them in
El Tiempo, a press release is sent to about 25 radio and TV stations
and the print media. Te fndings are also posted on the projects
web page in order to reach more people.
Te projects most signifcant contribution to ensuring account-
ability was the development of performance indicators that provide
benchmarks for citizens to use as a basis for demanding account-
ability from city of cials. Objective standards are used to measure
the quality of service provision in the city and its impact on the
quality of life for city residents. Performance and accountability
are determined on the basis of qualitative changes; for example,
in educational improvements of student test scores, in health
improvements in child mortality rates, in housing and services, a
decrease in housing shortages, and so on.
Te project improved the quality of reporting done by past
city administrations, and shifed the emphasis from inputs and
activities to impacts and outcomes. Some district of ces are using
information from the annual public perception survey as a core
performance indicator. Te Secretariat of Education posts this
information on its web page: www.sedbogota.edu.co and public
service providers design their service delivery indicators based on
1. What were the mechanism(s)
used? Briey describe how
they work.
2. Whose voice was heard? And
by whom?
3. Was it effective in:
informing citizens?
in mobilizing public opinion?
in the use of media?
If not, what could they have
done better?
4. What were the enabling
factors of success? of failure?
5. What would you do differently
to build citizen voice?
to mobilize public opinion?
to improve development
outcomes?
MM_Part04.indd 33 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
34
this information. Te General Secretariat of the Mayors Of ce also uses it to monitor the administra-
tions overall progress.
In the 2000 election campaign, the evaluation fndings were used to frame the most important
issues for the city and to inform public debate. Two documents were published - Basis for a Govern-
ment Program for Bogot and Te Citizens Agenda. Tese publications provided the content for
special pieces in El Tiempo, a special bulletin containing a voters guide, in public meetings with can-
didates and televised debates on City TV.
Bogot Cmo Vamos has been recognized among the Best Citizen Practices for Improving Qual-
ity of Life by the UNDP-Habitat Dubai International Award for Best Practices in 2000 and 2002. Tis
recognition led Harvard University to contact the program with a request for more information. Four
hundred people have attended the course it ofers, entitled Bogot: Public Policy, in conjunction the
National University of Colombias Bogot Network (Red Bogot). One of the projects most signifcant
accomplishments is the Concejo Como Vamos Project, launched in 2002, to evaluate the perfor-
mance of the Bogot City Council with the support of Bogot Cmo Vamos promoters. Replication of
this project is being considered byother interested cities like Medelln, Ccuta, Cali, Barranquilla, and
Bucaramanga, as well as the central government.
Te project has demonstrated its efectiveness as a forum for public debate where strategic issues
afecting the city can be examined and deliberated. To further expand its reach to broader segments
of society, the project plans to expand its audience through partnerships with radio stations. Stronger
links with experts and research centers is another way that is being explored to maximize the use of
information generated in the surveys. Tey can write technical publications and produce research
which can stimulate public debate and infuence policy dialogue on key issues of public interest.
Source: Adapted from Snchez (2003). Evaluation of Changes in the Quality of Life in Bogota, Colom-
bia from a Civil Society Perspective: Bogot Cmo Vamos. in World Bank, Voice, Eyes, and Ears: Social
Accountability in Latin America. Washington, DC: World Bank.
Mumbais rapid population growth poses signifcant pres-
sures on its urban public services. Te city, which has the
largest slum population in India, sufers from a severe
shortage in housing and infrastructure, poor water sup-
ply and sanitation, and a decline in economic activity. Te
Brihan-Mumbai Municipal Corporation (BMC) is one of
the public agencies responsible for the overall governance
of municipal services. Trough its many programs, BMC
strives to improve and expand the coverage and quality of
public services. Part of its strategic vision is transforming
Mumbai into a world-class metropolis.
Building partnerships with civil society organizations is
a key strategy of BMC to improve urban governance and
Case 5. Citizens Complaint System in Mumbai

MM_Part04.indd 34 11/11/11 3:21 PM
35
service delivery. Te Corporation partnered with PRAJA,
an NGO committed to promoting public accountability
through greater citizen involvement. In 1999, PRAJA
assisted BMC in drafing its Citizens Charter, and in 2000
they set up a centralized complaint registration system
as a mechanism to strengthen citizen voices. Te sys-
tem provided consumers a helpline that was available 24
hours a day, 7 days a week. Using standards set in the Cit-
izens Charter, PRAJA conducted public audits of BMCs
performance. Tese were conducted every six months
to monitor changes in service quality and to exert pub-
lic pressure on elected and administrative of cials. Te
audit results over a two-year survey period showed lim-
ited public awareness of BMCs service obligations, dis-
satisfaction over poor handling of consumer grievances and inaccessible political representatives and
resource allocations.
To address citizens concerns regarding inadequate grievance handling, BMC launched the Online
Complaint Monitoring System (OCMS) in 2003. Publicity was done through newspapers and the
mainstream media to disseminate information about the new initiative and its innovative features.
Citizen feedback and service-related complaints could be communicated through various means by
phone calls, letters, petitions, faxes, the Internet as well as with personal visits to the BMC. OCMS
also provided the convenience of accessing information on the status of complaints without personal
follow-up calls or visits to BMC of ces. Once the complaint is logged in the system, an internal referral
system forwards the information to responsible of ces. Unresolved issues and any unreasonable delays
in response are elevated to the Deputy Municipal Commissioner, and even to of cials higher up when
warranted. On average, citizens log in an estimated 172 complaints per day. In six out of 10 reported
complaints, the issues of greatest public concern involved (1) unauthorized construction and regular-
ization, (2) drainage problems, (3) commercial licenses, (4) solid
waste management and (5) water supply.
Te initiative has benefted from the support of champions
within BMC and infuential government of cials. Media coverage,
although confned to the English mainstream press, helped boost
public information eforts. Te Right to Information Act in Maha-
rashtra, enacted in 2003, provides the legislative mandate requir-
ing state agencies to grant citizens access to public information.
Since the OCMS implementation in 2003, PRAJAs audits
showed general citizen satisfaction with BMCs complaint redressal
system. Direct links between citizens and service providers have
led to overall positive public perceptions. Strong public demand
for better governance has been created. High-level agencies, such as the judiciary, state and central
government, have also exerted pressures for local-level reforms.
Despite these positive developments, a number of problems, if not addressed with the right inter-
ventions, could pose risks for program failure. A study done in 2005 identifed the following problems
with the initiative:
Limited improvements in meeting service standards,
Marginal change in performance and behavior of frontline provider,
accessed?
citizen voice?
of the media?
of experience?
