an indicator-based review

Belgrade, 2007
ENVIRONMENT in Serbia: an indicator based review
First edition
ISBN 978-86-84163-34-1
Publisher:
Serbian Environmental Protection Agency
11000 Belgrade, Rue J ovanovica 27a
Editors:
Karadic, B. and Mijovic, A.
Authors:
Dedijer, A., Mitrovic-J osipovic, M., Radulovic, E., Dimic, B., Maric, L., Krunic-Lazic, M.,
pegar, G., Vidojevic, D., J ovanovic, M., Veljkovic, N., J ovicic, M., Redic, N., Popovic,
S., Pajcin, N., Lekic, D., Popovic, T., Mijovic, A.
Proof reader:
Micanovic, J .
Translation:
Marinkovic-J ovanovic, D.
Number of copies printed:
2000
Printed by:
CICERO Izdavacko tamparsko preduzece
11040 Belgrade, J ovana ujovica 8
Acknowledgment:
UNDP has supported printing of this publication through funds provided by SIDA.
European Agency for Reconstruction has also supported the preparation of this
publication.
Disclaimer:
The views expressed in this publication are those of authors and do not represent those
of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) nor Swedish International
Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA).
CONTENTS
PREFACE.....................................................................................................................................................1
INTRODUCTION...........................................................................................................................................3
SOCIO ECONOMIC GROWTH............................................................................................................ 7
DEMOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................8
URBANISATION..................................................................................................................................... 11
ECONOMICDEVELOPMENT.................................................................................................................... 13
ENERGY ............................................................................................................................................... 16
MINING................................................................................................................................................ 21
INDUSTRY............................................................................................................................................. 24
TRANSPORT.......................................................................................................................................... 27
TOURISM.............................................................................................................................................. 30
AGRICULTURE ...................................................................................................................................... 32
FORESTRY ............................................................................................................................................ 38
PROGRESS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN SERBIA...................................................................... 43
CLIMATE CHANGE............................................................................................................................ 45
CLIMATE SYSTEM................................................................................................................................. 47
BASIC CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS IN SERBIA ....................................................................................... 49
NATURAL AND HUMANINDUCEDCLIMATE CHANGE.............................................................................. 51
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AVERAGES IN SERBIA...................................................... 53
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AVERAGES IN SERBIA...................................................... 55
AIR......................................................................................................................................................... 59
AIR QUALITY MONITORING................................................................................................................... 61
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO
2
)....................................................................................................................... 64
NITROGENDIOXIDE (NO
2
).................................................................................................................... 68
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS.................................................................................................................. 72
TROPOSPHERIC OZONE.......................................................................................................................... 80
ALLERGENIC POLLEN............................................................................................................................ 82
WATER.................................................................................................................................................. 85
WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY............................................................................................ 87
USE OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES......................................................................................................... 90
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGENDEMAND ANDCONCENTRATION OF AMMONIUM IN RIVERS................................ 92
NUTRIENTS INFRESHWATER ................................................................................................................. 94
BATHINGWATER QUALITY ................................................................................................................... 96
URBANWASTE WATER TREATMENT ..................................................................................................... 98
SOIL..................................................................................................................................................... 101
ECOLOGICAL ANDECONOMIC VALUES OF SOIL .................................................................................... 103
LANDUSE IN SERBIA .......................................................................................................................... 105
SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING................................................................................................... 106
MONITORING OF SOIL FERTILITY ......................................................................................................... 109
SOIL CONTAMINATION........................................................................................................................ 116
SOIL EROSION..................................................................................................................................... 118
WASTE................................................................................................................................................. 121
WASTE MANAGEMENT........................................................................................................................ 123
UNOFFICIAL ANDOLDLANDFILLS ANDDUMPS.................................................................................... 129
INTERNAL ANDTRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT OF WASTE.................................................................... 131
BIODIVERSITY.................................................................................................................................. 133
SPECIESDIVERSITY............................................................................................................................. 135
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY ...................................................................................................................... 147
AREASDESIGNATED FOR NATURE PROTECTION................................................................................... 150
ENDANGERED ANDPROTECTEDSPECIES.............................................................................................. 155
PROGRAMS OF BIODIVERSITY MONITORING......................................................................................... 157
REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS ANDEX SITUCONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY.................................... 159
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................................... 161
1
PREFACE
Reliable information on impacts of the socio-economic growth on environment,
ecosystems and, consequently, on public health is essential for framing and implementing
sound and effective environmental policy measures and legislation. Therefore, the
Serbian Government established in 2004 the Environmental Protection Agency, within
the Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection. Serbian Environmental Protection
Agency (SEPA) is dedicated to providing environmental information to policy-makers and
the public, in order to support environment improvement in Serbia.
Cooperating with relevant Serbian authorities, Universities and Scientific Institutions,
SEPA permanently upgrades the national data bank that contains information on all
environmental components in Serbia.
The Agency uses the central data bank to publish periodic reports on the environment in
Serbia. Reports are directed to decision makers (Republic Government and Republic
Parliament), to international institutions, first of all to the European Environment Agency
(EEA) and to the widest spectrum of public clients.
Reports that are directed to Republic Government represent a valuable tool for
developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy.
Since 2004, SEPA started to cooperate with EIONET (European Information and
Observation NETwork), a partnership network of the EEA in order to fulfil reporting
obligations that countries have towards international organisations. Contribution of
Serbia in development of pan-European environmental data bank was symbolic in 2004.
However, in 2006 Serbia achieved significant progress in cooperation with EIONET and
EEA.
Harmonizing reporting obligations with EIONET standards (an indicator-based
approach), SEPA prepared this document in order to describe the current state and trends
of environmental variability in Serbia, and to assess a progress in legal and economic
mechanisms that are focused to environment improvement and, consequently, to
advancement of life quality of Serbian inhabitants
Branko Karadic,
Director
Republic of Serbia
Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection
Environmental Protection Agency
2
3
INTRODUCTION
Continuous growth of human population, which is associated with both the urbanisation
and development of the economy branches (mining, energy supply, industry, transport)
generates a series of ecological problems at local, regional or global levels (EEA, 1998,
2003, 2005). Most important among them involve:
climate changes
depletion of stratospheric ozone (causing increased levels of ultraviolet radiation)
loss of biological diversity
risk of nuclear accidents
acidification of water and land ecosystems
increased levels of tropospheric ozone and other photochemical oxidants
water, air and soil pollution
waste generation
risk of accidents in chemical industries
Efficient policy of natural resource management enables maximum economic growth with
minimum degradation of the environment. Reliable data on both socio/economic growth
and trends of environmental variability may help in developing, implementing and
evaluating environmental policy, which is aimed at the lessening of the economy-versus-
ecology conflict. Hence both national and international legislation specify obligations on
monitoring (continuous and systematic surveillance of parameters that indicate
air, water, soil and biodiversity quality) and
periodic reporting,
in order to assess and to control human impacts on environment.
In 2004 the Serbian Government established the Environmental Protection Agency,
within the Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection. Main priority of the Serbian
Environmental Protection Agency (SEPA) is to collect and to process the data on all
environmental components in Serbia, and to disseminate reliable information to policy
makers and to widest spectrum of public. The Agency has developed a system for data
acquisition and processing that includes:
a server operating system,
a set of databases,
an Intranet/Internet server,
a programme package for creating dynamic Internet/Intranet stations and
dynamic client applications.
Using this system, the Agency permanently upgrades the central data bank that integrates
all ecology-related information into a single functional unit. National Data Bank was
developed as a result of intensive cooperation of Agency with a number of other
organisations, such as: the Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection
Environmental Protection Directorate; Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water
Management; Ministry of Energy and Mining; Ministry of Health, Ministry of Capital
4
Investment; Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Services; Republic Hydrometeorological
Service; Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia; Institute for Nature Conservation of
Serbia; Institute for Health Protection Dr Milan Jovanovic Batut; Serbian Chamber of
Commerce; Secretariat for Environmental Protection and Sustainable Development of the
Autonomous Province (AP) of Vojvodina; Secretariat for Agriculture, Forestry and Water
Management of AP Vojvodina; Recycling Agency; Kragujevac Health Protection Institute;
Novi Sad Institute of Public Health; Ni Health Protection Institute; Belgrade Health
Protection Institute; Health Protection Institutes in Vranje, Kraljevo, Kruevac, Leskovac,
Pancevo, Pirot, Poarevac, Subotica, Uice, abac and Cucak; Institute of Soil Science;
Faculty of Biology and Faculty of Forestry, University of Belgrade; Faculties of Natural
Sciences, Universities of Kragujevac and Ni; Belgrade Institute of Forestry, Institute for
Biological Research Dr Sinia Stankovic; Institute of Architecture and Regional & Urban
planning of Serbia; Faculty of Agriculture - Institute of Lowland Forestry and
Environment, University of Novi Sad; Faculty of Agriculture, University of Belgrade;
Faculty of Natural Sciences, Department of Biology and Ecology, University of Novi Sad.
The Agency uses the central data bank to issue periodic reports on the environment in
Serbia. Reports are directed to decision makers (Republic Government and Republic
Parliament), International institutions (first of all to EEA) and to widest spectrum of
public clients. The mechanism of SEPA functioning is presented in Figure 1.
Figure 1
Concept of the
SEPA
functioning
Reports that are directed to Republic Government represent a valuable tool for
developing, adopting, implementing and evaluating environmental policy. SEPA prepared
two State of environment reports that cover period from 2003 to 2005.
Any environmental problem is local, but at the same time it has a regional
dimension. Therefore, European Commission established the European Environment
Agency (EEA), which propagates information to policy-makers and the public, in order to
support measurable improvements in Europe's environment. Since 2004, SEPA started to
cooperate with EIONET (European Information and Observation NETwork), a
partnership network of EEA, in order to fulfil reporting obligations that countries have
towards international organisations. Contribution of Serbia in development of pan-
5
European environmental data bank was symbolic in 2004. However, in 2006 Serbia
achieved significant progress in cooperation with EIONET and EEA (Figure 2).
Figure 2
European countries ranked by their contribution to the EIONET data flows process. Source:
http://www.eionet.europa.eu/dataflows/pdf2006
Harmonizing reporting obligations with EIONET standards (an indicator-based
approach), SEPA prepared this report in order to:
describe current state and trends of environmental variability in Serbia,
identify the effects of socio-economic development on the environment, and
assess a progress in legal and economic mechanisms that are focused to
environment improvement in Serbia
An indicator is a measure that can be used to illustrate trends and progress over time.
This report is based on the internationally accepted Core Set of Indicators (EEA, 2005).
6
7
SOCIOECONOMIC
GROWTH
DEMOGRAPHY
URBANISATION
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
ENERGY
MINING
INDUSTRY
TRANSPORT
TOURISM
AGRICULTURE
FORESTRY
ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
8
DEMOGRAPHY
The size of human (or any other) population depends on four demographic processes -
births, deaths, immigration and emigration. Data collected in periodic surveys provide a
basis for demographic statistics (per capita births and deaths, migration rates, age
structure and sex ratio) that can be used for modelling and prediction of population
dynamics. Periodic population censuses in Serbia were performed in 1921, 1931, 1948,
1953, 1961, 1971, 1981, 1991 and 2002. The results of the 1991 census were incomplete for
Kosovo and Metohija due to a refusal of ethnic Albanian population to take part in it. On
the other hand, the 2002 population census was not carried out at all in the territory of
Kosovo and Metohija. According to available data (Statistical Office of Serbia), Serbia
(excluding Kosovo and Metohija) had 7,576,837 inhabitants in 1991 and 7,498,001 in
2002. The Yugoslav Survey (http://www.yusurvey.co.yu) has put the estimated figure of
Serbian inhabitants on January 1
st
, 2006 to 7,395,600, which is 83,000 less than 15 years
earlier (1991) and 131,000 less than five years earlier (2001). In the 1991-2006 period, the
total population of Central Serbia decreased by more than 206,000 or 3.7%, while that of
Vojvodina increased by 23,700 owing solely to the arrival of refugees during
disintegration of the former Yugoslavia and armed clashes in Croatia and Bosnia and
Herzegovina between 1991 and 1996.
With the outbreak of war in the former Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (SFRY),
Serbia faced a serious problem of incoming refugees for the first time since the Second
World War. By the end of 1999, nearly 500,000 people had found refuge in the republic
with no realistic possibility of returning home (http://www.srbija.sr.gov.yu). In April 2001,
the Serbian Commissariat for Refugees, in cooperation with the UNHCR, carried out a
new registration of refugees and other persons who had fled to Serbia during the war. A
preliminary analysis of the data collected in July 2001 shows that 451,980 persons were
registered in Serbia. Of that population, 377,731 have a refugee status, while 72,249 do
not meet all required conditions to be given such status under international law. Most of
the refugees are from Croatia (about 63%), while the percentage of those from Bosnia and
Herzegovina has declined to 36%.
-35
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
0
5
1991 1992 1993 19941995 1996 19971998 1999 20002001 2002 2003 2004
P
o
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n

p
e
r

1
0
0
0
Natural population growth
60
100
140
1991 1998 2000 2002 2004
p
o
p
u
l
.

