Calorimetry

One technique for measuring specific heat

involves heating a material, adding it to a
sample of water, and recording the final
temperature
This technique is known as calorimetry
A calorimeter is a device in which this energy
transfer takes place
Calorimetry
The system of the sample and the water is
isolated
Conservation of energy requires that the
amount of energy that leaves the sample
equals the amount of energy that enters
the water
Conservation of Energy gives a
mathematical expression of this:
Q
cold
= -Q
hot
Calorimetry
The negative sign in the equation is critical for
consistency with the established sign convention
Since each Q = mcT, c
sample
can be found by:
NOTE: the mass and c of the container should be
included, but if m
w
>>m
container
it can be neglected
Calorimetry, Example
An ingot of metal is heated and then
dropped into a beaker of water. The
equilibrium temperature is measured
A calorimeter is a device that helps scientists measure the energy of a particle.
This triangular section is layered with sheets of lead and plastic. The lead is heavy
and dense, so the particles have a hard time going through it. Scientists can tell how
much energy a particle had by seeing how much lead it took to stop it.
CALORIMETRY for high energy physics
Phase Changes
A phase change is when a substance
changes from one form to another
Two common phase changes are
Solid to liquid (melting)
Liquid to gas (boiling)
During a phase change, there is no
change in temperature of the substance
Equilibrium can exist not only between the liquid and vapor phase
of a substance but also between the solid and liquid phases, and
the solid and gas phases of a substance.
A phase diagram is a graphical way to depict the effects of pressure
and temperature on the phase of a substance:
Phase Diagrams (P,T)
Latent Heat
Different substances react differently to the
energy added or removed during a phase
change
Due to their different molecular arrangements
The amount of energy also depends on the
mass of the sample
If an amount of energy Q is required to change
the phase of a sample of mass m
L = Q /m or Q = mL
Latent Heat
The quantity L is called the latent heat of
the material
Latent means hidden
The value of L depends on the substance as
well as the actual phase change
The energy required to change the phase
is Q = mL
Latent Heat
The latent heat of fusion is used when the phase
change is from solid to liquid
The latent heat of vaporization is used when the
phase change is from liquid to gas
The positive sign is used when the energy is
transferred into the system
This will result in melting or boiling
The negative sign is used when energy is
transferred out of the system
This will result in freezing or condensation
Equilibrium can exist not only between the liquid and vapor phase
of a substance but also between the solid and liquid phases, and
the solid and gas phases of a substance.
A phase diagram is a graphical way to depict the effects of pressure
and temperature on the phase of a substance:
Phase Diagrams (P,T)
Sample Latent Heat Values
SOLIDS
The particles vibrate around fixed
positions.
They are close together and so
attract each other strongly. This is
why solids maintain their shape.
LIQUIDS
The particles are still relatively close
together but now have enough
energy to "change places" with
each other. This is why liquids can
flow.
GASES
Average distance between particles
typically 10 times greater than in
solids and liquids. The particles now
move freely at random, occupying
all the space available to them.
Graph of Ice to Steam
Note:all heat values are for 1 gram of water
Warming Ice, Graph Part A
Start with one gram of
ice at 30.0C
During phase A, the
temperature of the ice
changes from 30.0C
to 0C
Use Q = m
i
c
i
?T
In this case, 62.7 J of
energy are added
Melting Ice, Graph Part B
Once at 0C, the
phase change
(melting) starts
The temperature stays
the same although
energy is still being
added
Use Q = m
i
L
f
The energy required is 333 J
On the graph, the values move
from 62.7 J to 396 J
Warming Water, Graph Part C
Between 0C and 100C, the
material is liquid and no
phase changes take place
Energy added increases the
temperature
Use Q = m
w
c
w
?T
419 J are added
The total is now 815 J
Boiling Water, Graph Part D
At 100C, a phase
change occurs
(boiling)
Temperature does not
change
Use Q = m
w
L
v
This requires 2260 J
The total is now 3070 J
Heating Steam
After all the water is converted
to steam, the steam will heat
up
No phase change occurs
The added energy goes to
increasing the temperature
Use Q = m
s
c
s
?T
In this case, 40.2 J are needed
The temperature is going to 120
o
C
The total is now 3110 J
SOLIDS
The particles vibrate around fixed
positions.
They are close together and so
attract each other strongly. This is
why solids maintain their shape.
LIQUIDS
The particles are still relatively close
together but now have enough
energy to "change places" with
each other. This is why liquids can
flow.
GASES
Average distance between particles
typically 10 times greater than in
solids and liquids. The particles now
move freely at random, occupying
all the space available to them.
Molecular View of Phase Changes
Phase changes can be described in terms of the
rearrangement of molecules (or atoms in an elemental
substance)
Liquid to Gas phase change
Molecules in a liquid are close together
The forces between them are stronger than those in a gas
Work must be done to separate the molecules
The latent heat of vaporization is the energy per unit mass
needed to accomplish this separation
Molecular View of Phase Changes
Solid to Liquid phase change
The addition of energy will cause the amplitude of the
vibration of the molecules about their equilibrium position
to increase
At the melting point, the amplitude is great enough to
break apart bonds between the molecules
The molecules can move to new positions
The molecules in the liquid are bound together less
strongly than those of the solid
They have less nearest neighbours
The latent heat of fusion is the energy per unit mass
required to go from the solid-type to the liquid-type bonds
Molecular View of Phase Changes
The latent heat of vaporization is greater
than the latent heat of fusion
In the liquid-to-gas phase change, all bonds
are broken
The gas molecules are essentially not bonded
to each other
It takes more energy to completely break
the bonds than to change the type of
bonds
Close-Packed Structures are the most efficient way to fill space with spheres
Features of Close-Packing:
Coordination Number = 12
74% of space is occupied
There is the Avogadro number N
A
of atoms in the mole of a solid.
We assume that each atom has n nearest neighbours and the strength of
the pair-wise interaction between atoms is equal to .
Then the energy required to melt one mole (latent heat of melting) is
approximately equal:
L N
A
?n,
where ?n is the change of the number of nearest neighbours from
solid to liquid or vapour and stands to avoid the double counting.
We can then use n = 12 for a solid and n 10 for a melt. Then
L
melt
N
A
n, where n = 2,
change of the coordination number from crystal to vapour n = 12
Estimating melting and sublimation energies
Calorimetry Problem-Solving Strategy
Units of measure must be consistent
For example, if your value of c is in J/kg
.o
C,
then your mass must be in kg, the
temperatures in
o
C and energies in J
Transfers of energy are given by
Q =mc T only when no phase change
occurs
If there is a phase change, use Q = mL
Calorimetry Problem-Solving Strategy
Be sure to select the correct sign for all
energy transfers
Remember to use Q
cold
= - Q
hot
The T is always T
f
- T
i