MM_Part04.indd 35 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
36
Weak enforceability due to the absence of credible performance incentives,
Low public awareness and use of the service; limited to those with access to phone, fax or the Inter-
net,
Exclusion of marginalized slum communities from service coverage,
Gap between consumer perceptions and BMC with respect to redresses status (resolved vs.
unresolved issues),
Lack of dialogue and inadequate consultation during design phase of OCMS,
Limited involvement of political representatives and frontline operational staf,
Pro-accountability measures met with strong resistance from politicized and powerful labor unions,
Narrow audience reach as media targeted mostly the educated and middle-class.
Te 2005 study further notes that OCMS is likely to remain a feature of governance in Mumbai.
For BMC, the reputational costs of exiting the program are high due to pressure from the broad citi-
zenry for better governance.
Notwithstanding its implementation challenges, the initiative has gained wide public recognition
and has already been replicated in Chennai and Bangalore.
Source: Adapted from World Bank Engaging Citizens to Improve Services, Water and Sanitation Pro-
gram, South Asia (WSP-SA), May, 2007
MM_Part04.indd 36 11/11/11 3:21 PM
37
In South Africa, IDASAs Budget Information Service provided valuable and timely information and analysis
of the executive budget. Public opinion was mobilized through strategic and broad educational outreach
across various sectors of South African society. Audience and issue-specifc dissemination tools communi-
cated key messages that resonated with the target audience. For example, Budget Watch, a technical maga-
zine was primarily targeted for the executive and legislative branches of government and Budget Briefs was
published for NGOs and CBOs. Framing by issue-specifc articles helped draw attention to the important
budget implications of programs afecting vulnerable groups, including women, children and the elderly.
Te media was actively engaged and their informed opinion of the budget was shaped through early engage-
ment and information-sharing, which created a positive working relationship. Radio programs kept people
informed and engaged. Te BIS program rode on the popularity of community radio stations to reach peo-
ple in the remote areas. Te program became a platform for national dialogue on budget issues. Trough the
persuasive power of an informed media, greater public awareness and knowledge of the executive budget
allowed the citizens to engage in dialogue with the government, even on larger issues involving the policy
priorities of the country.
South Africa
Focus on key target
audiences:
Executive branch, legislative
CSOs and the media
Platform for national dialogue
on budget issues
Issue-specific and audience-
targeted dissemination
Strategic use of media for
informed public opinion
Budget Watch
Budget Briefs
Democracy Radio
Advocacy tips and stories
Public debate national,
provincial budget issues
TV panel interviews
ICT internet, email
Lets review some of the notable highlights in the diferent case studies.
MM_Part04.indd 37 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
38
In the Philippines, the accountability initiative led by Concerned Citizens of Abra for Good Government
benefted from a mobilized public whose attentive and active members were committed to fghting corrup-
tion in public works spending. Empowered by the information gathered from the citizen-led investigations,
they used the evidence and persuasive arguments to make a strong case against public of cials who engaged
in anomalous transactions.
Te concerned citizens of Abra mobilized pressure from below. Citizens signed an af davit voicing
strong opinions about the corrupt actions of public of cials. Tey sent strong letters of petition, made per-
sonal visits and used direct lobbying of public works of cials.
Te group was organized, and actively demanded accountability. Tey kept pressing forward and press-
ing upward. Citizens brought the glare efect of social accountability and the heat efect of mobilized
public opinion. Te citizens investigation eventually led to the suspension of public of cials and charges of
corruption.
Te former election watchdogs are now referred to as the corruption busters.
Philippines
Citizens Audit of Public Works
in Abra Province
Initiative formed by former
election watchdogs; organized
communities to monitor public
spending
Media advocacy to popularize
issues of concern and shape
public opinion
Organized citizen action exposed
anomalies in roads projects
Mobilized support from clergy
and business groups
Direct lobbying with public officials
Letters of complaint and citizens
signed affidavit to top officials
Primetime radio program
Echoes on-the-air twice a week
Partnerships with national
coalitions key to amplifying voice
Networking with other national
organizations to influence policy
dialogue
MM_Part04.indd 38 11/11/11 3:21 PM
39
In Kenya, the citizen report card for water and sanitation created innovative approaches to encourage citizen
engagement and mobilize public opinion. Roadshows added an efective complement to the adopted media
strategies. Te individual consultations focused on creating awareness about the citizen report card as a
social accountability mechanism, while the multi-stakeholder consultations provided the deliberative space
to discuss and debate the contextual ft of the report card.
Stakeholder alliances at the national and city levels facilitated the process of deliberation and public
debate on the results of the citizen report card on water and sanitation. And the introduction of Critical 8
indicators provided a systematic way of generating direct citizen input in evaluating the applicability of the
tool based on important criteria. Open discussions and deliberation created citizen ownership of the tool
and the report-card results.
Te report-card process used framing to create a sense of unity among citizens, service providers and
policy makers. A slogan,, Water and Sanitation? Come all, lets discuss and agree! was designed to evoke
positive attitudes for engaging in cooperative dialogue and challenged the usual confrontational atmosphere
of public debate on water issues. Efective use of the media kept up public interest during the launch, and the
continuing coverage of newspaper columnists kept the issues alive.
Kenya
Citizen Report Card
Roadshows
Innovations in citizen engagement :
1. Report card roadshows -
individual stakeholder consultations
and multi-stakeholder consultations
2. Citizen evaluation of tool
Critical 8 indicators
3. Public opinion mobilized through
open dialogue of stakeholder
alliances at national and city levels
4. Strategic use of media
Print and electronic media
glare effect on service
providers
Slogan Come all. Lets
discuss and agree
appealed to public
sentiment for cooperative
dialogue
TV chat shows and live call-
in radio encouraged public
debate
Newspaper columnists kept
issues alive
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Part 4
40
In India, the online complaints system in Mumbai used information technology as the platform for city
residents to express their opinions and grievances directly to the agency responsible for municipal services.
Direct citizen feedback and complaints about the service provision were sent through various channels:
the Internet, by fax or phone calls, or through complaint letters and petitions. Every complaint had to be
resolved within a stipulated time period as prescribed in the Citizens Charter. And if a complaint was not
redressed by the deadline, it was sent directly to the superior of cer. Tis process of escalation is automatic
and cannot be tampered with.
Public awareness about the service relied largely on mainstream media.
Te program beneftted from the support of internal champions and a democratic public sphere, sup-
ported by the Right to Information Act. Te centralized system of grievance handling was a mechanism that
facilitated the short route of accountability where clients and service providers could engage directly and
exert client power.