p
e
r

1
0
0
0
live births
deaths
Figure 3
Parameters of
population
dynamics
9
The size and share of urban population in Serbia have been growing continuously over
decades. In the 1991-2002 intercensal period, its share in the overall population increased
from 54.6% to 56.4% (source: Yugoslav Survey http://www.yusurvey.co.yu ).
Depopulation trend in Serbia is a consequence of the negative natural population growth.
Natural population growth has been negative since 1992. In 2005, the difference between the
number of deaths and live births reached 34,591 (-4.7), which is 14,018 more than in 2001. All
districts in Serbia, with exception of several southern districts (Raka, Pcinja, and those in Kosovo
and Metohija), have negative growth rates.
Zapadno-backi
Severno-backi
Severno-banatski
Srednje-banatski
Sremski
Raki
Zajecarski
umadijski
Moravicki
Borski
Branicevski
Grad Beograd
J ablanicki
J uno-backi
J uno-banatski
Kolubarski
Kosovski
Kosovsko-mitrovacki
Kosovsko-pomoravski
Macvanski
Niavski
Pcinjski
Pecki
Pirotski
Podunavski
Pomoravski
Prizrenski
Rasinski
Toplicki
Zlatiborski
Figure 4
Serbian districts with
negative (red) and
positive rates (gray) of
population growth. Only
several southern districts
(Raka, Pcinja, and those
in Kosovo and Metohija)
have positive growth
rates
Over the 2001-2005 period, employment had a tendency of decline and unemployment
was rising. In December 2005, 990.700 persons were registered as seeking employment,
which was a 2.1% increase against the same month of 2004. According to data presented
by the National Employment Service, the unemployment rate recorded in December 2005
was 29.2%, or 27.2% of actively unemployed persons.
10
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
0
20
40
60
80
100
r
a
t
e
Total of employed
Empoyment seekers
Rate of registered unemployment
Figure 5
Unemployment trend in Serbia. Data for
Kosovo and Metohija are missing.
Over 75% of the unemployed had been seeking job for more than one year, 33% of whom
between one and three years and 42% for over three years. (Report on the Transition
Process in Serbia and Montenegro, G17 Institute, 2004).
Rateof unemployed
>35
30 - 35
25 - 30
20 - 25
<20
Unempoyed
Employed
Insured farmers
Figure 6
Employment rates in Serbian districts
(Data source: National Employment
Service, December 2005). Data for Kosovo
and Metohija is missing
According to available statistics, the standard of living was on the rise in the 2001-2004
period, with 11.1% growth of earnings in real terms (exceeding a 9.3% growth of gross
domestic product in real terms), while real growth of average pensions was 7% in 2004.
11
URBANISATION
Serbian territory covers 88,361 km
2
. Within this territory there are 4,706 (data for
Kosovo and Metohija are missing) human settlements (Statistical Office of Serbia,
webrzs.statserb.sr.gov.yu).
Figure 7
Distribution of (sub)urban
settlements in Serbia (2000).
Data for Kosovo and
Metohija are missing.
Distribution of urban areas in Serbia is shown on Fig. 7, which was generated using the
CORINE Land Cover database. As part of the CORINE (COoRdinated INformation on
Environment) Programme, the European Environment Agency (EEA) has initiated the
Land Cover Project (EEA Multi-annual Work Programme 1998 2002, project 1.3.5.) in
12
order to create an inventory of landscape classes using satellite images. In cooperation
with the Topic Centre on Land Cover, the company Evrogeomatica processed a set of
satellite images and created a database on land use classes in Serbia for the period of
1990-2000. Map 1 clearly indicates that the areas of Vojvodina and large river basins (the
Sava, Danube and Velika Morava) are exposed to heaviest urbanisation pressures.
Data on the housing conditions indicate a slight improvement of some parameters, such
as the number of housing units, utility installation, housing area per tenant, etc. In 2004,
99.9% of the housing units were equipped with electrical installation, 89.6% with
plumbing pipes, 83.3% with sewage pipes, while 26.2% of units had central heating
installation.
0
20
40
60
80
100
2004
%

h
o
u
s
i
n
g

u
n
i
t
s
electricity plumbing
sewage heating
Figure 8
Housing conditions in Serbia
The use of solid fuels is high as some 40% of the households still use them. Poor quality of
tap water is a special concern as some 30% of water samples collected from the
waterworks fall short of the required bacteriological and physico-chemical standards.
This percentage goes to as far as 50% or so in rural areas.
Problems in implementing environment protection measures in the area of spatial and
urban planning and housing refer to: a lack of clearly defined national policy of spatial
planning and development; lack of high-quality spatial and urban plans; unsatisfactory
inter-departmental and inter-sector cooperation; insufficient training of local government
divisions and their weak financial capacity for implementing the duties stemming from
legislation and planning.
13
ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
At the end of 2000, Serbia embarked upon a process of transition towards market
economy, which led to a significant economic growth. Macroeconomic activity from 2001
until 2005 was characterized by introduction of a sustainable macroeconomic stability
and sustainable and stable economic growth. Economic development since 1997 is
reflected in gross domestic product (GDP) and GDP per capita figures in dollar currency
(using the World Bank methodology) as provided by the Statistical Office of Serbia.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
mi l l $
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000 $
GDP total, millions USD
GDP per capita, USD
Figure 9
Indicators of economic growth in
the Republic of Serbia
GDP (gross domestic product) growth in real terms in 2004 and 2005 has been
estimated at 9.3% and 6.5%, respectively. Average inflation rate, measured in terms of
growing retail prices, was reduced from 91.8% in 2001 to 10.1% in 2004, while it was
16.5% in 2005.
0
20
40
60
80
100
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
%
GDP in real terms
Inflation, average
Figure 10
Gross domestic product and
inflation in the Republic of Serbia
In 2005, the process of rectifying a disparity in prices in the energy industry and public
utilities continued. Price rise in that area causes a decrease in electricity and water
consumption, and leads to more rational consumption of the resources and lower
emissions of pollutants. According to the Statistical Office of Serbia, public utility prices
rose 45.1%, household electricity 6.6%, coal price 20.9% and liquid fuels and mazut (a
heavy, low quality fuel oil) 23.1%, compared to prices in December 2004.
14
Relationship between economic policy and environmental protection
According European Union statistics, the EU-25 in 2001 allocated around 1.8% of
their GDP for the protection of the environment (funds for prevention, reduction and
elimination of pollution or some other type of environmental degradation). Those
included investments by the public sector, specialized producers and the industry:
Public sector (government, competent institutions and agencies at central and
local levels) set aside 0.6% of the GDP
Specialized producers (public and private enterprises involved in the management
of wastes and wastewaters) provided 0.8% of the GDP
Industry (mining, industries, electrical power supply, water management sector,
etc.) invested 0.4% of the GDP.
0,60%
0,40%
0,80%
Public sector
Specialized producers
Industry
Figure 11
Environmental protection expenditure (EPE)
as % of GDP, EU-25 2001, Eurostat estimate
Preliminary estimates (Directorate for Environmental protection, 2005) show that annual
cost of degradation of the environment in Serbian economy is between 4.4% (conservative
scenario) and 13.1% (maximum scenario) GDP. A bulk of this burden is assessed to be
caused by air pollution (53% of total expenses), water pollution (22%) and waste
management (11%).
14%
11%
22%
53%
Air pollution Water pollution Wastes Other
Figure 12
Structure of estimated annual losses caused by
degradation of the environment
Environmental protection expenditure has been considerably below EU average and lags
behind other transition economies. Under a functional classification of consolidated
public expenditure, environmental protection expenditure accounted for 0.3% GDP in the
2001-2003 period and 0.4% in 2004, while the estimates for 2005 are 0.3%.
15
0 0,2 0,4 0,6 0,8 1 1,2 1,4 1,6
Belgium*
Czech Republic
Denmark*
France
Italy
Lithuania
Hungary
Netherlands*
Poland
Slovenia
Great Britain
Bulgaria
Norway
Switzerland*
Serbia
EU-25
% GDP
Figure 13
Comparative survey of
public sector expenditure for
environmental protection in
GDP % in 2002. Data
marked with * refer to 2001
Weighing the estimated cost of degradation of the environment against investments in
environmental protection, it becomes clear that the cost by far exceeds investments made
to improve environmental quality in Serbia.
0
3
6
9
12
15
1
%

G
D
P
Cost of degradation min. % GDP
Cost of degradation max. % GDP
Environmental investments - % GDP
Figure 14
Estimated annual costs of degradation of the
environment and investments in
environmental protection in 2005
According to projections stated in the Memorandum on Budget and Economic and Fiscal
Policy in 2006, allocations for environmental protection in the 2006-2008 period were
planned to be 0.4% GDP annually. On the other hand, based on the National Programme
of Environmental Protection in Serbia and a projected annual economic growth of 5%
GDP, the environmental investments are expected to grow from 0.3% GDP in 2005 to
1.2% in 2009 and further on to 2.4% in 2014. These two projections differ considerably as
a result of inadequate treatment of environmental protection under the existing economic
policy on the one hand and possibly owing to different methodologies employed.
16
ENERGY
Serbia is not rich in energy resources. With the current level of production, which provides for only
25% of the countrys needs, Serbia (excluding Kosovo) is expected to exhaust its coal supplies
within the next 55 years, and oil and gas within 20 years. Current hydroelectric power capacity is
10,200 GWh per annum, while potential capacity has been estimated at 14,200 GWh per annum.
Figure 15
Exploitation of energy resources in Serbia (source: Institute of Architecture and Regional &
Urban Planning of Serbia)
17
The potentials of other, renewable energy resources, including biomass, small
hydroelectric power plants, geothermal, wind and solar energy are very significant and
exceed 3.8 Mtoe. Some 63% (2.4 Mtoe) of the potential renewable energy resources
described lie in the utilization of biomass (wooden and agricultural biomass). Energy
potential of the existing geothermal springs in Serbia is nearly 0.2 Mtoe, and that of small
hydroelectric power plants 0.4 Mtoe. There are 50 city heating plants in Serbia with total
heat energy capacity of 6,597 MW. The main characteristics of Serbias heating plants are
low operating readiness due to insufficient maintenance and outdated equipment,
financial exhaustion and an inability to perform urgent intervention on sources and grids.
Heating is poor and there is a need for additional capacity.
The Electric Power Industry of Serbia (EPS) encompasses coal mines, electric power
sources (hydroelectric power plants, thermal power plants, heating plants) and grid
distribution systems. From 1975 to 1990, 450 million US dollars was invested in the EPS
on an annual basis (a total of 7.5 billion US dollars). Between 1990 and 2000, less than
10% of the planned funds were invested in repairs and maintenance each year, so that
construction of new power plants is urgently needed.
The overall economic situation, technological outdatedness and depreciation of the
energy and production capacities, as well as the structure of available energy resources,
such as they were inherited from an earlier decade, have caused a significant deterioration
of economic effectiveness and power consumption efficiency in Serbia.
According to data of Ministry of Mining and Energy, over the 1990-2005 period, the
production of primary energy varied perceptibly. In 2005, it was 13% lower than in 1990.
Dependence on inputs after a decline in early 1990s continued to grow, reaching 37.22%
in 2003.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mtoe
Coal and lignite Oil
Gas Renewables-Hydropower
Figure 16
Final energy production
18
-2
0
2
4
6
8
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mtoe
Coal and lignite Oil
Gas Electricity
Figure 17
Energy imports
The 1990-2005 period was characterized by reduced energy consumption by 6% and a
predominant use of fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). However, a trend of slow reduction of
fossil fuel consumption is perceptible as their share decreased from 97.9% to 93.6% and
the energy consumption from renewable resources (hydroelectric power plants) increased
from 4.7% to 6.9%. These changes, even though limited, alleviate the effect that energy
industry has on the environment. Over the same period, EU-25 member-states increased
energy consumption by 11%, while decreasing fossil fuel consumption from 82.6% to
79.3% and increasing energy consumption from renewable resources from 4.4% to 6.0%.
0,00
2,00
4,00
6,00
8,00
10,00
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mtoe
Households, Agriculture, Public and commerce
Transport
Industry
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Households, Agriculture, Public and commerce
Transport
Industry
Figure 18
Left: Final energy consumption by sector (1000 TOE); Right: Shares % aggregated (source:
Ministry of Mining and Energy)
Over the 1990-2005 period, the structure of energy consumption changed significantly.
The highest increase in energy consumption was achieved in the transport sector - 29.5%,
slightly lower in the sectors of households, agriculture, public and commerce 10.4%,
while a decline of 36.7% was recorded in the industrial sector. Considering all facts, it is
evident that a drop in industrial production was the primary cause of such decrease in
energy consumption in Serbia.
Even though electricity prices rose nearly four-fold, the consumption of energy for
heating decreased by no more than some 25%. The reason for this lies most probably in
19
insufficient coverage of long-distance central heating systems, so that, regardless of
prices, the population continued to use electricity for heating.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
G
W
h
0,00
0,50
1,00
1,50
2,00
2,50
3,00
3,50
4,00
E
U
R

c
/
k
W
h
Summer consumption Total annual consumption
Heating energy consumption Average prices
Figure 19
Electricity consumption and average
electricity prices
Hydropower is the most important source of renewable energy in Serbia. The share of
renewable energy resources in overall energy consumption in the 1990-2005 period
increased by only 2.2% and it is still at a low level of 6.9%.
The White Paper for a Community Strategy and Action Plan (COM(97) 599 final), which
provides a framework for Member States action to develop renewable energy and sets an
indicative target to increase the share of renewable energy in total energy consumption
(GIEC) in the EU15 to 12 % by 2010.
0
5
10
15
20
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mtoe
Total enegy consumption
Electricity consumption
Renewable energy - hydropower
Figure 20
Total energy and electricity
consumption and renewable energy
(source: Ministry of Mining and
Energy)
Specific targets have been set for the share of renewable fuel (biofuels) in transport to
achieve 5.75 % by 2010 (Directive 2003/30/EC), and for the share of renewables in gross
electricity consumption to reach 21 % by 2010 (Directive 2001/77/EC).The original EU
Directive on the promotion of electricity from renewable energy sources in the internal
electricity market (2001/77/EC) sets an indicative target of 22.1 % of gross EU-15's
electricity consumption from renewable sources by 2010. For the new Member States,
national indicative targets are included in the Accession Treaty: the 22.1 % target set
initially for EU-15 for 2010 becomes 21 % for EU-25. However, in Serbia energy
consumption from hydroelectric power resources has risen from 32% in 1990 to 34.2% in
2005. As the EU intends to achieve 21% of renewable energy resources in the overall
electricity consumption, Serbia has already exceeded that goal.
20
0
5
10
15
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
8
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
1
0
%
Renewable energy consumption
EU target
0
10
20
30
40
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
8
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
1
0
%
Renewable electricity
EU target
Figure 21
Left: Contribution of renewable energy in total energy consumption; Right: Contribution of
renewable electricity in gross electricity consumption
Effects on the environment
Environmental pollution is possible in almost all sectors of energy industry: sector of
coals (from production to consumption); production, transmission and distribution of
electricity; sector of crude oil and gas (from prospecting to exploitation and, especially, to
processing and transportation of oil and oil derivatives).
The most evident effects of thermoelectric power plants on the environment include:
air pollution with suspended particles, SO2, NOx and O3
contribution to the greenhouse effect by CO2 emissions
risk of accidents on ash landfills
soil degradation in areas surrounding thermoelectric power plants
pollution of surface and underground waters
increase in water temperatures caused by releases of cooling waters from
thermoelectric power plants directly into rivers.
Detriments to the environment caused by hydroelectric power plants include:
changed regime of alluvium depositing in the reservoir area and downstream
activation of existing and excitation of potential land-slides
changed regime of underground waters in river bank areas
submersion of fertile soil
change of microclimate
negative effect on biological diversity, primarily ichthyofauna
change in seismic activity
The Strategy of Development of the Energy Sector determined a new energy policy
within the ongoing reform of the energy sector in Serbia. The main objectives of Serbias
new energy policy, viewed from the aspect of environmental protection, are:
reliable domestic production and stable supplies of energy products from the
existing energy resources with improved technological and operational
characteristics
harmonized operation and development of entire energy industry with the needs
of the consumption sector and development of relevant sectors of the economy
efficient production and rational, cost- and energy-efficient utilization of primary
energy resources aimed at improving the volume and structure of high-quality
energy resources consumption and more efficient protection of the environment.
21
MINING
Mining is the cornerstone of Serbias industry and, consequently, of Serbian economy in general.
The mining comprises four extraction sectors: coal; crude oil and gas; metal ores; other ores and
stones.
Figure 22
Excavation of mineral raw materials in Serbia (source: Institute of Architecture and Regional &
Urban Planning of Serbia)
Low-caloric coals, the lignites, which are mined at Kolubara and Kostolac, provide 65% of
electricity in Serbia. Significantly, available data shows that one Kolubara excavation site
alone - Field D, provides 32% of electricity in Serbia. The average content of sulphur in
those lignites is below 3%.
22
Despite the general trend of industrial production in Serbia, production of building
material is still a significant and profitable segment of industry that has been
continuously developing (20% growth in the year 2000) and is based primarily on
mineral materials, i.e. on mining. The main producers of building material are the cement
factories in Beocin, Kosjeric and Novi Popovac, brick factories in Kikinda, Novi Becej,
Novi Pazar, Ruma, and Kanjia. Excavation of technical and building stone is also a
profitable mining sector, with sites near Ub, in Topola, Jelen Do, and Arandelovac.
Private sector initiative is most prominent in this sector through exploitation of non-
metals and building materials.
The Bor Mining and metallurgical complex produces copper ore and precious metals in
quantities that are significant on a regional level. The most important copper-mining
sites are Bor, Veliki Krivelj, Cerovo, Majdanpek and Jama Bor. Secondary precious metal
refining is also substantial.
Exploitation of industrial minerals in Serbia will soon be of great consequence. Highly
profitable projects are planned that are partly based on estimated and partly on
confirmed reserves of boron minerals, phosphates, zeolites, granite alluviums, ilmenite,
zircon, etc. Foreign companies are especially interested in exploitation of industrial
materials.
index 1999=100
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
%
Figure 23
Mining production compared to 1999
output
According to the Ministry of Energy and Mining, nine out of ten requests for mineral
prospecting are made for underground water, which clearly points at their significance.
The main commercial mineral water producers are successful companies such as Knjaz
Milo, Rosa, Leda, Bivoda, Palanacki kiseljak etc.
Mining production trends over the 1999-2004 period show a slight decline, reaching in
2004 around 96% of the 1999 production.
index 1999=100
0
50
100
150
200
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
%
Mining of coal
Extraction of crude
petroleum and gas
Mining of metal ores
Other mining and
quarrying
Figure 24
Structure of mining
production (source:
Statistical Office of Serbia)
23
Production within mining sectors shows a rising trend in the extraction of coal and other
ores and stones, and a declining trend for metal ores, oil and gas.
The mining areas in Serbia have been under massive exploitation for many years. Billions
of tons of ore and tailings have been excavated. It is noteworthy that the amounts of
overburden exceed coals by multifold.
0
20000
40000
60000
80000
100000
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
Overburden production Coal production
1
0
0
0

t
Kostolac mine
Kolubara mine
Figure 25
Coal and overburden
production (source: Ministry
of Mining and Energy)
Effects on the environment
Intensive mining of mineral ores has caused exhaustion of non-renewable natural
resources and pollution of water, air and soil, and significant deterioration and
degradation of soils. Most of the terrain has been degraded by surface mining of copper
and coal. Large areas are covered with tailings and fly ash deposits. Such deposits in
Serbia have been estimated to contain:
around 170 million tons of fly ash from thermoelectric power plants
between 1.4 and 1.7 billion tons of tailings from overburden
around 700 million tons of flotation and separation tailings
Around 10,000 hectares of land have been degraded by surface mining and tailing ponds
in the major mining complexes. Of that area, less than 20% has been under natural (by
spontaneous succession of vegetation) and artificial recultivation. Some 1,700 hectares of
land degraded by lignite mining had been ameliorated by 1991, but soil improvement was
brought to a halt in 1992.
Air pollution occurs in mining areas as a consequence of increased levels of dust raised by
excavation, intensive transportation, etc. Water pollution in mining areas occurs
primarily through erosion of unprotected tailing ponds. Surface and underground waters
have been polluted several times by accidental outbreaks of flotation dams and spilling
over of more than 100 million tons of flotation tailings.
Continued mining without adequate preventive measures would lead to:
air and water pollution caused by tailings and surface excavation
lowering of the levels of underground waters
degradation and contamination of soil
increased risks of accidents at tailings ponds
soil and water pollution caused by drilling mud from oil wells.
Such pressures on the environment may in some cases be dramatic (degradation of entire
regions, deterioration of soils, etc.).
24
INDUSTRY
Unfavourable economic situation in the industrial sector over the past decade comes as a result of
economic sanctions in the past. The countrys isolation and dramatic loss of traditional markets
and business partners have caused industrial production to sustain a sudden drop of some 60% in
the early 1990s.
Figure 26
Main industrial centres in Serbia
After the Privatisation Law was adopted in June 2001, conditions were created for
implementing economic reforms in the productive branches of the economy. Some other
steps that have been taken so far (in solving the outstanding internal and foreign debts,
and providing funds for energy imports), as well as those that will be taken in the future,
contribute to a gradual recovery of the industrial sector and its easier adaptation to new
25
economic conditions. However, industrial production is still far below the 1990 output as
it still does not reach 50% of that years level. According to the Statistical Office of Serbia,
the share of industrial output in the gross domestic product (firm prices in 2002) was
21.4% in 2004.
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
1990 199119921993199419951996 199719981999200020012002 200320042005
index 1990=
100%
Figure 27
Industrial production
compared to 1990
Industry includes three sectors: mining of ores and stones; processing industry;
production and distribution of electricity, gas and water. In the overall industrial
production in 2005, the processing industry participated with 75.4%, electricity
generation and distribution with 18.3% and mining of ores and stone with 6.3%.
75,4%
6,3%
18,3
Mining and quarrying
Manufacturing
Electic power generation,
gas and water supply
Figure 28
Structure of industrial production
in Serbia in 2005 (source:
Statistical Office of Serbia)
Industry is a major energy consumer as it accounts for around 45-30% of the overall
consumption of secondary energy. However, a slow trend of increase in energy efficiency
has been observed over the past years and, besides its economic benefits, it also has
favourable effects on the environment.
0
2
4
6
8
10
1990 1994 1998 2002 2003 2004 2005
Mtoe
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Mtoe
Final energy consumption
Energy consumption in industry
Industrial production
Figure 29
Energy consumption in the industrial
sector
26
Effects on the environment
In earlier decades, Serbian economic structure had been characterized by a high degree of
industrialization, controlled prices and unrational management of natural resources,
which has led to exhaustion of natural resources, great amounts of waste and high levels
of industrial pollution.
As the country moved to a market-oriented type of economy, a new problem arose
regarding environmental protection responsibility for the environment in a process of
privatization. Damage caused to the environment by activities before a company has been
privatized is treated as a preceding liability.
Industrial development is accompanied by a series of detrimental effects, some of which
are:
increased industrial emissions of SO2, NOx, volatile organic compounds, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons and other pollutants in the locations of Bor, abac,
Pancevo, Novi Sad, Smederevo, etc.
contamination of soil and ground- and underground waters with hazardous
materials in Bor, Pancevo, Novi Sad, Smederevo, Belgrade, Kragujevac, etc.
most of the industrial wastewater is being released without appropriate treatment
contamination of soil, ground- and underground waters.
Outdated technology, low energy and raw material-efficiency, loose technological
discipline and a high level of waste generation are the factors that greatly add up to the
pollution and degradation of the environment. Lacking facilities for reduction of pollution
is a general concern (most particularly wastewater treatment facilities, scrubbers and
facilities for desulphurization of fumes). Some industrial facilities (such as iron and steel
works, metallurgical and chemical industries, etc.) used to have the basic pollution-
reducing installations but most of them have not been in use for the past 15 years. Nearly
90% of industrial wastewater is therefore being released without appropriate treatment.
A solution to these problems is seen in implementing a set of laws relevant to the
environment, which were adopted at the end of 2004 (Law on Integrated Prevention and
Control of Environmental Pollution, Law on Evaluation of Effects on the Environment,
Law on Strategic Evaluation of Effects on the Environment, Law on Environmental
Protection) and various regulations that were either adopted in 2005 or are still under
preparation.
The Serbian Chamber of Commerce in 2002 organized a registry of business and other
organizations holding certificates on compliance with appropriate standards of the JUS
ISO 14001 and ISO 14001 series. Their data show that 16 companies, including 14
companies engaged in processing industry, have introduced systems of management of
environmental protection that is coordinated with the JUS ISO 14001, while ISO 14001
standard has been incorporated in standards of environmental protection management of
19 industrial companies, 16 of which fall under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of the
Economy.
27
TRANSPORT
Serbias greatest comparative advantage is its geographic position as a natural
transportation hub in South-East Europe. Serbia is also a link between South-Eastern,
Central and Western Europe as two important European corridors pass through the
country: Corridor X running from Austria, passing through Serbia and branching off into
Greece and Bulgaria; and Corridor VII, the largest waterway in Europe.
There are about 18,000 km of primary roads in Serbia and about 30,000 km of local
roads. Network density is 43.9 km/100 km. According to the Statistical Office of Serbia
(http://webrzs.statserb.sr.gov.yu), the number of passenger cars has been on a steady
increase since 1999 (Figure 30). Approximately 12,000 vehicles are in function, of which
2,544 intercity buses, 7,261 trucks and 1,385 trailers. Some 59% of the buses and 37%
trucks do not meet relevant EU technical standards (http://www.srbija.sr.gov.yu).
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Motorcycles Passenger cars Buses
Work vehicles Tractors Artic. Vehic.
Figure 30
Number of registered cars and
vehicles in Serbia
The number of registered vehicles in 2005 was around 1.9 million. The age of vehicles
causes concern both regarding traffic safety and environmental risks. In 2004 and 2005,
40.1% and 36.2 % of the vehicles, respectively, aged over 15 years, excluding passenger car
estimates, while merely 6.8 % and 11.5 % were less than three years old. Data on the
vehicle stock by category of certificate (excluding passenger cars) shows that 84.5 % of the
vehicles had no certificate in 2004, and 77.5 % in 2005.
0
1500
3000
4500
6000
7500
2004 2005
No. vehicles
Semi-trailer/trailer without certificate Semi-trailer/trailer with certificate
Heavy goods vehicle without certificate Heavy goods vehicle, green (E1)
Heavy goods vehicle, greener and safe (E2) Heavy goods vehicle, EURO 3 safe (E3)
Figure 31
Vehicle stock
(excluding
passenger cars)
according to
category of
certificate
28
Total length of railway tracks is 3,808 km, of which 3,533 km are single-track and 275 km
double-track. The main railway routes are:
Belgrade-Resnik-Ni 246 km
Belgrade-Majdanpek-Bor-Vraogrnac 300 km
Lapovo-Kraljevo-eneral Jankovic border 372 km
Ni-Kurumlija-Kosovo Polje-Pec 284 km
Belgrade-Novi Sad-Subotica border 200 km
Belgrade-Zrenjanin-Kikinda border 210 km
Serbia has an outstanding potential for river transport. The River Danube, running for
580 kilometres through the Serbian territory, is a natural junction of Eastern, Central and
Western Europe. There is also a 164 km long inter-state navigable passage on the River
Tisa, and a domestic Danube-Tisa-Danube canal network totalling 600 km of waterways
with a potential of becoming an international navigable route with a satisfactory level of
use by all Danube basin countries. A stretch of approximately 207 km of the River Sava is
used for river transport. The Serbian section of the Sava is planned to gain the status of
international navigable route of sufficient category to attract interest from all
neighbouring countries the river runs through [Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina
(i.e. the Republic of Srpska) and Serbia]. As the River Morava has considerable length,
plans have been made for it to link the Danube and the Aegean Sea at Thessalonica.
Significant advantages and a comparatively well-developed network of internal navigable
routes, as well as pier and port capacities and facilities in the Republic of Serbia
constitute a good infrastructure basis for further development. These plans are
compatible with the EU-defined policy of moving part of the transport sector to river and
integrated transport.
There are two airports in Serbia: Belgrade and Ni. JAT Airways is the national air carrier.
After a regression period between 1990 and 2000, when the transport sector suffered a
significant decline under economic sanctions and war devastation, the transport services
have intensified since 2000, reaching a 13% increase in the volume of transport between
2002 and 2005 (Statistical Office of Serbia).
50
100
150
2002 2003 2004 2005
index
2004=100
Transport - total land transport
Inland waterway Air transport
50
100
150
2002 2003 2004 2005
index
2004=100
Land - total Railways
Road City
Figure 32
Left: Physical volume indices of Total transport; Right: Physical volume indices of Land
transport
29
Effect on the environment
Development of the transport sector may have adverse effects on human health and the
environment as it causes:
diffuse (unlocalised) air pollution (increased concentrations of CO, NOx, volatile
organic compounds, heavy metals, suspended particles and O3)
pollution caused by crude oil and derivatives on navigable waterways
noise pollution
Technical inspection of vehicles is obligatory in one-year intervals for passenger cars and
six-month for commercial vehicles. The existing legislation has not been harmonized with
the effective EU legislation and implementation of legal provisions is unsatisfactory due
to current economic difficulties and a problem of unclear jurisdiction among the relevant
institutions.
No immediate steps to protect the environment have been taken in the area of river
transport. Serbia has not yet signed the European Agreement Concerning the
International Carriage of Dangerous Goods by Road (ADR) but a bylaw on transports of
dangerous goods by waterways is underway. An Environmental Impact Assessment was
given as part of the Master Plan and Feasibility Study for the Serbian Inland Waterway
Transports Network and Ports within Project 2: Rehabilitation and Improvement of the
Inland Navigable Waterway Network in Serbia.
It is noteworthy that in the area of railway transport, environmental protection activities
are focusing on intensified efforts to introduce intermodal transport.
30
TOURISM
The main characteristics of Serbian territory, its beautiful nature and cultural heritage,
provide a favourable basis for development of tourism industry. Tourist activities mostly
focus on major cities, spas and mountains, and on tourism for specific interests (cultural
and natural heritage, hunting, and fishing), countryside tourism and tourism on the main
rivers (especially the Danube). The most frequently visited cities are Belgrade and Novi
Sad.
36%
15%
20%
26%
3%
Main adm. centres Spas
Mountain resorts Other tourist places
Other resorts
20%
31% 27%
19%
3%
Main adm. centres Spas
Mountain resorts Other tourist places
Other resorts
Figure 33
Tourist arrivals (left) and tourist nights (right) by destination category in 2005 (source:
Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Services)
Over the past several years, there have been nearly two million arrivals annually and
foreign tourists accounted for almost 25% of that number. Some 6.5 million nights were
recorded in 2005, of which 5.5 million by domestic tourists. Compared to 2004 figures,
there was a 16% rise in the number of foreign tourists (17% nights), while domestic
tourism decreased slightly (3% in arrivals and 5% in nights).
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
2003 2004 2005
in 1000
domestic foreign
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
2003 2004 2005
in 1000
domestic foreign
Figure 34
Tourist arrivals (left); Tourist nights (right) (source: Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Services)
31
The total number of beds in tourist facilities in the Republic of Serbia in 2005 was 86,731,
of which hotels accounted for 36,538 and complementary facilities 38,511.
In 2005, foreign-exchange earnings from tourism were 304,149,000 US dollars, while
foreign-exchange outflow in the same period was 245,387,000 US dollars. Compared to
2004, foreign-exchange earnings rose 38% and outflow 19%.
0
100
200
300
400
2004 2005
Millions$
Foreign-exchange outflow
Foreign-exchange earnings
Figure 35
Foreign-exchange earnings and outflow in
tourist trade (in millions of US dollars)
Effects on the environment
The data on tourist trade in Serbia presented here suggests that tourism is still not
sufficiently developed to pose a significant threat to environment quality. Development of
this sector must be based on simultaneous conservation and improvement of
environment, since the best interest of the tourist trade as healthy environment is an
important precondition for its successful operation. Negative effects of inadequate
development of tourism involve: pressure on the environment, natural resources and
biological diversity by inappropriate location or illegal construction of tourist facilities;
release of untreated wastewaters; inadequate waste disposal; emissions of gases from
traffic and boiler-rooms; noises from traffic and various tourist activities; unchecked and
ecologically unacceptable development of tourist activities in conserved environments
and other natural environments; disturbance of wild animals in their habitats by visiting
tourists.
32
AGRICULTURE
Serbia has 5,734,000 ha of agricultural land (0.56 ha per capita), of which 4,867,000 ha
are arable land, 1,006,473 ha pastures and 37,504 ha fish ponds. Farmland covers 70% of
total surface area of Serbia, while 30% is woodland.
Cereals are grown on 2.453.374 ha of arable land, while 494.598 ha are reed-marshes and
forage fish ponds, and industrial herbs are grown on 348.641 ha, vegetables on 300.484
ha, orchards on 256.887 ha, vineyards on 85.763 ha, nursery-gardens on 2.164 ha and
meadows on 666.702 ha. Approximately 86.866 ha of Serbian territory are under forests.
Serbias irrigation system covers 180,000 ha. Yet only 30,000 ha of cultivated land are
actually irrigated, which means that irrigation is minimal in Serbia. As a result, potentials
for high production of sugar beet, sunflower, soybean, vegetables and fodder are not
being fully exploited.
Livestock production focuses mainly on cattle breeding, while fields and gardens cover
most of the farmland. There is an evident neglect of the potentials that meadows, pastures
and fields have in terms of intensive and efficient livestock production.
Rural transport infrastructure is underdeveloped, and agricultural machinery and
equipment are generally in poor condition. Average tractor age is 12 years, while combine
harvesters are 15 years old on the average.
Mineral fertilizer consumption is 36 kg/ha. The use of agrochemicals is fairly low and
kept in check, and there is a highly organized system of regular veterinary, phytosanitary
and sanitary inspections.
Cereals and fodder crops are grown on most of Serbias agricultural land (Figure 36).
Over the 1990-2005 period, areas under cereal crops decreased substantially, while a
slight upward trend occurred with areas cultivated with fodder crops. The number of fruit
trees also dropped significantly over the period.
33
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
(
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