India Citizens
Online Complaint System
in Mumbai
Unique e-governance initiative to
address public dissatisfaction over
poor consumer grievance handling
Centralized complaint registration
system
Public opinion about quality of
services communicated through
various channels
Use of mainstream media to
raise public awareness
Petitions, letters of
complaints
Personal visits, meetings
with public officials
ICT-based communication
(phone, fax, or internet)
Regular complaint audit to
assess public satisfaction for
complaint resolution
MM_Part04.indd 40 11/11/11 3:21 PM
41
In Colombia, the Bogot Como Vamos (How are we doing) project evolved in response to the lack of a
citizen-based social accountability mechanism designed to monitor political campaign promises and their
impact on the quality of life in the city.
Te evaluation tool developed to assess service delivery was based on performance indicators drawn
from technical sources and public perception surveys. Evaluation fndings were disseminated through the
mass media.
Availability of the information to the public and its accessibility across broad sectors of civil society is
considered to be the projects most visible efect.
Te project has become an efective forum of public debate, where citizens can discuss issues and con-
cerns with city of cials about the quality of public services.
Colombia
Performance Evaluation
of
Service Provision
Coalition of private sector groups
formed initiative
Performance standard-setting
Citizen voice in service quality
through annual perception survey
Created forum for public debate
Central role of media
El Tiempo, leading
newspaper and local TV
disseminate survey results
Quarterly bulletin distributed
to local organizations,
libraries, research centers,
universities
Performance data posted
on the public website of
Education Secretariat
Public opinion on service
provision frame political
campaign issues
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Part 4
42
Tese case studies convey many lessons and experiences, but the common strand across these examples is
the overarching impact of informed and mobilized public opinion in generating genuine citizen demand for
accountability. Given the information and deliberative space to participate, citizens become actively engaged
and motivated to organize for collective action. Empowered by information about their rights and entitle-
ments, citizens draw on their capacity and collective experience to reach smart solutions, elicit responses
from public of cials, and efect real change. Clearly the strategic role of media, both traditional and modern,
played a vital role in increasing public awareness and in facilitating meaningful two-way communication
between citizens and the state. Local media and community radio provided a valuable channel for ordinary
citizens to voice their opinions, discuss public issues, and shape the public debate. TV and radio commenta-
tors and journalists became informed agents of persuasion using their respective channels of communica-
tion to reach their key audiences.
In many cases, mechanisms were institutionalized, positive changes in attitudes and behavior among
frontline providers and public of cials were reported, and a culture of broad participation and open and
active public dialogue has been establishedelements that are all critical in setting the stage for robust and
efective citizen-state interaction.
For example, the roadshows in Kenya changed the negative perception and skepticism from public of -
cials toward citizen-led interventions.
In the Philippines, public audit of cials now have a positive attitude toward citizen-led monitoring, afer
the successful investigation of anomalies in Abra. Public works of cials have used the citizen monitoring
reports as a basis for deciding budget releases for public works projects.
In South Africa, the persistent and persuasive eforts of the educational outreach via thehigh-quality work
of BIS, successfully turned lackluster public interest and media attention into signifcant public demand for
information on the budget and its overall implications on issues and priorities of public interest.
In Colombia, citizens set the standards for service quality. District of ces now use the results from citi-
zen surveys as core performance indicators of service quality. Tese are also now well-recognized at the
policy level, as the Secretary of Education Webpage disseminates the same information. Te performance
standards also provide a strategic frame to highlight important issues in city. A citizens guide on trends and
accomplishments was distributed in the 2000 mayoral campaign.
In India, despite some weaknesses in service improvements, strong demand for better governance has
been created not only from citizens, but also from high-level pro-accountability institutions that are putting
more pressure on local-level reforms.
Why public opinion matters
Public opinion as genuine citizen demand, and a critical force for state responsiveness and real change:
Institutionalized forum for public debate on budget issues (South Africa), on service quality (Colombia,
Kenya), on public spending (Philippines)
Change in behavior and attitude of frontline service providers (Colombia, Philippines), public audit offi-
cials (Philippines), water service boards (Kenya), media (South Africa)
Policy and process changes linked to media-generated public debate and public pressure (all case
examples)
Constructive engagement of key accountability actors: state, frontline service providers, civil society,
and themedia
Replicated in other provinces (Philippines), cities (India, Colombia)
MM_Part04.indd 42 11/11/11 3:21 PM
43
Ultimately the challenge of sustaining positive gains achieved underscores the centrality of ensuring
that public opinion is front-and-center in accountability eforts. Te institutionalization of mechanisms by
replication bodes well for scaling up eforts needed to ensure broad-based and sustainable development out-
comes. Meaningful results are likely to be achieved when a dynamic and efective synergy between citizens,
politicians and frontline service providers exists, as this creates the incentive for them to take coordinated
action and pursue real change.
Te outcomes and infuence of this small sample of cases are both promising and encouraging. How-
ever, one must also recognize that the path to sustainable governance and accountability eforts leading to
ultimate development outcomes is a long and arduous one. While these case examples show that eforts
overall have produced meaningful results, obstacles that may have been overcome in the process of change
could resurface and threaten the sustainability of hard-won gains.
For example, in India and Colombia, perception-surveys and complaints-audits indicate that despite
public information efort, public awareness of the programs remains limited. More needs to be done to
broaden their reach and expand the scope of their media coverage.
In Kenya, the continuing challenge is eliminating public apathy and the complacent acceptance of poor
access and quality of services. Tis provides signifcant opportunities for exploring more efective means
of mass persuasion in building citizen competence and trust for their collective ability to demand change
through organized eforts.
In the Philippines, the failure to anticipate resistance from leaders resulted in the disappointing termina-
tion of established CSO partnership with the Commission on Audit. Even though the participatory audit
exercise was declared a success by participating organizations, the new Audit Commissioner claimed other
priorities and shelved participatory audit exercises. Persuasion and lobbying could have been deployed to
infuence established beliefs about the auditing profession that it requires both technical preparedness and
client confdentiality. A clear bias precluded CSO engagement in the audit process. Tere is also the inherent
risk of political intervention in the citizen monitoring process which could easily inhibit civic activism and
weaken overall accountability eforts.
In South Africa, the recognized challenge is the need to strike the right balance between addressing
civil society interests and maintaining productive government relations in conducting independent budget
analysis.
Challenges
Public awareness is still limited (India, Colombia), public apathy and tolerance of status quo (Kenya).
Failure to anticipate resistance resulted in cancellation of participatory audit, political intervention (Phil-
ippines).
Exclusion of marginalized groups and weak sanctions for unresponsive frontline service providers
(India).