h
a
)
Vegetables (ha) Industrial crops (ha)
Cereals (ha) Fodder crops (ha)
Fruit (thousands of trees)
(
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s
o
f

t
r
e
e
s
)
Figure 36
Structure and size of main
agricultural crops (per ha and
number of trees) in Serbia
Most of the areas under fodder plants in Serbia are meadows and pastures and their size
has not changed significantly over a long period. Alfalfa (lucerne) and clover are also
grown on large areas of land.
Despite evident oscillation, agricultural areas under maize and wheat crops generally
show a dwindling trend (Figure 37). Other cereals (barley, oats, and rye) are grown on
much smaller areas.
0
500000
1000000
1500000
2000000
2500000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
(
h
a
)
Wheat Barley Maize Oats
Figure 37
Area under cereals
in Serbia
Sunflower, sugar beet and soybean are the main industrial crops in Serbia (Figure 38).
Over the 1990-2005 period, a significant rise was recorded in areas under soybean crop,
while area under sugar beet was reduced.
34
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
350000
400000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
(
h
a
)
Sugar beet Soya Sunflower
Figure 38
Area under industrial
crops in Serbia
Tomato accounts for the largest area under vegetable crops in Serbia.
Plum is the main fruit crop grown in Serbia but the number of plum trees has been on a
steady decrease over the 1990-2005 period (Figure 39). Most other fruit trees have also
declined in numbers in that period, the apple being the only exception to such trend.
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
(
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

o
f

t
r
e
e
s
)
Apples Pears Plums Sour cherries
Figure 39
Fruit crops in
Serbia number of
trees
Animal husbandry is a significant economic resource in Serbia, primarily cattle and pig
breeding (Figure 40). However, their numbers decreased considerably in 1990-2005.
35
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
(
t
h
o
u
s
a
n
d
s

o
f

h
e
a
d
s
)
Cattle Pig Sheep Poultry
Figure 40
Number of heads
in 1990-2005
Consumption of fertilizers
There are no reliable data on fertilizers consumption in Serbia, although the production
trend in the period 2000 2005 (Fig. 41) indicates increase in consumption. As opposed
to Serbia, in 15 EU countries in the period 1990 2001, there was decrease of nitrogen
(N) consumption in mineral fertilizers of 12%. There is no simple correlation between this
data and effects on environment, due to synergistic effects of other factors (manure
consumption, crops, arable land and farm management).
0
50000
100000
150000
200000
250000
300000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
year
(
t
)
CAN UREA Phosphoric acid Complex fertilizers Mixed fertilizers
Figure 41
Production trend of
fertilizers in Serbia
36
Consumption of plant protection chemicals
Degree of damages in environment depends on the quantity of active matter, but also on
its quality. Existing data on consumption can not be correlated to increased risk on
environment due to various factors: application of the chemical by farmers, changes of
the active substance and its degradation.
Figure 42
Trend in pesticides
consumption in
Serbia
Consumption of pesticides in Serbia is presented as a balance between production, import
and export, according to categories, in the period 2000 2005. Figure 42 presents
significant increase of pesticide consumption in this period, with the exemption of
fungicides, due to decrease in production. In EU countries, in the period 1992 1999,
growth of pesticides sale was 11%, while insecticides sale decreased 16%.
Irrigation
The effect of agriculture on water regime can be expressed through water demands for
irrigation. Relation of irrigation and pollution of the environment can be observed
through seemingly separated processes (agriculture land, water, crops, flora and fauna,
and air). Increasing of irrigated area leads to increase on water demands.
There are 0.66% of arable land in Serbia irrigated (28072 hu) in 2004, where in Central
Serbia this is 3014 hu, and in Vojvodina 25058 hu (Figure 43). Irrigation methods vary:
surface method on 4916 hu, artificial rain on 22439 hu, and drop method 717 ha.
According to statistical data, irrigation is decreasing. It is 10387 ha less then in 2000
(5257 hu less in Central Serbia and 5130 hu less in Vojvodina). As opposed to Serbia, in 12
EU countries there is increase of irrigation in the period 1990 2000 (France, Greece and
Spain of approximately 30%). Introduction of new irrigation technologies it is possible to
improve efficiency in irrigation and decrease water consumption).
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
tona
insecticides
fungicides
herbicides
total
37
Figure 43
Irrigation in Serbia
Organic agriculture in Serbia
Contemporary agriculture practice is one of the main causes of land degradation,
especially challenging ecological regulatory function of the soil, and therefore calls for
greatest interventions. The main objective of organic agriculture, as a part of sustainable
agriculture, is to improve the health and productivity of associations, soil, plants, animals
and humans. Organic agriculture in Serbia is regulated by Law on organic agriculture and
organic products.
Total area under organic production in Serbia in 2004 is 200550.12 ha, including wild
fruit on 200008.60 ha. The total surface under organic production is 3.92 % of total
agricultural area.
Table 1. Total surface under organic production in Serbia
Main product Certi fi ed organi c
area (ha)
Main product Certi fi ed organi c
area (ha)
Maize 8.30 Pea 0.10
Wheat 7.50 Grape 6.00
Oats 1.50 Apple 135.40
Rye 2.50 Sour cherry 20.16
Triticale 1.25 Plum 4.10
Barley 1.90 Raspberry 64.76
Oil squash 110.00 Blackberry 8.58
Oil seed rape 60.00 Strawberry 57.16
Sunflower 44.21 Blueberry 20,000
Cabbage 1.00 Wild blackberry 20,000
Pepper 1.50 Wild strawberry 10,000
Savoy cabbage 0.05 Wild apples 150008.60
Brussels sprouts 0.10 Chamomile 5.00
Parsley 0.25 Total 200550.12
Carrot 0.20 Wild fruit 200008.60
Participation of organic agriculture in 15 EU countries and EFTA is 4% of the total
production. Some EU countries are increasing organic agriculture 10-20% till 2010,
relying on quality of production and decrease of negative impacts on environment. It is
necessary to stimulate organic agriculture in Serbia, for the same reasons.
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
35000
40000
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
Vojvodina
Central Serbia
38
FORESTRY
Forests make a significant resource for economic and social development. They are also
the habitats of diverse flora and fauna. Their role in conserving soil, water, wildlife, as
well as plant and animal genetic pool and diversity is of vital importance.
According to the 1979 forest census, some 2,313,000 ha or 26.2% of total area of the
Republic of Serbia was under forests at the time. Overall increase in forest area in Serbia
since 1979 has been 53,671 ha, of which 44,604 ha in Vojvodina and 9,157 ha in Central
Serbia. The current average annual increase in forest area is 2,333 ha, or 1,939 ha in
Vojvodina and 400 ha in Central Serbia.
Figure 44
Forest coverage in Serbia
39
Total wood volume in Serbian forests is approximately 225 million m
3
and most of it
(70.1%) forms old-growth forests, while young forests account for 28.3%. Some 54% of
total wood volume is in state-owned and 46% in private forests.
Current total volume increment in Serbian forests is approximately 6.2 million m
3
(2.6%
of total volume) and it is higher in state-owned forests (3.8 m
3
/ha) than in private ones
(2.13 m
3
/ha) due to a better structure of state-owned than private forests. The highest
volume increment in the state-owned forests has been achieved in natural old-growth
forests (5.3 m
3
/ha), planted old-growth forests (3.9 m
3
/ha) and young forests (3.4
m
3
/ha).
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
total state
forests
high natural
forests
high
artificial
forests
sprouts
forests
private
forests
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
volume (100.000.000 m3) volume increment (m3/ha)
Figure 45
Wood volume in
Serbian forests
Serbian forests are managed by public enterprises. Most of the state-owned forest area is
managed by Srbijaume, Vojvodinaume, Borjak Vrnjacka Banja and national parks.
The public enterprise Srbijaume comprises 17 forest holdings, while Vojvodinaume has
four.
State-owned forests that have been entrusted to forest holdings, and privately owned ones
outside areas under conservation are generally considered as commercial forests. Total
area under commercial forests in Serbia is around 1,700,000 ha, or some 90% of total
forest area.
0
500
1000
1500
2000
total commercial
forests
commercial
forests under
menagement
(
0
0
0

h
a
)
Figure 46
Commercial forests and management-
run commercial forests in Serbia
40
Every 10 years, the Directorate for Forests of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Water Management approves special management guidebooks for state-owned forests
and forest land (over 1,100,000 ha) that have been assigned to public enterprises. The
area of forests that are subject to planned management documents is about 900,000 ha,
which is around 48% of total forest area or 53% of total area of commercial forests.
Forest exploitation
The total amount of timber in Serbian forests was 2,718,606 m
3
in 2004, which is some
5% more than in 2003. In 2005, the total volume of cut timber exceeded 2,100,000 m
3
.
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
(
0
0
0

m
3
)
Figure 47
Volume of timber in Serbia
The structure of timber cut in 2004 shows that 7.9% were conifer trees, which coincides
with their overall share in Serbian forests (8%). It leads to a further conclusion that there
is no pressure for increasing the amount of cut conifers considering their percentage in
Serbian forests.
Considering different products of state-owned forestry (industrial, construction and
firewood), there is an evident trend of production increase in 2003 and 2004. The 2003
increase resulted primarily from a significant rise in firewood production (14% more than
in 2002), while in 2004 it was caused by a surge in the production of construction timber
(17% more than in 2003) and industrial timber (7% more than in 2003). In 2005, the
rising production trend of industrial timber continued (30% up against 2004), but the
amount of firewood decreased (6% against 2004), as well as industrial timber (4.5%
against 2004).
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
2002 2003 2004 2005
(
0
0
0

m
3
)
Figure 48
Aggregate output of forestry products in
state-owned forests in 2005
41
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
2002 2003 2004 2005
industrial timber construction timber firewood
Figure 49
Structure of products of state-owned
forestry in 2005
In 2004, according to data collected by the Statistical Office of Serbia, firewood output
was 1,431,220 m
3
, and only 58% of that amount was cut in state-owned forests. The
remaining 42% of firewood came from private forests. On the other hand, as much as
90% of industrial and construction timber was produced in state-owned forests in 2004.
Per capita firewood consumption in Serbia was 0.21 m
3
in 2000, 0.16 m
3
in 2002 and
again reached some 0.2 m
3
in 2004.
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004
m
3