Balancing civil society interests and keeping positive working relations with government (South Africa).
Conclusion
We examined case studies that illustrate various approaches for mobilizing public opinion, and describe the
results achieved from social-accountability eforts.
Trough the process of consensus and deliberation, mobilized public opinion is important because it
generates genuine demand for accountability. As these examples demonstrate, the heat efect of mobilized
public opinion can indeed infuence change. It is a critical force in governance reform eforts.
MM_Part04.indd 43 11/11/11 3:21 PM
Part 4
44
Tese cases ofer contrasting experiences: Each one unique in its accountability objectives and tools used,
the level of implementation, the scope of advocacy and communication strategies, not to mention challenges
posed by their diferent political and social contexts.
Te common strand and most important lesson that can be drawn from this set of contrasting experi-
ences is the central role of informed and mobilized public opinion, and the strategic use of the media in
engaging citizens and in building public pressure to demand accountability. Te various examples benefted
from the presence of internal champions and coalitions of supporters within an enabling environment sup-
ported by the existence of a democratic public sphere.
However, sustaining change eforts remain the most signifcant challenge. Setbacks and stumbling blocks
are part of the dif cult process of changepolitical buy-in wanes, vested interests persist, reform opponents
prevail, while institutionalized structures can dissipate and mobilized publics can lose interest.
To mitigate such real-world challenges and sustain the momentum for change, vigilant and persistent
eforts for keeping issues alive, engaging informed and active citizens and maintaining an organized cadre
of reform champions and broad coalitions of supporters are key to sustaining the hard-won gains of social
accountability initiatives.
Summary: Creating Genuine Citizen Demand
for Accountability Through Communication
Communication is central for creating citizen demand for accountability, for strengthening it, and for real-
izing those demands. Governments must be accountable in exchange for legitimacy in the public sphere.
If governments do not provide accountability without pressure, citizens need to step up and demand their
due. Communication is central to empowering citizens; even uninterested citizens can be activated through
communication campaigns. Communication campaigns can serve any accountability initiative, but need to
be planned carefully. It is paramount that campaign objectives be clearly identifed, and that the campaign
content is carefully tailored to meet those objectives. Communication tools, such as framing and public nar-
rative, can help to mobilize citizens and turn short-term eforts into sustainable progress. Communication
has been used successfully all over the world to hold governments accountable.
Public Opinion
a critical force in governance and
accountability
Different country contexts
South Africa
Philippines
Kenya
India
Colombia
Common Strand
Informed
public opinion
and
effective use of
the media
MM_Part04.indd 44 11/11/11 3:21 PM
45
Part I: Foundations of Accountability
Purpose:
Tis session provides a brief introduction to the topic of social accountability by providing a defnition and
putting it in the context of interactions between state and citizens. Te concept of the Public Sphere is intro-
duced, which is the ideal locale for accountability to happen.
Key concepts and messages:
Accountability is central to good governance.
Accountability happens in the public sphere and resides in the relationships between state and citizens.
Te public sphere is the architecture of relations and interactions between diferent stakeholders.
Accountability is a form of interaction originating with the state and aimed at the citizens.
A free and independent media is a critical pillar in the public sphere.
Citizens need access to information in order to hold their government accountable.
An empowered and informed civil society can efectively hold governments accountable.
Trainers Brief
MM_TechnicalBrief.indd 45 09/11/11 5:02 PM
Trainers Brief
46
Learning objectives:
By the end of this session participants will be able to:
Understand the role of accountability for the relationship between state and citizens.
Understand and explain the concept of the public sphere and its role for accountability.
Understand and explain the role of independent media and access to information for citizens ability to
hold governments accountable.
Duration: 90 min
Content and Process Presentation Slides
Generating Genuine Demand
for Accountability Through
Communication
1. Accountability is central to good governance.
2. Accountability can be about strengthening citizens and
civil society.
3. Citizens can use many tools to demand accountability.
4. Whatever tools are used, the public and public opinion
must be engaged in order to create a genuine demand for
accountability.
What is (Social) Accountability?
Empowering citizens to hold their governments
accountable
Non-state institutions: civil society
State institutions: parliamentary oversight,
ombudsmen
Tools and mechanisms: Citizen Report Cards, public
opinion polling
Accountability is central to good governance. Good
governance is a textured, embedded, networked
process in which citizens and government officials
argue, bargain, and come to agreement.
Trainers Brief
47
1. Governments can only be accountable to their citizens
when there is a two-way ow of communication between
state and citizens.
2. Accountability is a form of interaction that originates with
the state and is targeted at the population.
3. Citizens reward accountability with legitimacy for the
government.
STATE CITIZENS
Legitimacy
Accountability
Rules, regulations, public goods and services
Demands
PUBLIC SPHERE
Citizen-State Interactions
1. Citizens and the state are stakeholders in the public
sphere. The stronger the voice of stakeholders in
the public sphere, the higher the likelihood of strong
accountability.
2. The public sphere, represented by information
and communication processes, is the architecture
of relationships and interactions among different
stakeholders.
The Democratic Public Sphere
The Private
Sphere
Citizens
Households
Firms
Constitutive Elements:
Laws and civil liberties (especially
freedom of speech, press,
assembly, & conscience)
Free, independent, and plural
media systems
Access to information
Empowered civil society
All sites for everyday talk about
public affairs
The State
(national,
state, local)
Executive
Legislative
Judiciary
PUBLIC OPINION
The Public Sphere
Public Debate
& Discussion
Issue-Based Public
Contestation
Issue-Based
Information Flows
Part II: Social Accountability and Communication
Tis session delves deeper into the role of communication for accountability and draws the connection
between communication and mobilization. Te main concepts of communication and public opinion are
explained, and diferent kinds of communication campaigns are mapped onto diferent levels of mobiliza-
tion. Te session ends with a brief introduction to the role of information and communication technologies
for accountability.
Communication links citizens, civil society, media, and government.
Public opinion matters because it changes the incentives of governments to be accountable.

Trainers Brief
48
1. The key actors in communication are government,
citizens and civil society, and the media.
2. This denition of communication includes processes and
principles, but also structures and institutions.
3. Understanding the processes of communication in
implementing social accountability mechanisms is
necessary to effectively support these mechanisms, as
well as to effectively support governance reform.
Communication links citizens,
civil society, the media system,
and government, forming a
framework for national dialogue
through which informed public
opinion is shaped.
What is Communication and why do
we care?
1. Legitimacy in the public sphere is an essential part of
effective governance.
2. The philosopher Hume said: It is therefore, on opinion
only that government is founded.
3. Public opinion is important because it generates
genuine demand for accountability. Through a process
of consensus and deliberation, public opinion forms the
policies that government must implement.
What is Public Opinion?
Public Opinion is the result of discussion and debate.
Citizens reach a consensus after deliberating on issues,
policies or events of common concerns. This consensus
we call public opinion, and it is widespread among the
population and represents a stance that most people can
agree with.
Public Opinion is created and shaped in discourse and
affected by:
(a) elite opinion leaders
(b) statistical records, polls and surveys
(c) peoples opinions in their social
and media environments.
Citizens are divided into diferent types of public. For accountability eforts to be successful, they have to
be moved from the general public to the active and mobilized public.
Diferent forms of communication campaigns help move citizens up the stairway of mobilization.
ICT can support accountability initiatives with diferent kinds of focus.
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this session participants will be able to:
Understand the role of communication for accountability.
Understand the concept of public opinion.
Understand the characteristics of diferent kinds of publics and their relevance in accountability initiatives.
Understand diferent approaches for using communication to strengthen accountability initiatives.
Duration: 120 min
Trainers Brief
49
1. Mobilizing public opinion is an important step in
changing the incentives for decision makers.
2. If governments ignore public opinion, hostility can build
under the surface.
Why Does Public Opinion
Matter?
Changes the incentives of
decision-makers
Once mobilized, it cannot
be ignored
It is a critical force in
governance
1. If public opinion is to demand accountability, the
general public must be stepped up to the levels of active
and mobilized public. Only these types can imprint a
sustained effect on the government.
2. The costs of participation grow with every step through
the types of publics; therefore the groups will have fewer
members.
Forms of the Public
Voting Public
Active Public
Attentive Public
General Public
Mobilized Public
1. Diverse communication campaigns are needed to move
the public along a Stairway to Mobilization, which has
genuine demand for accountability as a goal.
2. Information campaigns put issues in the agenda and
increase awareness.
3. Campaigns to change attitudes aim at convincing people
to believe in certain principles.
4. In order for belief to turn into action, campaigns need to
target behavior change.
5. The most difcult stage is sustainability, when citizens
take on a cause for the long term.
The Stairway of the Mobilization Process
Information Attitude
Change
Behavior
Change
Sustainability
Sympathetic
Indifferent
General Public
Targeted by
organization
Not targeted by
organization
Voting Public
Motivated to
participate
Not motivated
to participate
Attentive Public
Bystanders
Participants
Active Public
Members
Mobilized Public
Trainers Brief
50
1. The global expansion of information and communication
technologies (ICT) opens up signicant opportunities for
innovation and the conversion of knowledge into action.
2. ICT can equalize distortions in the public sphere from
political and economic power by giving access to a much
larger number of groups and individuals.
:
Service accountability
Channels for citizen evaluation of the quality of public goods and
service delivery
Democratic accountability:
E-Government
Election monitoring
Monitoring officials
Performance accountability:
Tools and projects that compares the overall performance of a state
or government agency to other states or agencies
Transparency:
Multiple platforms for accountability
Organizing information
Providing context
Community of Practice
1. There are large numbers of ICT initiatives for varied
aspects of different issues.
2. Together they broaden the platform for citizens to
effectively hold their governments accountable.
Examples:
Service accountability:
Penang Watch Malaysia
Democratic accountability:
e-Democracia Brazil
Ushahidi
Adote um Vereador Brazil
Performance accountability:
Freedom House
Transparency:
Twaweza
Global Voices
Kubatana.net
WOUGNET
Part III: Designing a Communication Strategy
Tis session specifcally addresses the steps of planning a communication campaign. It introduces the pro-
cess and two specifc communication tools, framing and public narrative, which can be used to create and
strengthen demand for accountability.
Communication campaigns require careful planning.
Communication campaigns must start with the clear identifcation of objectives. Campaigns need to be
carefully matched with objectives.
Communication tools can help to direct the audiences attention and highlight certain aspects of account-
ability to objectives and initiatives.

Trainers Brief
51
Learning outcomes:
By the end of this session, participants will be able to:
Sketch a communication campaign designed to create demand for accountability.
Use framing and public narratives to design messages.
Duration: 120 min (incl. exercise)
1. The most important step in designing a communication
campaign is to clearly identify the objectives.
2. Without knowing what the communication is supposed
to convey, to whom, and with the desired outcomes, a
communication strategy is destined to fail.
3. To dene objectives, identify the problem that you want
to address as well as causes and solutions.
4. The objectives should be specic, measurable,
achievable, realistic, and timely.
How to plan a communication strategy
Objectives
Key step, critical for success of communication campaign
Define problem and its causes
Define specific, measurable, achievable, realistic , and timely objectives
Target groups
Audience
Groups that the messages are supposed to reach
Understand cultural background, opinions etc. through research and
empathy
Stakeholders
Proactive role
Includes people indirectly affected by the problem
Includes people that have anything to do with the problem and the proposed
solution
Messages
Aimed at audience
Design according to cultural background etc.
Target narrowly
1. Analyze the situation and that of the stakeholders who
are involved in the situation.
2. Build trust and engage stakeholders.
3. Analyze the communication and information systems of
the relevant stakeholders.
4. Analyze the causes of major problems/ challenges.
5. Identify the best options and viable solutions.
6. Transform possible solutions into feasible and
measurable objectives.
7. Dene and position of relevant stakeholder groups by
dening main groups of interest.
8. Dene the level and type of the intended change.
9. Select the most effective communication approaches.
10. Select appropriate channels to reach the largest share of
your target audience.
11. Package content themes and design messages.
12. Implement, monitor, evaluate.
How to plan a communication strategy II
Become
acquainted with
the situation and
stakeholders
Build trust, engage
stakeholders in
assessing
situation
Identify, analyze,
rank challenges,
problems, risks,
opportunities
Analyze causes of
major problems
from different
perspectives
Define best
options and viable
solutions
Select
communication
models and
approaches
Transform them
into objectives
Define & position
audiences or
stakeholder
groups
Define level/ type
of intended
change
Select appropriate
channels and
media
Package content
themes and/ or
design messages
Sustainable
change
Trainers Brief
52
1. Framing is an approach most useful for campaigns aimed
at changing attitudes.
2. Framing is part of the developing-messages stage of
campaign planning.
3. Framing focuses peoples attention to specic problems
and moral imperative, thereby explaining the why of an
initiative.