p
e
r

c
a
p
i
t
a
Figure 50
Per capita firewood consumption in
Serbia
The rising trend of firewood consumption (0.13 m
3
) after the year 2001 is attributed by
experts primarily to a rise in electricity prices.
Forest-based industries traditionally play an important role in Serbias economic
development. Serbian forests are both state- and privately-owned, the former accounting
for a little over 47% and being mostly managed by Srbijaume (85%). The remaining
state-owned forests are managed by Vojvodinaume (7.5%), national parks (6.5%) and
educational and research institutions (1%). Srbijaume and Vojvodinaume are state-
founded public enterprises in charge of managing state-owned forests, promoting
silviculture, maintaining and regenerating forests, managing plantations, reconstructing
and reclaiming forests and brushland, producing forest seeds and nursery stock,
establishing new forests and forest plantations, etc. The remaining 53% of forest area is
owned and managed by private owners.
Forest-based industries, which make an important part of the Serbian economy, account
for a relatively high share in the GDP (1.24%) and industrial production (3.63%). This
segment of the economy, based on domestic raw materials, has maintained a constant
42
positive foreign trade balance since World War II. Today, there are 2,365 companies
engaged in wood processing and a majority of them produce sawn wood (1,491) and
furniture (402). Most companies are privately owned (about 96%).
Alternating increases and declines in the production of paper and paperboard were
typical in Serbia between 1996 and 2004. There are 11 producers of paper and paperboard
in Serbia. Three major producers are still state-run, while the rest are small-scale private
enterprises. Annual production of pulp, paper and paperboard is about 330,000 metric
tons. Pulp production is mainly used to satisfy the domestic needs in paper, and only
small quantities are being exported. Of the overall volume produced, printing paper is the
most dominant product. Despite the existing production potentials, most pulp and paper
producers are only operating at about 40% of their full capacity, and Serbia continues to
import significant amounts of paper. Wood pulp production amounts to approximately
76,000 metric tons per year, while production capacities are twice the amount. Domestic
wood pulp production is mainly used to satisfy the needs of Serbian paper producers and
only a small portion is being exported.
Plantations occur throughout the country and they are usually monospecific stands where
species depend on landscape and ecosystem characteristics. Plantations located in Central
Serbia predominately grow coniferous species, especially pines (mainly Pinus nigra) and
spruce (Picea abies), and cover two-thirds of all land under plantations. Only a third of all
plantations grow broadleaves, and those are located in northern parts of Serbia. The flat
and fertile soil of Vojvodina, veined by rivers, creates a perfect environment for poplar
trees (Euro-American black poplar clone) and approximately 95% of all plantations found
here indeed are poplars. The other tree species grown there include oak and other
hardwood trees.
43
PROGRESS IN ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT IN
SERBIA
The legal/legislative and institutional framework is founded in the Constitution of the
Republic of Serbia, stipulating the right to a healthy environment and the duty of all, in
line with the law, to protect and enhance the environment. Environmental legislation in
Serbia consists of large number of laws and regulations (approximately 100). Legislative,
executive and judicial powers are mostly practiced through the legally prescribed scope of
competences of republic authorities. According to the law, certain competences are
delegated to the autonomous province and the local government.
The new legal framework for environmental protection was introduced in 2004 in the
Republic of Serbia by the Law on Environmental Protection, the Law on Strategic
Environmental Assessment, the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment, and the Law
on Integrated Prevention and Pollution Control.
The most significant issues covered by the Law on Environmental Protection include
fundamental principles of environmental protection; management and protection of
natural resources; measures and conditions of environmental protection; environmental
programmes and plans; industrial accidents; public participation; a monitoring and
information system; clearly identified competences of the Environmental Protection
Agency; reporting; financing environmental protection; and inspection services and fines.
The new laws are harmonised with the EU Directives on Environmental Impact
Assessment (85/337/EEC), Strategic Impact Assessment (2001/43/EC), IPPC
(96/61/EC) and Public Participation (2003/35/EC). The Ministry of Science and
Environmental Protection Directorate for Environmental Protection (DEP) has the key
responsibility in environmental protection.
Within the Programme on Environmental Capacity Building 2003, which was financed by
the European Union (EU), and was managed by the European Agency for Reconstruction,
the National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP) of the Republic of Serbia was designed.
Local Environmental Action Plans (LEAP) have been designed in several municipalities,
where a part referring to implementation of sustainable development at the municipal
territory has been integrated into those Action Plans. These parts have also been worked
on in Municipal Development Strategies, Municipal Physical Plans, as well as in
monitoring plans. There is a network of towns and municipalities having started the
sustainable development and Agenda 21 strategic planning process.
Law on Environmental Protection predicted several types of economic instruments within
financing and fulfilment of the environmental protection objectives: charges for
utilization of natural resources, charges for environmental pollution, budget resources
and international financial aid, fund for environmental protection and economic
incentives.
44
Fund for Environmental Protection was registered in May 2005 and it has a status of a
legal entity. Currently, the Fund has 10 employees, but the plans are to employ more
people in the forthcoming period. The Funds financial means are mainly based on the
budget earmarked funds, income from the charges for utilization of wild flora and fauna,
charges for motor vehicles, charges for the import of the materials which deplete ozone
layer, charges for gases emission and for produced and disposed waste.
Law on Environmental Protection also predicted economic incentives for legal and private
entities which apply technologies and place on the market the products which directly
serve to environmental protection, as well as for those manufacturers and consumers who
mitigate adverse effects of their activities towards the environment.
45
CLIMATE
CHANGE
CLIMATE SYSTEM
BASI CCLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS
NATURAL AND HUMAN-INDUCED CLIMATE CHANGES
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL TEMPERATURE AVERAGES
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION AVERAGES
46
47
CLIMATE SYSTEM
Weather and climate have a profound influence on all species, including humans. The term
weather refers to the fluctuating state of atmosphere characterised by changing temperature,
wind, precipitation, clouds and other elements. On the other hand, climate refers to the average
weather in terms of the mean and its variability over a certain time span in a certain area (IPCC,
1996).
The climate system consists of five interacting components: atmosphere, hydrosphere,
cryosphere, land surface and biosphere. It is influenced by various external forces, the
most important of which is solar radiation. Atmosphere is the most unstable and rapidly
changing element of the climate system.
Figure 51
Structure of the
atmosphere. Its chemical
composition varies with
altitude. Atmosphere
temperature also
changes. Source:
Neiburger et al., 1982
Temperature, pressure and chemical composition of atmosphere vary with altitude. The
ICAO (International Civil Aviation Organization) has designed the ISA (International
Standard Atmosphere), an atmosphere model that describes variations in pressure,
density and temperature with altitudes. According to that model (Fig 51), the
48
troposphere is the lowest layer of the atmosphere starting at the surface and going up to
between 7 km at the poles and 17 km at the equator with some variation due to weather
factors. The troposphere has a great deal of vertical mixing due to solar heating at the
surface. From that 717 km range up to about 50 km, temperature is increasing with
height. That atmosphere layer is termed the stratosphere. The ozone-rich stratum of the
atmosphere (around 10-50 km above Earth's surface) is often referred to as the ozone
layer. The thermosphere extends from the mesopause to about 690 km above Earths
surface. This layer is also known as the upper atmosphere (Neiburger et al., 1982).
Atmospheric density at sea level is about 1.2 kg/m
3
and it decreases as the altitude
increases.
49
BASIC CLIMATE CHARACTERISTICS IN SERBIA
According to the Report prepared by Republic Hydrometeorological Service
(http://www.hidmet.sr.gov.yu), the climate of Serbia is moderately continental. Spatial
distribution of climate parameters is determined by geographical position (latitude and
longitude), orography (altitude, terrain exposure, and inclination), presence of river
systems, vegetation, urbanisation, etc. The prevailing meridional direction of rivers and
plains in the northern area of the country makes possible a deep southward intrusion of
polar air masses.
Average annual air temperatures over the 1961-1990 period varied with altitude. Areas at
altitudes between 300 and 500 m had an average annual temperature of around 10.0C,
and those of over 1000 m altitude around 6.0C. Absolute temperature maxima during
the 1961-1990 period were measured in July and they ranged between 37.1 and 42.3C in
lower regions, and 27.6 and 34.0 C in mountainous areas. July was the warmest month
of the year with mean monthly temperatures in the interval from 11.0 to 22.0C. Lowland
areas (up to 300 m a.s.l.) had mean July temperature between 20.0 and 22.0C. The
mean July temperature ranged between 11.0 and 16.0C at altitudes above 1000 m. The
lowest temperatures over the 1961-1990 period were recorded in January, ranging
between 35.6 (Sjenica) and 21.0 C (Belgrade). The highest temperature of +44.3C
was measured in Kraljevo on July 22, 1939. The lowest temperature of 39.0C was
measured at Karajukica Bunari on the Peter plateau on January 26, 2006.
Precipitation is one of the most important elements of climate. The annual precipitation
during the 1961 1990 period, averaged for whole country amounted to 896 mm.
Precipitation generally increase with altitude. Dry areas with precipitation below 600 mm
are situated in the north-eastern parts of the country, in the South Morava valley and part
of Kosovo. Average annual precipitation at the Peter plateau and Mt. Kopaonik was
much higher (up to 1000 mm), and some mountainous summits in the south-west of
Serbia had even heavier precipitation of over 1000 mm. Serbia has a predominantly
continental pattern of precipitation with higher amounts in the warmer period of the
year. Most rains fell in June and May, while February and October had the least
precipitation. South-western Serbia has a Mediterranean precipitation pattern with
maximums in November, December and January, and minimums in August. Snow cover
was characteristic of the period between November and March, and sometimes even April
and October, but snowfall also occurred in other months of the year in mountainous areas
exceeding 1000 m altitude. January had the highest number of days with snow cover,
accounting for an average of 30-40% of the total number of snowy days.
Considering precipitation records since the beginning of measuring, the driest year was
2000 when precipitation measured merely 223.1 mm in Kikinda. Rainfall was heaviest in
1937 with as much as 1,324.5 mm measured in Loznica. The highest monthly
precipitation of 308.9 mm was recorded in Sremska Mitrovica in June 1954, and the
highest daily precipitation of 211.1 mm in Negotin on October 10
th
, 1955.
50
Annual solar radiation ranges between 1500 and 2200 hours annually.
Surface air circulation is mostly the result of orographic factors. In the warmer part of the
year, winds from north-west and west prevail, while easterly and south-easterly winds,
the so-called koava, predominate in the colder period of the year. Winds from the
south-western direction prevail in the mountainous parts of south-western Serbia.
51
NATURAL AND HUMAN INDUCED CLIMATE CHANGE
Each square metre of the Earths spherical surface outside the atmosphere receives an
average of 342 Watts of solar radiation throughout the year, 31% of which is immediately
reflected back into space by clouds, atmosphere and the Earths surface. The remaining
235 Wm
-2
are partly absorbed by the atmosphere, but most (168 Wm
-2
) warm the Earths
surface: the land and the oceans. The Earths surface returns that heat to the atmosphere,
partly as infrared radiation, and partly as sensible heat and water vapour that releases
heat after condensing higher up in the atmosphere.
Natural and human-induced greenhouse effects
The atmosphere contains several trace gases, primarily carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O) and ozone (O3), which absorb the infrared radiation emitted
by the Earths surface. The quanta of absorbed infrared radiation increase the rotation
and vibration of these molecules, thus increasing air temperature. Heated molecules re-
emit infrared radiation in all directions, including downward to the Earths surface. Thus
greenhouse gases trap heat within the atmosphere. Vaporized water molecules also have
the natural greenhouse effect. Clouds absorb and emit infrared radiation and thus
contribute to warming the Earths surface, just like the greenhouse gases. The average
temperature in troposphere is approximately 14C. Without the natural greenhouse effect,
air temperature would be much lower.
Human activities involving the combustion of fossil fuels for industrial or domestic usage,
and biomass burning, produce greenhouse gases and aerosols that affect the composition
of the atmosphere. Human-induced greenhouse effect is caused by development of
industry, agriculture and transportation.
Depletion of stratospheric ozone
Depletion of the stratospheric ozone layer, which absorbs significant amounts of high
energy UV radiation, additionally increases air temperature. High energy UV wavelengths
range from 200 to 400 nm, which may be classified in three categories: UV-a (320-400
nm), UV-b (280-320 nm), and UV-c (200-280 nm). Ultraviolet rays are energetic enough
to break the bonds of DNA molecules, which leads to cell damages, immune system
damages, mutations or dangerous forms of skin cancer (basal, squamous, and
melanoma). Ozone is effective at absorbing the extremely harmful UV-c rays (Morrison,
1989, UNEP, 1991, IARC, 1992, Stiling, 1996).
Emission of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and other chlorine and bromine compounds, as
well as SF6, accelerates the stratospheric ozone depletion process (Fisher, 1990, Prather
and Watson, 1990, US EPA, 1990, WMO, 1991). Kurylo and Rodriguez, 1999; Prinn and
Zander, 1999, Butler et al., 1999 reviewed CFC compounds and their effects on
stratospheric ozone depletion.
52
The consumption of ozone depleting substances (ODS) in Serbia has sharply decreased since the
1990s. Such trend clearly shows Serbias contribution to global efforts to protect the stratospheric
ozone layer. Serbia has no ODS production.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
t (ODS)
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
Year
Consumpti on ODS
Figure 52
Consumption of
ODS in Serbia
ODS production and consumption in Europe is dominated by 15 EU members, which
account for 80-100% of total production and consumption. An overall decline of ODS
production and consumption is in accordance with international regulations and agreed
schedule. Production and consumption of halons have been banned in developed
countries since 1994, and CFCs, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform since 1995.
Following the Vienna Convention (1985), and the Montreal protocol (1987) and its
amendments and adjustments, policy measures have been taken to limit or phase-out
production and consumption of ozone depleting substances in order to protect the
stratospheric ozone layer against depletion.
The rapid CFCs consumption cut in Serbia in 2005 has two explanations: certain
measures taken to substitute CFCs with more environment-friendly substances, and the
methodology employed to calculate CFCs consumption.
53
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL TEMPERATURE
AVERAGES IN SERBIA
As a consequence of human-induced greenhouse effect and depletion of stratospheric
ozone, climate changes are observed globally. The average global surface temperature has
increased by approximately 0.6C since late 19
th
century, with 95% confidence limits of
close to 0.4 and 0.8C. Most of this increase occurred in two periods, from about 1910 to
1945 and since 1976 onwards, and the largest recent warming is in the winter
extratropical northern hemisphere (Folland and Karl, 2005). A trend of temperature
increase has also been observed in the Serbian territory. Climate varies naturally on all
time-scales.
Measurements for several successive years show considerable variance. Total variability
of data reflects a trend (a tendency to consistent growth or decrease regarding any given
climatic element) and coincidence.
A temperature trend is discernible by analysing a time series of average annual air
temperatures. Deviation from a long-term average is a reliable indicator of a changing
climatic tendency (Popovic and Jovanovic, 1994; Jovanovic and Popovic, 1999; Popovic,
2002).
A normalized departures from mean annual air temperature in Serbia for the 1951-2005
period is shown in Figure 53.
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
5
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
N
O
R
M
A
L
I
Z
E
D

D
E
P
A
R
A
T
U
R
E
SEPA_Ti Po.'06
Figure 53
Normalized departures of
mean annual air
temperature in Serbia in
1951-2005
Higher annual temperatures than the 1961-1990 normal were recorded in 14 of the past
19 years (since 1985) - 9 years were warmer than normal, 3 were significantly warmer and
the year 2000 was extremely warmer than normal.
54
The annual air temperature trend in Serbia, according to data for the 1951-2005 period,
varies between 0.7C/100 years (Leskovac) and +1.7C/100 years (Palic). The region of
Leskovac, Dimitrovgrad and Vranje in south-eastern Serbia is the only area with a
negative trend of annual air temperature. An area off that region that runs along the
Southern and Great Morava valley northwards to the lower Danube basin and south-
eastern Banat has the mean annual air temperature trend of +0.7 oC/100 years. Parts of
Serbia to the west and east of that area have higher positive trends of annual air
temperature. The most intensive trends have been recorded in the north of Vojvodina, the
City of Belgrade environ, and the regions of Negotin and Loznica. Over the past 55 years,
annual air temperature in those areas has been rising at a rate of more than 1.4
o
C/100
years.
Spatial distribution of annual air temperature trends in Serbia, according to data for the
period 1991-2005, indicates that all of Serbia has a perceptible trend of rising annual air
temperatures. The intensity of that temperature increase over the period 1991-2005 was
several times higher than it was in the 1951-2005 period.
19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.5
46.0
-0.7 -0.2 0.2 0.7 1.2 1.4 1.8
PALIC
KIKINDA
SOMBOR
ZRENJANIN
N.SAD
B.Karlovac
VRSAC
SR.MITR.
BEOGRAD
V.GRADISTE
LOZNICA
S.PALANKA
VALJEVO
NEGOTIN
C.VRH
Kragujevac
CUPRIJA
ZAJECAR
POZEGA
ZLATIBOR KRALJEVO
KRUSEVAC
NIS
KOPAONIK
SJENICA
DIMITR.
LESKOVAC
VRANJE
.
.
TiPop_SEPA_'06
19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.5
46.0 PALIC
KIKINDA
SOMBOR
ZRENJANIN
N.SAD
B.Karlovac
VRSAC
SR.MITR.
BEOGRAD
V.GRADISTE
LOZNICA
S.PALANKA
VALJEVO
NEGOTIN
C.VRH
Kragujevac
CUPRIJA
ZAJECAR
POZEGA
ZLATIBOR KRALJEVO
KRUSEVAC
NIS
KOPAONIK
SJENICA
DIMITR.
LESKOVAC
VRANJE
.
.
1.0 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.5
TiPop_SEPA_'06
1951-2005. 1991-2005.
Figure 54
Spatial distribution of annual air temperature trends in Serbia (
o
C/100 years)
55
VARIABILITY OF THE ANNUAL PRECIPITATION
AVERAGES IN SERBIA
In 2003, the normalized departure of annual precipitation in Serbia was negative and
below -1 (Figure 55), suggesting that precipitation amount in 2003 was lower than the
average for Serbia.
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005
YEAR
N
O
R
M
A
L
I
Z
E
D