Framing
Activates information that already exists in peoples long-term
memory
Episodic frame: Present an issue in terms of personal
experience
Responsibility assigned to individuals
Thematic frame: Present an issue in terms of general trends
Responsibility assigned to society
Gain frame: Point to something positive that will happen if something
specific is being done
Inspires hope
Loss frame: Points out what can happen if you dont do something to
prevent a bad thing from happening
Communicates urgency
Injustice frame: Incites moral indignation
Identity frame: Promotes a sense of identity with a group working on a
common cause
Agency frame: Promotes the belief that conditions and policies can be
changed through collective action
1. Public narrative campaigns are extensive, but potentially
highly effective tool for mobilizing the public.
2. It creates a story around an issue that is designed to
overcome emotions that inhibit collective action.
Public Narrative
Inertia
Fear
Apathy
Self-Doubt
Isolation
Urgency
Hope
Anger
You Can Make a
Difference
Solidarity
Urgency captures attention and creates space for new
action. If we dont change our carbon footprint now, our
children will see the poles melting.
Provide credible solutions and report of success
elsewhere. Ground hope in faith and traditions.
Charismatic leaders can inspire hope.
Outrage and indignation at unjust conditions. Invoke an
injustice frame. Appeal to values, moral traditions and
sense of personal dignity.
Frame what you do around what people can do. Dont
demand the impossible. Recognize achievements and
contributions by participants.
Meetings, singing, common dress, shared language and
other rituals create the experience of belonging and
solidarity.
Source: Marshall Ganz, 2007
Suggested communication plan exercise
Organize break-out groups (57 participants), and have each group spend about 20 minutes creating an
Action Plan to mobilize the public to support an accountability initiative identifed by the group. Te groups
should address the following components within their plan:
Identify the stakeholders and their anticipated levels of participation with the initiative.
Create an overall communication plan, including:
Te content and objectives of the information campaign,
Te appropriate framing for the communications,
Te appropriate approach for motivating stakeholders,
Te approach and objectives for changing public attitudes to encourage mobilization,
Te targeted behavior changes that the plan intends to actualize,
Te approach to facilitating sustainability for the initiative
Once completed, the facilitator will ask each group to briefy present their plans. Ten the instructor will
lead a class discussion on the results of the efort, and identify any relevant issues or questions.

Trainers Brief
53
Part IV: Case Studies
Te case studies are chosen to illustrate the role of communication for accountability. Five cases from fve
diferent countries have been selected to show how communication has been used in specifc circumstances,
and which results were produced by it.
Accountability processes work when citizens are actively engaged in the planning and monitoring of
service delivery.
Te media plays an important role in raising public awareness and coalescing informed public debates
on the issues.
Learning objectives:
By the end of this session, participants will be able to:
Analyze real-world cases about the role of communication for accountability,
Identify innovative techniques used and their social accountability outcomes,
Apply relevant approaches for using communication to support social accountability objectives,
Duration: 120 min (incl. exercise)
Case Studies
South Africa - Independent Budget Analysis
Philippines - Audit of Public Works Projects
(Abra)
Kenya - Citizen Report Card
(Nairobi, Kisumu, Mombasa)
Colombia - Evaluation of Public Services
(Bogota)
India - Citizens Complaint System
(Mumbai)
Trainers Brief
54
1. Five case studies illustrate how communication played
a role in social accountability initiatives in South Africa,
Philippines, Kenya, Colombia and India.
2. There are notable similarities and differences in each of
the country experiences.
Philippines
Citizens Audit of Public
Works Projects in Abra
Kenya
Citizen Report Card
Roadshows
Colombia
Evaluation of Public Services
in Bogot
India
Citizens Complaint System in
Mumbai
Mumbais rapid population
growth has posed significant
pressures on its urban public
services. The city, which has
the largest slum population in
India, suffers from a severe
shortage in housing and
infrastructure, poor water
supply and sanitation, and an
overall decline in economic
activity. The Brihan-Mumbai
Municipal Corporation (BMC) is
one of the public agencies
responsible for the overall
governance of municipal
services. Through its many
programs, BMC strives to
improve and expand the
coverage and quality of public
services... >> more
An election campaign in 1997
led to the creation of Bogot
CmoVamos (Bogot How are
we doing?), a citizen-based
social accountability
mechanism designed to monitor
political campaign promises
and their impact on the quality
of life in the city. Empowered by
the 1991 Constitutions
mandate granting citizens the
right to exercise oversight of
public administration, a group
of private sector
representatives developed an
educational monitoring ...
>> more
In Kenya, two key challenges
highlighted the need to go
beyond the technical surveys
one is the untested terrain of
citizen report cards in Africa and
the other is the inherently
contentious debates on water
issues. The Water and
Sanitation Program in Africa and
the Public Affairs Foundation
started off with awareness
creation and consensus building
efforts as important preparatory
work prior to the survey. An
innovative approach of Report
Card Roadshows was adopted
as part of the consultation
process in each of the project
sites >> more
An article in the local newspaper
sparked action from the
Concerned Citizens of Abrafor
Good Government (CCAGG), a
non-partisan group of individuals
committed to monitor public
spending. The news article,
which was based on a
government report, praised the
20 Successful Infrastructure
Projects in the Region. To the
\uninformed reader, this would
seem like a piece of good news.
The CCAGG members,
however, knew some of the
projects had not even started
yet. Since 1987, the group
began to actively mobilize
community
>> more
Mobilizing Public Opinion real change
from real-world contexts
South Africa
In 1994, South Africa held
its first democratic elections.
It marked the beginning of
profound changes after two
decades under an apartheid
regime. It was the same year
that the Institute for Democracy
in South Africa (Idasa), a South
African public interest
organization committed
to democratic consolidation,
established the Budget
Information Service (BIS). The
BIS involves the analysis and
dissemination of critical, timely,
and accessible information...
>> more
1. The case study exercise highlights important aspects of
using communication processes.
2. In reviewing each case example, note relevant lessons
that may be applicable to your own country context.
Case study Exercise
Review Questions
Please answer the following questions for each of the
case studies you have read.
1. How was information accessed?
2. Briefly describe the process of mobilizing public
opinion.
3. How did they use the media?
4. What are the relevant lessons learned from the
case studies.
Focusing on specic target audiences was a critical part
in creating an informed debate on the budget process and
issues concerning budget allocations.
Using an issue-specic approach and active media
engagement were critical in generating wide public interest.
South Africa
Focus on key target
audiences:
Executive branch, legislative
CSOs and the media
Platform for national dialogue
on budget issues
Issue-specific and audience-
targeted dissemination
Strategic use of media for
informed public opinion
Budget Watch
Budget Briefs
Democracy Radio
Advocacy tips and stories
Public debate national,
provincial budget issues
TV panel interviews
ICT internet, email
Trainers Brief
55
Champions of the citizens audit acted as a watchdog role in
monitoring public spending.
They engaged in investigative work to gather evidence
and used it to expose anomalies in infrastructure projects.
Active mobilization of citizens, networks and the media
led to a successful effort in demanding change which led to
the conduct of participatory audits.
Philippines
Citizens Audit of Public Works
in Abra Province
Initiative formed by former
election watchdogs; organized
communities to monitor public
spending
Media advocacy to popularize
issues of concern and shape
public opinion
Organized citizen action exposed
anomalies in roads projects
Mobilized support from clergy
and business groups
Direct lobbying with public officials
Letters of complaint and citizens
signed affidavit to top officials
Primetime radio program
Echoes on-the-air twice a week
Partnerships with national
coalitions key to amplifying voice
Networking with other national
organizations to influence policy
dialogue
Citizen report card roadshow was introduced as an
innovative mechanism for broadening the consultative
process.
The Critical 8 method was an effective methodology
forgetting citizens to evaluate the merits of the social
accountability tool.
Kenya
Citizen Report Card
Roadshows
Innovations in citizen engagement :
1. Report card roadshows -
individual stakeholder consultations
and multi-stakeholder consultations
2. Citizen evaluation of tool
Critical 8 indicators
3. Public opinion mobilized through
open dialogue of stakeholder
alliances at national and city levels
4. Strategic use of media
Print and electronic media
glare effect on service
providers
Slogan Come all. Lets
discuss and agree
appealed to public
sentiment for cooperative
dialogue
TV chat shows and live call-
in radio encouraged public
debate
Newspaper columnists kept
issues alive
The Mumbai initiative addressed citizens concerns over
the handling of their grievances. The BMC was the public
agency responsible launched an online complaint monitoring
system.
Publicity was done via newspapers and the mainstream
media.
The Right-to-Information Act provided the legal mandate
which granted citizen access to information.
India Citizens
Online Complaint System
in Mumbai
Unique e-governance initiative to
address public dissatisfaction over
poor consumer grievance handling
Centralized complaint registration
system
Public opinion about quality of
services communicated through
various channels
Use of mainstream media to
raise public awareness
Petitions, letters of
complaints
Personal visits, meetings
with public officials
ICT-based communication
(phone, fax, or internet)
Regular complaint audit to
assess public satisfaction for
complaint resolution
Trainers Brief
56
The Colombia experience was to oversee the integrity of
political campaign promises and their impact on citizens.
Citizens voiced their opinions about the quality of service
delivery through an annual survey.
Media played a key role in fostering public debate.
Colombia
Performance Evaluation
of
Service Provision
Coalition of private sector groups
formed initiative
Performance standard-setting
Citizen voice in service quality
through annual perception survey
Created forum for public debate
Central role of media
El Tiempo, leading
newspaper and local TV
disseminate survey results
Quarterly bulletin distributed
to local organizations,
libraries, research centers,
universities
Performance data posted
on the public website of
Education Secretariat
Public opinion on service
provision frame political
campaign issues
Lessons from the ve country examples demonstrate why
public opinion matters:
Mechanisms established for public debate - on budget
issues in South Africa, service quality in Colombia and
Kenya, and public spending in the Philippines.
Changes reported in the behavior and attitudes of service
providers in Colombia and the Philippines.
Changes in policy and process in response to media-
generated debates were evident in all case examples.
Constructive engagements of key accountability actors
state, service providers, civil society and the media.
Results
Public opinion as genuine citizen demand
and a critical force for state
responsiveness and real change
Institutionalized forum for public debate on budget issues
(S. Africa), on service quality (Colombia, Kenya), on public
spending (Philippines)
Change in behavior and attitude of frontline service providers
(Colombia, Philippines), public audit officials (Philippines),
water service boards (Kenya), media (S. Africa)
Policy and process changes linked to media-generated public
debate and public pressure (all case examples)
Constructive engagement of key accountability actors
state, frontline service providers, civil society and media
Replicated in other provinces (Philippines), cities (India,
Colombia)
The remaining challenges require vigilance to sustain the
early gains achieved. There is a need to address problems of:
Limited public awareness
Public apathy
Exclusion of marginalized groups
Tension between civil society concerns and government
interests
Public awareness is still limited (India,
Colombia), public apathy and tolerance with
status quo (Kenya)
Failure to anticipate resistance resulted in
cancellation of participatory audit, political
intervention (Philippines)
Exclusion of marginalized groups and weak
sanctions for unresponsive frontline service
providers (India)
Balancing civil society interests and keeping
positive working relations with government
(South Africa)
Challenges
Trainers Brief
57
Suggested case study exercise
Tis exercise requires you to refect on the case examples you have read and draw insights and lessons from
these various country contexts.
Please answer the following questions:
1. How was information accessed?
2. How was public opinion mobilized?
3. How did they use the power of the media?
4. What are the relevant lessons?
Country Information
Access
Mobilization
Process
Use of Media Lessens and
Insights

The ve different stories share the same common message:
the important role of informed public opinion and the
effective use of media in supporting social accountability
objectives.
Public Opinion
a critical force in governance and
accountability
Different country contexts
South Africa
Philippines
Kenya
India
Colombia
Common Strand
Informed
public opinion
and
effective use of
the media
59
Glossary
Active public
Tis group engages in regular formal and informal political participation. Its members actively demand
accountability, but their participation is still not organized or regular. Examples are signing petitions and
infrequent attendance of participatory meetings.
Agency frame
Promotes the belief that conditions and policies can be changed through collective action.
Attentive public
Individuals in the attentive public are informed and interested in public afairs. Tey are the audience for
political actors, but their political participation is sporadic and they rarely participate in organized action.
Tere is basic demand for accountability, but take no action to realize the demand.
Communication
Processes, principles and structures or institutions that determine the way communication takes place. It
links citizens, civil society, the media system and government, forming a framework for national dialogue
through which informed public opinion is shaped.
Appendix
ZZ_Appendix.indd 59 04/11/11 4:18 PM
Appendix
60
Episodic framing
Tis framing technique presents news in the form of specifc events or particular cases;usually illustrating
the issue in the absence of the wider context.Citizens are less likely to consider society responsible for the
events, but are more inclined to assign responsibility to individuals.
Gain frame
Depicts something as rewarding, points to something positive given a specifc action being done; it
inspires hope
General public
Tis includes the entire given population, which is unorganized and disconnected. Individual opinions
are formed outside the arena of public debate. People are generally interested only in their own personal
gain. Tey have little concern for political afairs and have no political participation. Among the general
public, there is no demand for accountability.