D
E
P
A
R
A
T
U
R
E
SEPA_Ti Po.'06
Figure 55
Normalized departures
of annual precipitation
in Serbia in 1951-2005
The negative variation is below -1 standard deviation, which indicates that annual
precipitation in Serbia in 2003 was below the normal range. It further shows that 2003
was a year of drought in Serbia. Applying the same procedure of precipitation assessment
in 2005, it turned out that 2005 was a rainy year in Serbia.
Over the past 24 years (period after 1981), 12 years had lower annual precipitation than
the average, 8 years were droughty, 3 exceptionally droughty and one, the year 2000, was
extremely droughty. In the same period, 12 years had total precipitation exceeding the
average, and 4 of those can be described as rainy years.
It is noteworthy that the beginning of a period of decreasing annual precipitation
coincides with the beginning of a period of rising annual air temperatures. However,
unlike the positive temperature trend, which is continuing, the negative precipitation
trend has stopped.
Spatial distribution of annual precipitation trends in the territory of Serbia, according to
data for the periods 1951-2005 and 1991-2005, is shown in Figure 56.
A negative trend of annual precipitation is characteristic of most of Serbia. Its intensity is
higher in eastern parts of the country and climaxing in the region of Negotin. A positive
56
precipitation trend characterizes areas of Mt. Zlatibor, Peter plateau, a part of Mt.
Kopaonik and, slightly less, the region of Backa. In other words, annual precipitation is
decreasing in most of Serbia, particularly the central parts, since 1951.
19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.5
46.0 PALIC
KIKINDA
SOMBOR
ZRENJANIN
N.SAD
B.Karlovac
VRSAC
SR.MITR.
BEOGRAD
V.GRADISTE
LOZNICA
S.PALANKA
VALJEVO
NEGOTIN
C.VRH
Kragujevac
CUPRIJA
ZAJECAR
POZEGA
ZLATIBOR KRALJEVO
KRUSEVAC
NIS
KOPAONIK
SJENI CA
DIMITR.
LESKOVAC
VRANJE
.
.
SEPA_TiPo_'06
-45 -20 -10 0 10 20 40
19.0 19.5 20.0 20.5 21.0 21.5 22.0 22.5 23.0
42.0
42.5
43.0
43.5
44.0
44.5
45.0
45.5
46.0 PALIC
KIKINDA
SOMBOR
ZRENJANIN
N.SAD
B.Karlovac
VRSAC
SR.MITR.
BEOGRAD
V.GRADISTE
LOZNICA
S.PALANKA
VALJEVO
NEGOTIN
C.VRH
Kragujevac
CUPRIJA
ZAJECAR
POZEGA
ZLATIBOR KRALJEVO
KRUSEVAC
NIS
KOPAONIK
SJENICA
DIMITR.
LESKOVAC
VRANJE
.
.
SEPA_TiPo_'06
0 25 75 150
1951-2005 1991-2005
Figure 56
Annual precipitation trend in Serbia in % of 1961-1990 normal
Spatial distribution and intensity of annual precipitation trends in Serbia in the period
1991-2005 are shown in Figure 56 - right. The precipitation trend for that period is
presented as a percentage 1961-1990 normal for fifteen years. The minimum of +0.9 %
was recorded in Vrac and the maximum of +45.2% in Cuprija. According to the 1991-
2005 data, all of Serbia had a rising trend of annual precipitation.
The observed trend of climate change has a number of undesirable effects, beginning with
economic damage caused by periodic climatic events (floods, drought) to decreasing
agricultural yields, threat to species preferring cold temperature climates, etc.
Two severe floods occurred in Serbia in 1979 and 1999. According to Hoyois and Guha-
Sapir (2003), 12,000 and more than 70,000 inhabitants were affected by the floods in
1979 and 1999, respectively. More recently the frequency of floods in Serbia (and also
neighbouring regions) significantly increased. Severe floods occurred during two
successive years (2005 and 2006).
57
Secanj and Zitiste, two municipalities in Serbia's northern province of Vojvodina were flooded by
the Tami River during the April 2005, due to a flood wave from Romania, after dams had yielded
under pressure from high tides caused by heavy rains. This flood affected 25 000 inhabitants of
the municipalities of Plandiste, Zitiste, Nova Crnja, Secanj, Alibunar and Vrsac. The village of J asa
Tomic (3,500 people) in Secanj was struck first and most severely. More than 600 houses were
submerged and more than 250 have been completely destroyed. Agricultural machinery was
trapped under the mud. Bridges and electricity supply have been damaged.
The Zapadna Morava overwhelmed in the region of Poega more than 1000 hectares of fertile
land during the March 2006. At the same day period, thousends of hectares were overwhelmed
because of overgrowing of rivers Kolubara, J adar and some smaller rivers. More than 600
hectares near the city of Smederevo were destroyed by water from so called Red Water Canal.
Due to heavy rains and rising of water levels of all rivers, mainly in the middle flow of rivers, a
number of new lands sliding grew up, so on the March 27th in many regions, the statement of
natural disasters was proclaimed. Subterranean waters soaked fields and cities.
Number of landslides appeared in the central and western part of Serbia. In the region of Cacak
there were evident more than 70 landslides, in Poega 17, Arandelovac 30, Valjevo 158.
Hundreds of families lost their homes.
Subsequently (during the April 2006), another wave of floods occurred in Serbia. Two weeks of
flooding in large swaths of central Europe, caused by melting snow and heavy rains, have swelled
tributaries draining into the Danube.
The Serbian government declared a state of emergency in nine municipalities. More than 240 000
hectares of land in northern Serbia were flooded, or threatened by underground waters and
landslides; out of the 240 000 hectares, more than 122 000 hectares are flooded, more than 112
000 hectares were threatened by underground waters and landslides threatened more than 5 500
hectares of arable land. The most threatened areas were the district of southern Backa with more
than 50 000 hectares and central Banat with 42 000 hectares under water. The 35 million EUR,
allocated from the budget to compensate damage from floods, had been spent in the April and that
the real damage would be known when the water withdrew and later (Cekerevac, 2004).
Republic of Serbia has signed and ratified a number of international agreements focusing
on the treatment of global warming. Many of those agreements outline the principles and
legal and economic instruments that could slow down climate change. By adopting the
Law on Ratification of the Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer
(Official Gazette of the SFRY, International agreements 1-90) and the Law on Ratification
of the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the Ozone Layer (Official Gazette of
the SFRY, International agreements 16/90, and 24/04), our state was actively involved in
programmes aimed at protecting the stratospheric ozone. The Law on Endorsing the
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change was also adopted (Official
Gazette of the SRY, International agreements 2/97).
58
59
AIR
AIR QUALITY MONITORING
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO
2
)
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO
2
)
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
TROPOSPHERIC OZONE
ALLERGENIC POLLEN
60
61
AIR QUALITY MONITORING
Dominant gasses in dry atmosphere are nitrogen (78.084%), oxygen (20.946%), argon (0.934%),
carbon dioxide (0.035%) and trace gasses such as neon, methane, helium and hydrogen. The
content of water vapour in the atmosphere is highly variable (within 1-4% range). Such
composition is characteristic of ideally clean air. However, the atmosphere is usually contaminated
by various gases, liquid or solid pollutants.
Human exposure to air pollutants may cause a variety of health effects, depending on the type of
pollutant, the magnitude, duration and frequency of exposure and toxicity of any specific pollutant.
Excessive exposure to air pollutants may cause a wide range of disorders in children and adults,
leading to their disability and a significant reduction in life expectancy (WHO, 2005, 2006). Besides
human population, polluted air may also have adverse effect on all other organisms sharing the
ecosystems (US EPA, 2003, EEA, 2003).
The most prominent air pollutants include: sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, ozone,
suspended particles, persistent organic pollutants and allergenic pollen (WHO, 2005).
Compounds such as sulfur dioxyde, nitrogen oxides are precursors of strong acids that
may damage cell membranes and proteins. Ozone is strong oxidizing agents that may
disturb physiological processes in cells.
Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) are chemical substances that persist in the
environment, bioaccumulate through the food chain, and pose a risk of causing adverse
effects to human health and the environment (Stockholm Convention on Persistent
Organic Pollutants, 1997). The most important POPs are: certain insecticides, such as
DDT, chlordane, aldrin etc., which were once commonly used to control pests in
agriculture; polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) that were used in hundreds of commercial
applications, including electrical, heat transfer and hydraulic equipment, and as
plasticizers in paints, plastics and rubber products; and certain chemical by-products,
such as dioxins and furans produced unintentionally from most forms of combustion,
including municipal and medical waste incinerators, open burning of trash, and industrial
processes (WHO, 1998).
2,3,7,8- tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzofuran
These compounds are characterized by: persistence (their half-life is more than two
months in water or more than six months in soil), bioaccumulation [fat soluble (lipophilic)
substances cannot be excreted in urine, a water-based medium, and so accumulate in
62
fatty tissues of an organism if it lacks enzymes to degrade them], and biomagnification
(concentration of an element or compound increases in the food chain as a consequence
of slow excretion or degradation of pollutants from food or pray tissues), and toxicity.
Polycyclic (or polynuclear) aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are complex mixtures of hundreds
of chemicals. PAHs are semivolatile, which means that they are transported in the
atmosphere both in the gas phase and bound to particles.
Several PAHs may induce a number of adverse effects, such as immunotoxicity,
genotoxicity, carcinogenicity and reproductive toxicity (affecting both male and female
offspring). Benzo[a]pyrene (BaP) is the PAH most widely studied, and most information
on the toxicity and occurrence of PAHs is related to this compound. The WHO has
recommended no specific guideline value for PAHs in the air.
PAHs are frequently found in ambient air. They are formed during incomplete
combustion of organic matter, so that important PAH sources are transport and
electricity and heating generation (Sander and Wise, 1997).
Some elements belonging to the group of heavy metals (metals with specific gravities
greater than 4.0), including cobalt, copper, manganese, molybdenum, vanadium, strontium,
and zinc are, in trace concentrations, required for normal metabolic processes of living
organisms. However, excessive levels of these elements can be detrimental to the
organism. Other heavy metals such as mercury, lead and cadmium have no known vital or
beneficial effect on organisms, and their accumulation over time in the bodies of mammals
can cause serious illness. Chronic exposure to excessive levels of heavy metals may induce
higher incidence of kidney, liver, neurological and developmental disorders.
Natural sources of air pollution include gaseous emissions from trees, animals and
lightning, and gaseous and particulate emissions from volcanic eruptions, soil erosion,
wind-blown dust and forest fires. Anthropogenic sources of air pollution involve
combustion of fossil fuels (thermoelectric power plants, motor vehicles, communal and
household heating installations), mining operations (sources of fugitive dust emissions),
manufacturing processes (metallurgical plants, chemical plants, oil refineries),
agricultural activities (crop spraying, crop-residue burning), etc.
Protection from air pollution is regulated in Serbia by the Law on Environmental
Protection (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 135/04), Bylaw on Limit Values,
Methods of Imission Measurements, Criteria for Posting Measuring Stations and
Collecting Data (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No 54/92), Bylaw on Emission
Limit Values, Methods and Deadlines for Measurements and Data Collecting (Official
Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No. 30/97) and Bylaw on Detailed Requirements for
Expert Organisations Measuring Emissions and Imissions (Official Gazette of the
Republic of Serbia No. 5/2002).
The Air Quality Control Programme in Serbia (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia
No. 48/2004) is aimed to achieve several objectives:
to determine levels of air pollution;
to monitor trends in air pollution over several successive years;
to assess air quality based on data comparison with guideline values;
to determine measures to be taken to improve air quality;
to identify critical and alarming situations with a purpose of warning the public
and taking appropriate steps;
63
to assess effects of air pollution on human health, climate and forest ecosystems.
Network of monitoring stations
Systematic measurements of air quality in Serbia are performing in several observation
networks falling under the competency of different state-run organizations and
institutions. Those are:
the main network of meteorological stations and main network of urban
meteorological stations
local network of urban stations for measuring concentrations of main pollutants
and local network of urban stations for measuring concentrations of specific
pollutants.
Territorial distribution of stations under the Programme of Air Quality Control in the
Republic of Serbia is shown in Figure 57.
Figure 57
Network of air quality measuring
stations
64
SULPHUR DIOXIDE (SO
2
)
Sulphur dioxide (SO
2
) is an irritating gas that is associated with deteriorated lung functioning and
increased risk of mortality and morbidity. Adverse health effects of SO
2
include coughing, phlegm,
chest discomfort and bronchitis. A range of chronic and acute health disorders may result from
human exposure to sulphur dioxide.
Figure 58
Annual average of SO2 concentrations (g/m
3
) in Serbia during 1985 2005 period. The
horizontal line on histograms denotes the permitted limit of 50 g/m
3
.
65
In the gaseous phase, SO2 can irritate the respiratory system, and reversible effects on the
lungs may occur during brief exposures to high concentrations (Kotlik & Bower, 1999).
Further oxidation of SO2 forms extremely harmful sulphuric acid (H2SO4),
The air quality guideline values, proposed by WHO for SO2 are:
500 g/m
3
for 10 minute exposure
125 g/m
3
for 24 hour average exposure
50 g/m
3
for annual average exposure
Considering Serbian legislative (By Law on Limit Values, Methods of Imission
Measurements, Criteria for Posting Measuring Stations and Collecting Data -Official
Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No 54/92), the permitted limits of SO2 for urban areas
are:
350 g/m
3
for hour average exposure
150 g/m
3
. for daily average exposure
50 g/m
3
.for annual average exposure
Annual average of SO2 concentration in Serbian industrial towns is represented in Fig. 59.
According to the available data for 2005, annual SO2 values exceeded the permissible
limit of 50 g/m
3
at two locations: Bor - 169 g/m
3
, and Belgrade-Vracar - 73 g/m
3
.
Close to the limit value were two other locations in Belgrade: C. Caplina 48 g/m
3
, and
B.D. Stefana Str. - 43 g/m
3
, and following them were the towns of Uice 39 g/m
3
,
Loznica 34 g/m
3
, Kosovska Mitrovica 30 g/m
3
, and Pancevo and abac - 29 g/m
3
each (Figure 59) .
4
4
5
5
6
7
9
10
11
13
13
15
16
17
18
20
23
23
25
29
29
34
39
43
48
73
169
0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 200
Pal i
N.S_P.Papa
Kiki nda
N.Sad_R
Zrenjani n
Kragujevac
Sr.Mi trovi ca
Obrenovac
N i
V.Gradite
Negoti n
Kralj evo
Kruevac
S.Pal anka
Bgd_Zemun
Kostol ac
Smederevo
ak
Valj evo
Panevo
abac
Lozni ca
Uice
Bgd_D.Stef.
Bgd_apli
Bgd_Vraar
B o r
SO2,
m
g/m
3
Figure 59
Mean annual concentrations of
SO2 (g/m
3
) at selected
measurement stations in Serbia
in 2005
The highest daily concentration of sulphur dioxide in 2005 was detected in Bor - 1567
g/m
3
. Maximum daily concentrations at other stations were lower: in abac 693g/m
3
,
Belgrade-Vracar 378g/m
3
, Belgrade-B.D.Stefana - 269g/m
3
, Belgrade-C.Caplina 247
g/m
3
and Belgrade-Koutnjak 185 g/m
3
, etc. In 2005, exceedance of the permitted
average daily limit of 150 g/m
3
occurred most frequently in Bor - 119 days, and
Belgrade-Vracar followed with 51 days, Uice 24, Belgrade-B.D.Stefana with 9 and abac
5 days.
66
1
10
100
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
mg/m
3
1985-2005 2005
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Average annual concentration of SO
2
Figure 60
Distribution of ranked
annual SO2
concentrations in Serbia
(2005 data collected
from stations covering
area with 18% Serbian
population)
Rank histograms may increase probability of forecast (Hamill, 2001). We used rank
histograms to detect the trends of data variability. Let i=0, 1, 2, n are ranked values of a
measured variable, in our case the concentration of SO2. Frequency for each of n+1 ranks
may be calculated easily. The frequency of the greatest (n-th) SO2 value is
, )
, ) 1 / 1 + = n f
n
.
The frequency of preceding SO2 value is
, )
, ) 1 / 2
1
+ =

n f
n
. This SO2 level is included in the
greatest (n-th) SO2 concentration, so it is observed twice. In general, the frequency of i-th
SO2 concentration is:
, )
, ) 1 / 1 + = n i f
i
.
Rank histograms of SO2 concentrations over the 1985-2005 period showed 20%
exceedance of the annual permitted limit, while in 2005 it was 6%, Figure 60.
The available data series for the period 1985-2005 were used to compute episodes of daily
permitted limit exceedences that created load on the population. Daily limit was assumed
to be 125 g/m
3
, the value used by the European Environment Agency to identify
exceedance of daily concentrations of sulphur dioxide. It is more restrictive than the
relevant domestic regulation setting the limit at 150 g/m
3
.
The measurement stations from which data were collected cover only a part of the
population. The 2005 data for SO2 were taken from stations covering an area with 18%
population of Serbia (1985 data covered 8%, those for 1993 - 10%, and data for 2000 -
16% population).
The average number of days with daily SO2 concentrations exceeding 125 g/m
3
per
capita (per 1 million citizens) is shown in Figure 61. The distribution shown here suggests
three characteristic periods. From mid-1980s until the beginning of 1990s, the average
number of days with exceedances of permissible daily concentrations of sulphur dioxide
was growing. From that point until 1993, the average number of exceedances per capita
dropped. After 1993, it stabilized, and such trend has continued.
67
0
2
4
6
8
10
1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

n
u
m
b
e
r


o
f


d
a
y
s
Figure 61
Average number of days
with daily SO2
concentrations exceeding
125 g/m
3
per capita (per
1 million citizens, 2005
data were collected from
stations covering area
with 18% population of
Serbia)
Data on the average frequency of daily SO2 concentrations exceeding 125 g/m
3
per capita
(per 1 million citizens) are shown in Figure 62 Until 1993, average exceedances for 6 or
more days were predominating, except in 1988. Since 1993, however, the average number
of exceedance days was predominantly either zero or 1-3 days. The analysis also showed
that maximum average number of exceedance days of >6 over the past 9 years covered
more than 20% population (residing in areas covered by measuring stations).
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1
9
8
6
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
8
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
0
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
2
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
4
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
6
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
8
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
0
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
2
2
0
0
3
2
0
0
4
2
0
0
5
0 1 - 3. 4 - 6. > 6 days
Figure 62
Frequency of daily SO2
concentrations
exceeding 125 g/m
3
per
capita (2005 data
collected from stations
covering area with 18%
of Serbian population)
68
NITROGEN DIOXIDE (NO
2
)
Nitrogen dioxide (NO
2
) is an air pollutant produced in combustion processes. Whenever nitrogen
dioxide is present, nitric oxide (NO) is also found and the sum of NO and NO
2
is collectively
referred to as nitrogen oxides (NOx). At very high concentrations, which may only be encountered
in major industrial accidents, NO
2
exposure can result in rapid and severe lung damage.
Figure 63
Annual mean concentration of NO2 (g/m
3
) at selected stations in Serbia in 1985 2005. The
horizontal line on histograms indicates the annual upper limit of 60 g/m
3
.
69
NO2 primarily acts as an oxidizing agent able to damage cell membranes and proteins. At
high concentrations, the airways may become acutely inflamed. In addition, short-term
exposure may predispose towards an increased risk of respiratory infection.
To protect the public at large from such chronic effects, an annual average limit value of
40 g/m
3
has been set [Update and revision of the air quality guidelines for Europe:
Meeting of the Working Group on Classical Air Pollutants. Copenhagen, WHO Regional
Office for Europe, 1995 (document EUR/ICP/EHAZ 94 05/PB01)].
Considering Serbian legislative (Bylaw on Limit Values, Methods of Imission
Measurements, Criteria for Posting Measuring Stations and Collecting Data -Official
Gazette of the Republic of Serbia No 54/92), the permitted limits of NO2 are:
150 g/m
3
for hour average exposure
85 g/m
3
for daily average exposure
60 g/m
3
for annual average exposure
During the long term survey (1985-2005), the annual average of NO2 was not exceeded
the permitted limits in main industrial centres of Serbia (Figure 63).
According to data available for the year 2005, the annual nitrogen dioxide was not
exceeding at any measuring station. The highest annual average value was measured in
Belgrade-B.D. Stefana - 45 g/m
3
, while values below this one were measured in
Belgrade-Zemun Trg JNA 35 g/m
3
; Sombor, Belgrade-Vracar and Valjevo 23 g/m
3
;
Pancevo 22 g/m
3
and Subotica - 21 g/m
3
. Exceedance of the maximum permissible
daily average of 85 g/m
3
was measured in 2005 only in Belgrade-B.D. Stefana five
times, and once in Belgrade-Vracar.
6
7
8
8
9
9
10
11
13
14
14
16
18
21
21
22
23
23
35
45
0 10 20 30 40 50
N.S_angaj
Negoti n
V.Gradi te
Leskovac
N.S_P.Papa
S.Palanka
Novi Beej
N i
Obrenovac_DZ
Kral j evo
Kruevac
upri j a
Vrac
Subotica_HPa
Bgd_apli
Panevo
Bgd_Vraar
Val j evo
Bgd_Zemun
Bgd_D.Stef.Bu
NO
2
, mg/m
3
Figure 64
Annual average
concentration of NO2
(g/m
3
) at several
measuring stations
across Serbia in 2005
The highest daily concentrations of nitrogen dioxide in 2005 were measured in Belgrade:
Belgrade-Vracar - 142 g/m
3
, Belgrade-B.D. Stefana - 140g/m
3
, Belgrade-Zemun Trg
JNA 84 g/m
3
, Belgrade-C.Caplina 82 g/m
3
. Following them in declining order
were: Kraljevo 82 g/m
3
, Subotica and Loznica 80 g/m
3
, Valjevo 77 g/m
3
, Novi Sad
(P.Papa Str.) 72 g/m
3
, Kruevac 69 g/m
3
, Pancevo 65 g/m
3
, and Ni 60 g/m
3
.
70
Rank histograms of annual average concentrations of NO2 over the 1995-2005 indicate
that there were no exceedances of the annual allowable limit of 60 g/m
3
(Fig. 65).
The available data series for the period 1995-2005 were used to calculate episodes of daily
allowable limit exceedences that created a load on the population. The daily limit was set
at 40 g/m
3
, the value used by the European Environment Agency to identify exceedance
in daily concentrations of nitrogen dioxide. It is more restrictive than the domestic
regulation, which sets the limit at 85 g/m
3
.
The measurement stations from which data were collected represent areas covering only a
part of the Serbian population. The 2005 data on NO2 were collected from area covering
15% Serbian population (1996 data covered 14% population).
1
10
100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
mg/m
3
1995-2005 2005
2005
Average annual concentration of NO
2
Permitted limit
F
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
Figure 65
Annual NO2
concentrations in
Serbia (2005
measurements covered
15% Serbian
population)
The average number of days with daily NO2 concentration exceeding 40g/m
3
per capita
(per 1 million citizens) is shown in Figure 66. It shows that the highest average per capita
load was in 2003, with a declining trend to follow.
Figure 67 shows per capita (per 1 million citizens) average frequency of daily
concentrations of nitrogen dioxide over the 1995-2005 period. It indicates a decrease in
the frequency of daily concentrations ranging from 0 to 20 g/m
3
in the period 1995-2001
and a declining frequency of measurements exceeding 31 g/m
3
after 2002.
71
0
2
4
6
8
10
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
A
v
e
r
a
g
e

n
u
m
b
e
r


o
f


d
a
y
s
Figure 66
Per capita (per 1 million
citizens) average
number of days with
daily NO2 imission
concentrations
exceeding 40 g/m
3
(2005 data collected
from stations covering
15% Serbian population)
0%
10%
20%
30%
40%
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
0 - 20 21 - 30 31 - 40 >40
Figure 67
Per capita frequency of
daily concentrations of
NO2, g/m
3
(2005 data
collected from stations
covering 15% Serbian
population)
72
PARTICULATE POLLUTANTS
Particulate matter (PM) is an air pollutant consisting of a mixture of solid and liquid particles
suspended in the air. These suspended particles vary in size, composition and origin. In size, they
vary from newly-formed ultra-fine particles of a few nanometers aerodynamic diameter to coarse
particles of 10-50 micrometers.
Very fine and coarse particles both have short lifetimes in the atmosphere and are
generally not transported to long distances. Smaller particles contain secondary aerosols
(gas-to-particle conversion), combustion particles and recondensed organic and metal
vapours. Important parts of the "secondary aerosols" are sulphate particles (important in
terms of acid deposition and visibility reduction on a regional scale), and organics-
containing particles resulting from photochemical reactions (important in large urban
areas with photochemical pollution). Larger particles usually contain earth, crystal matter
and fugitive dust from roads and industries.
The most common size fractions are:
TSP (total suspended particulates) comprising all airborne particles.
PM10 particles with aerodynamic diameter <10 m.
PM2.5 particles with aerodynamic diameter <2.5 m.
coarse fraction comprising particles with aerodynamic diameter between 2.5 m
and 10 m.
ultra-fine particles with aerodynamic diameter <0.1 m.
BS (black smoke), used widely as an indicator of aerosol blackness (and
therefore a surrogate for soot).
Particles are emitted to the atmosphere, but they also form via oxidation or reaction
between gases. Major sources of primary particles are industrial processes, road traffic,
power plants, domestic burning (coal, wood, etc.), incineration, and resuspension of road
and construction dusts. Particulate matter is removed from the atmosphere by wet and
dry deposition.
Short-term health effects of exposure to combined SO2, black smoke and particulates
include increased mortality, morbidity and pulmonary disfunctions. Other environmental
effects include the soiling of exposed surfaces, impaired visibility, possible modification of
climate and contribution to acid deposition.
Total suspended particulates
Important sources of air suspended particles are the oil refineries in Pancevo and Novi
Sad, the cement factories in Popovac, Kosjeric and Beocin, and chemical plants and
metallurgical complexes located in Pancevo, Krusevac, Sabac and Smederevo. Old
vehicles, many of which were recently imported, still use leaded or low quality fuel. No
plans to introduce systems of vehicle control in traffic to improve maintenance and
reduce the discharge of leaded fuel are in place.
73
Continuous measurement of PM10 in Serbia started since 2003. At this moment there are
several PM10 measuring stations that cover Belgrade, Obrenovac, Smederevo, Pancevo,
Beocin and Zrenjanin. High concentrations of PM10 in Belgrade (as well in other urban
agglomerations in Serbia) frequently occur during heating season (Fig. 68).
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
J an Feb Mar Apr May J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1.1.
31.12.
J an Feb Mar Apr May J un J ul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
1.1.
31.12.