Frames
Organizing principles that are socially shared and persistent over time, that work symbolically to struc-
ture the social world. (Reese, 2001).
Framing
A communication technique that leads audiences to see something in a certain light or from a particular
perspective.Efective framing taps into pre-existing beliefs, attitudes, and opinions, and highlights certain
a spects of an issue over others. To frame is to select some aspects of a perceived reality and make them
more salient in a communication message, in such a way as to promote a particular problem defni-
tion, causal interpretation, moral evaluation, and/or treatment recommendation for the item described.
(Entman, 1993)
Identity frame
Promotes a sense of identity with the group working on a common cause.
Incentives
Incentives drive the behavior and actions of individuals and organized groups. Tey are infuenced by an
individuals personal motivations (material rewards, fnancial gains, social advancement) and the oppor-
tunities and/or constraints from the individuals principal economic and political relationships.
Injustice frame
Portrays unfair or biased treatment and is infuenced by prejudice or discrimination; it Incites moral
indignation
Loss frame
Points out what can happen if you nothing is done to prevent a negative outcome from occurring; it com-
municates urgency
Mobilized public
Tis group represents the well informed public, who have long-term interests in specifc issues. Tey voice
their opinions strongly and engage in organized action to achieve civic goals. Tere is active demand for
accountability and regular participation in and organization of civic forums. Tey are the most important
group for accountability. Interest groups and advocacy organizations belong to the mobilized public.
Appendix
61
Public narrative
Tis translates values into action and can be achieved through embedding messages in comprehensive
stories. Values need to be translated into action; people need to be roused from apathy and hopelessness.
A public narrative underpins pro-accountability movements which have worked towards building a mobi-
lized public.
Public opinion
It is the consensus reached by a broad segment of the population through open discussion and debate
among citizens over issues, policies or events of common concerns. When public opinion is crystallized
into a strong and mobilized force, it changes the incentives of decision-makers and can be a powerful tool
for efecting real social change.
Public sphere
Te architecture of relationships and interactions among diferent political actors (state/public servants,
private sector, citizens). It is represented by information and communication processes and efective
communication among the actors that can raise the voice of citizens to strengthen accountability.
Stairway of Mobilization
Tis refers to the stages of mobilizing citizens by repositioning them from the lowest rung of mobilization
process (the general public) to the highest and most ideal group for demanding accountability (the mobi-
lized public). Institutional constraints can be encountered in the process, such as weak organizational
environment, legal restrictions for engagement and a repressive political culture that curbs participation
through fear.
Thematic frame
Tis presents political issues and events in a general or collective context. Tematic frames depict topics
more broadly and contextually by providing background information and analysis. Citizens who view
news in a thematic frame are less likely to assign responsibility to individuals, but instead to society.
Voting public
Tis group stands for the unorganized electorate and comprises a smaller population than the general
public. Elections are also the only means of holding the government accountable.
Te voting public has cyclical interest in political afairs, which is focused on the election season, and
engages in basic forms of political participation such as charitable giving.
Appendix
62
Readings
CommGAP (2011).Case Study: A communication and public awareness campaign for El Salvadors EDUCO
education reform eforts.http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/PP2EDUCOv1.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.) Communication for good governance. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/
Resources/Governanceweb.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.) Organizational communication. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/
OrganizationalCommweb.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.) Persuasion. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/Persuasionweb.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.). Change management. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/
ChangeManagementweb.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.).Changing public opinion. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/
PublicOpinionweb.pdf.
CommGAP (n.d.). Te public sphere. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/
PubSphereweb.pdf.
Cabanero-Verzosa, C., and Garcia, H., 2009, Using Strategic Communication to Build Commitment to
Reform, Chapter 1 in Building Commitment to Reform through Strategic Communication: Te Five Key
Decisions, World Bank, Washington DC. http://www.gsdrc.org/go/display&type=Document&id=3706
Etling, B., Faris, R., & Palfrey, J. (2011). Political change in the digital age: Te fragility and promise of online
organizing. SAIS Review 30(2), 3749.
Ganz, M. (2011).Public narrative, collective action, and power. In S. Odugbemi& T. Lee (eds.), Accountability
through public opinion: From inertia to public action (pp. 273289). Washington DC: World Bank Group.
Lee, T. (2011). Collective movements, activated opinion, and the politics of the extraordinary. In S. Odug-
bemi& T. Lee (eds.), Accountability through public opinion: From inertia to public action (pp. 257272).
Washington DC: World Bank Group.
McLaughlin, C. & Scott, Z. (2011).Topic guide on communication and governance. http://siteresources.
worldbank.org/EXTGOVACC/Resources/CommGAP2March2011.pdf.
Odugbemi, S. (2008). Public opinion, the public sphere, and quality of governance: An exploration. In S.
Odugbemi & T. Jacobson (eds.), Governance reform under real-world conditions. Citizens, stakeholders,
and voice (pp. 1537). Washington DC: World Bank Group.
Shirky, C. (2011). Te political power of social media: Technology, the public sphere, and political change.
Foreign Afairs, 90(1), http://www.foreignafairs.com/articles/67038/clay-shirky/the-political-power-of-
social-media.
Taber, C. S. & Young, E. (2011).Information processing, public opinion, and accountability. In S. Odug-
bemi& T. Lee (eds.), Accountability through public opinion: From inertia to public action (pp. 95122).
Washington DC: World Bank Group.
The importance of social accountability for development
effectiveness has increasingly been acknowledged in recent
years. This Trainers Guide focuses on the role of communication
techniques and approaches for generating genuine citizen demand
for accountability. Communication campaigns can motivate and
activate citizens to stand up and hold their government accountable.
Communication can also help to make these movements
sustainable.
This Guide is designed for development practitioners in donor
organizations, governments, and civil society, who are setting up
capacity-building programs for promoting sustainable accountability
and governance reform. A conceptual framework for communication
and accountability provides trainers with an understanding of
the role of communication, while several case studies exemplify
communication for accountability in developing countries. The
Guide proposes a training structure and provides training materials
as well as exercises.
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Anne-Katrin Arnold

Case 1. Independent Budget Analysis in South Africa

Case 2. Citizens Audit of Public Works Projects

Case 3. Strengthening Consumer Voice in Water and

Case 4. Bogota Como Vamos? Citizen Voice in the

Case 5. Citizens Complaint System in Mumbai

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MM_TechnicalBrief.indd 50 09/11/11 5:02 PM

MM_TechnicalBrief.indd 52 09/11/11 5:02 PM

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