g
/
m
3
P
M
1
0
2004
Figure 68
Daily PM10
concentration in
Belgrade during 2004.
The heating season is
marked by red letters
Replacement of heating systems that are based on solid and liquid fossile fuels with the
natural gas based systems may significantly reduce the level of suspended particles in
urban air. The increased natural gas consumption is one of the most important strategic
goals defined in Serbian energy strategy paper. The Serbia Natural Gas Network
development and Underground Gas Storage Banatski Dvor construction will have a
positive impact on: investments activities, gas consumers, environmental protection,
increase in standard of living and reliability of energy supply.
Completion of project for Belgrade high priority due to high level of pollution and
need for environmental protection, extremely high consumption of electrical energy for
heating purposes, and further development of the city. Preparation of General urban
documentation and technical documentation is underway, and will be finished in few
phases by the end of the year 2006. Cost estimate is 64,5 million Euros (Republic of
Serbia Ministry of Mining and Energy, 2005).
The most important capital investment in natural gas sector is construction of main gas
pipeline Ni- Dimitrovgrad. This project worth about 60 million $, would ensure another
direction of supply connecting Serbian gas pipeline system with the Bulgarian system.
Although at the beginning the source of supply would still be Russia, the same source as
we now import gas from, across the territory of Hungary, this project would significantly
increase security and quality of supply, transit costs would be lower, and systematic
gasification of Central Serbia would be possible.
74
Black Smoke
Black smoke is a dark powdery deposit of unburned fuel residues. As other inorganic PMs, the
black smoke can harm the lungs and general health.
According to data available for the year 2005, annual average value of black smoke
exceeded the permissible limit of 50 g/m
3
only in Uice - 62 g/m
3
. Following in a
declining order were: Zemun-Trg JNA, Belgrad-C.Caplina, Belgrade-B.D. Stefana
(Belgrade Health Protection Institute), Ivanjica and Belgrade-Vracar.
In 2005, Uice and Zemun had the highest number of exceedances of the daily smoke
permitted limit of 50 g/m
3
133 and 125, respectively. Following were: Belgrade-
C.Caplina, Loznica, Ivanjica, Valjevo, Pancevo and Belgrade-B.D.Stefana , Figure 69. The
highest daily smoke concentrations in 2005 were recorded in Uice- 663 g/m
3
, Belgrade-
C.Caplina 455 g/m
3
, Valjevo - 369 g/m
3
, Zemun - 341 g/m
3
, Belgrade- Vracar 297
g/m
3
and Pancevo - 288 g/m
3
.
0
1
4
5
8
9
10
11
15
17
18
18
20
24
27
30
32
45
50
50
55
60
71
74
79
85
125
133
0 25 50 75 100 125 150
Kopaoni k
Vrac
N.Sad_R
Zrenj ani n
S.Pal anka
Pal i
Leskovac
upri j a
Poega
Sombor
Kostol ac
N i
Vranj e
Kruevac
abac
Obrenovac
Kral j evo
Kraguj evac
Smederevo
ak
Bgd_Vraar
Panevo
Val j evo
Ivanj i ca
Lozni ca
Bgd_apl
Bgd_Zemun
U i c e
Number of days i n 2005.
Figure 69
Number of days in
2005 with daily
concentrations of
smoke above
permitted limits
Data sources
RHMS, DEP;
Health Protection
Institute Dr M. J.
Batut, Provincial
Secretariat for
EPSD, Belgrade
Health Protection
Institute,
Secretariat for EP,
Pancevo
Variation in the number of days with concentrations of smoke exceeding the permitted
limits at selected measuring stations in Serbia over the 1985 2005 period is presented in
Figure 70. Over the past ten years approximately, annual limit for concentrations of
smoke was exceeded in Belgrade and Uice, while Loznica and Valjevo had the next worse
rates.
75
Figure 70
Number of exceedance days of black smoke at selected stations in Serbia in 1985-2005
Total sedimented particles
Sedimented particles include parts of solid fuels, ashes, street dusts and other material
that have diameter size >20 m and, due to their weight, settle on the uppermost layer of soil
and all exposed surfaces in urban environment. Their activity in human organism depends on their
76
origin, chemical composition, size, shape, infectedness with microorganisms and tolerance of any
individual organism that is exposed to them.
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005
m
g
/
m
2
/
d
a
y
Kragujevac Beograd abac Smederevo
Cacak Novi Sad Subotica Kraljevo
LV
Figure 71
Annual mean
concentrations of
sedimented particles
(mg/m
2
/day) in major
Serbian cities in 1995
2005
Specific pollutants
Specific pollutants is a group of polluting material emitted from various industrial
processes that are specifically bound to industrial environs. They can appropriately be
classified according to: their origin (primary emitted immediately from the source of
air pollution and secondary as an effect of physico-chemical reactions caused by
primary pollutants in the air) and source of emission (stationary industrial facilities,
heating plants, etc. and mobile sources motor vehicles).
Several types of pollutants were monitored in 2003, 2004 and 2005:
inorganic pollutants (ammonia, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, nitrogen
dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, suspended particles, mercury)
organic pollutants (acrolein, benzene, benzo[a]pyrene, toluene, carbon disulphide,
formaldehyde, phenol)
heavy metals (lead, cadmium, zinc, arsenic, manganese, nickel, chromium,
mercury) in sedimented matter/suspended particles/soot.
Benzene
Benzene is toxic hazardous compound. This pollutant is one of the main environmental
problems in Pancevo, an industrial town, located 20 kilometers northeast of the capital of
Belgrade. The industrial complex covers about 290 hectares and lies to the south and
southeast of Vojlovica, a major residential area in Pancevo. The complex involves the HIP
Azotara chemical fertilizer factory, the HIP Petrohemija petrochemical plant, and the NIS
Oil Refinery.
Pancevo industrial complex was bombed by NATO forces several times between April 4
th
and June 7th 1999. As a consequence, all three factories were damaged and hazardous
substances were released to environment. (UNEP, 1999). The main environmental
concerns identified at Pancevo petrochemical plant were serious spills of ethylene
dichloride (EDC) and mercury. These had contaminated soil, groundwater and the
complexs wastewater canal, which leads to the Danube River. The wastewater treatment
plant, though not directly hit during the air strikes, was also damaged, causing untreated
77
wastewater from various units of the petrochemical plant and oil refinery to flow into the
canal.
At the heavily targeted Pancevo oil refinery approximately 80,000 tonnes of oil products
and crude oil burned, releasing sulphur dioxide and other noxious gases. In addition, an
estimated 5,000 tonnes of oil and oil products leaked into the soil and the sewer system,
aggravating pre-existing soil and groundwater contamination at the refinery.
At Pancevo fertilizer plant the nitrogen-phosphorous- potassium (NPK) plant and fuel-oil
tanks were destroyed, and the ammonia plant was damaged. Large quantities of
hazardous substances from the whole complex reached the wastewater canal and the
Danube River.
The petrochemical complex has undergone repairs after heavily bombarded during the
1999 NATO air attacks on Serbia, but it still lacks sophisticated safeguards. The
concentrations of benzene in Pancevo are presented in figures 72 and 73.
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
C
(

g
/
m
3
)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
month
2003 2004 2005 2006
Figure 72
Monthly averages of
benzene
concentration
(g/m
3
) in Pancevo
in 2003-2006
0
5
10
15
20
25
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006
year
C
(

g
/
m
3
)
Figure 73
Annual averages of
benzene
concentration
(g/m
3
) in Pancevo
in 2001-2006
78
Beside Pancevo, the most severely attacked cities were Novi Sad, Kragujevac and Bor.
Various storage and production tanks containing toxic chemicals were damaged or
destroyed. These accidents resulted in release of many hazardous chemical substances
including polychlorinated biphenyls (Adamov et al, 2002).
During the conflict, several storage tanks and pipelines at Novi Sad oil refinery were
damaged and in excess of 70,000 tonnes of crude oil and oil products reportedly burned
or leaked into the wastewater collection system and the ground, causing contamination of
soil and groundwater. In spite of the spills of Pyralene oils from the transformers in the
Oil Refinery in Novi Sad in 1999, content of total PCBs was not significantly raised
compared to the pre-war values.
Repeated bombing heavily damaged Zastava industrial complex in Kragujevac,
especially the power plants transformer station. Approximately 2,500 kg of PCB oil had
leaked from damaged transformers.
At the Bor mining and smelting complex, which had also been targeted by air strikes, the
UNEP identified localized PCB contamination at the site of a destroyed transformer
station (UNEP, 2004).
Lead
Lead (Pb) toxicity works through interaction with different enzymes, which is why almost
all organs can be considered as potential targets for lead. A wide range of biological effects
has been evidenced experimentally, including effects on biosynthesis, nervous system,
kidneys, reproductive organs, cardiovascular system, immune system, liver, endocrine
system and gastrointestinal tract.
In assessing the risks of human exposure, lead concentration in blood is used as a reliable
biomarker. The most susceptible people are young children, especially their nervous
system. In this group, effects on the central nervous system, as assessed by
neurobehavioral endpoints, appear to occur at blood concentrations below 200 g/l.
Consistent effects have been reported for global measures of cognitive functioning, such
as psychometric IQ, to be associated with blood lead concentrations between 100 and 150
g/l. Some epidemiological studies have indicated effects at blood lead concentrations
below 100 g/l. Based on this information and on the modelled relationship between
blood lead concentrations and the long-term average concentration of lead in ambient air,
the revised WHO air quality guidelines for Europe recommend that the annual average air
lead concentration not exceed 0.5 g/m
3
.
The main sources of lead pollution are lead ore extraction and processing. Other sources
are industrial production (lead is present as a secondary constituent in many minerals
and sediments) and coal combustion (household combustion and heating, and electricity
plants). Motor vehicles (alkyl-lead additives in petrol) are an important mobile source of
lead released into the air in countries where leaded petrol is used. As this source is near
the population and widely distributed, road traffic is a major source of exposure. Besides
exposure through the air from point sources (industry), mobile sources (motor vehicles)
and long-range transport of air pollution, lead sedimented on soil can also contribute to
total exposure through food or through direct contact, especially in children. Another
important exposure medium is paint containing lead or drinking-water delivered by lead-
coated pipes.
79
Lead is characteristic omnipresent heavy metal that penetrates the organism by the
respiratory and digestive tracts. Excessive doses of lead will cause serious disorders,
primarily of blood and nervous cells. Children are especially susceptible to its harmful
effects as they breathe faster and deeper. The primary source of lead contamination of air
in our major cities is exhaust fumes from motor vehicles (which mostly use leaded fuels).
Studies of lead contents in sedimented particles have showed permissible concentrations
at all measurement sites.
Annual average of lead in sedimented particles over the 1998-2005 period is presented in
Figure 74 and it shows that there was no exceedance of the annual allowable limit of 250
g/m
3
.
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005
(
m
g
/
m
2
/
d
a
y
)
Beograd Ivanjica Kragujevac Kraljevo
Lazarevac Leskovac Lucani Mladenovac
Ni Novi Sad Obrenovac Cacak
LV
Figure 74
Annual mean lead
concentration
(mg/m
2
/day) in
sedimented particles in
1995-2005.
It is noteworthy that annual average of lead, originating from exhaust fumes from motor
vehicles were monitored only in Belgrade, Ni and Novi Sad. In Belgrade alone, the
permitted limit for urban environs was exceeded at all of the ten measurement stations.
80
TROPOSPHERIC OZONE
Ozone (O3) is a secondary photochemical pollutant formed from the precursor volatile
organic compounds NOx and CO in the presence of short wavelength (t<400nm) solar
radiation. Ozone can enter the respiratory system in a body by inhalation as it is not very
soluble in water. Acute exposure to high ozone concentrations can induce changes in lung
functioning, airway inflammation and increased airway responsiveness to
bronchoconstrictors. Ozone exposure has also been associated with an increased number
of hospital admissions from respiratory diseases, including asthma. Data from field
studies and controlled exposure studies have provided a basis for choosing the
recommended guideline value of 120 g/m
3
as an 8-hour mean value. Besides providing
the guideline values, the updated air quality guidelines for Europe specify a risk of various
health outcomes at certain exposure levels close to the guideline concentration.
Measurement data collected by the EMEP [Co-operative Programme for Monitoring and
Evaluation of the Long-range Transmission of Air Pollutants in Europe
(http://projects.dnmi.no/~emep/index.html) and the European Topic Centre on Air Quality
indicate that this WHO air quality guideline is currently exceeded in almost every
European country.
Increased concentrations of tropospheric ozone result from the rising concentrations of
nitrogen dioxide in the atmosphere, and those are caused by exhaust fumes from motor
vehicles, which is especially characteristic of urban environs.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
g/m3
jan feb mar apr may jun jul aug sep oct nov dec
2003 2004 2005 2006
Figure 75
Monthly average
concentrations of
tropospheric ozone in
Belgrade
The alarming limit value is a concentration whose exceedance over a brief period of
exposure would cause health hazard, and it has been set at 240 g/m
3
for an one-hour
81
mean. The level requiring public warning is one above which more sensitive population
would be exposed to risk, so that information is needed when one-hour mean exceeds 180
g/m
3
.
Mean monthly concentrations of tropospheric ozone in 2003, 2004 and 2005, provided
by the Belgrade Health Protection Institute, are presented in Figure 76 These
concentrations show a typical model of ozone levels with maximums in the summer and
minimums over the winter. Seasonal variation depends on many factors, including mean
temperature, solar radiation, frequency of overnight temperature inversions and
concentrations of OH radicals and NOx.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 h
g/m3
Ground Level Ozone
Figure 76
Daily average variation
in concentrations of
tropospheric ozone in
Belgrade in2005
The figure clearly shows maximum concentrations of tropospheric ozone in the afternoon
hours, after ozone has interacted with UV radiation and exhaust fumes from intensive
afternoon traffic. The figure 77 confirms that increased NO2 concentration is a
precondition for rising tropospheric ozone concentration as the former starts chemical
reaction with O2 and decreases, while O3 concentration simultaneously increases.
0
10
20
30
40
50
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24h
g/m3
NO2 Ground Level Ozone
Figure 77
Daily average
variations in ND2 and
tropospheric D3
concentrations in
Pancevo in 2005
The figure confirms that increased NO2 concentration is a precondition for rising
tropospheric ozone concentration as the former starts chemical reaction with O2 and
decreases, while O3 concentration simultaneously increases.
82
ALLERGENIC POLLEN
Pollen is one of the major allergens in the air and easily transported to considerable
distances. Due to their specific chemical composition, pollen grains cause allergic
reactions (bronchitis, conjunctivitis, asthma) in great many people. Roughly, between 20
and 25% population suffer from effects of these allergens. Plant pollen may therefore be
considered an air polluting material from the aspect of human health.
A number of studies have indicated a correlation between high pollen concentrations in
the atmosphere and initiation of symptoms in allergic people. Allergic response
sometimes occurs simultaneously as concentration of pollen grains in the air increases, or
24-48 hours after concentration of a certain pollen type has reached its peak. This late-
phase response occurs because it takes some time for the body to identify allergens.
Regular monitoring of pollen concentrations in the atmosphere is very important to
doctors specializing in allergic disorders both in terms of correct diagnosis and therapy
adjustment. For that reason, systematic monitoring of pollen concentrations has been
organized in Serbia using the method of continuous sampling defined by the International
Association for Aerobiology (IAA).
Under our climate conditions, a critical period begins around February 1 (when hazelnut
and alder start flowering) and terminates in early November (at the end of wormwood
and ambrosia flowering). Monitoring includes identification and quantification of pollen
grains of 24 species: hazelnut, alder, yew, cypress, alm, poplar, maple, willow, ash, birch,
hornbeam, plane, walnut, oak, pine, hemp, grasses, linden, plantain, sorrel, nettle,
amaranth, wormwood, Common Ragweed. and mulberry).
AMBROSIA
50%
BIRCH
30%
GRASSES
20%
Figure 78
Percentages of allergic reactions
caused by various plant species
83
Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. (Common Ragweed) is the most important weed allergen.
Owing to its considerable adaptability, ambrosia occurs in very diverse habitats (Mitrovic-
Josipovic, Dedijer and Karadic, 2007). It can be described as a species favouring habitats
that are moderately humid, neutrophilous, rich in nitrogen but with low amounts of
organic matter, uncompacted, illuminated and very warm, and it bears well with acidified
biotopes. Regarding life-form, it is a therophyte, meaning that it survives the
unfavourable period of the year as a seed. It flowers from July until October.
Figure 79
Pollen grain of ambrosia (Ambrosia
artemisiifolia)
Germination starts when soil is warm enough and lasts until wheat harvest, although it is
sometimes found to germinate as late as end of September in uncultivated stubble fields.
Regarding its biochemistry, Ambrosia artemisiifolia contains lactonic sesquiterpenes,
flavonoids, monoterpenes and bitter flavonoids. Allergenic properties generally come
from:
chemical compounds that constitute the cytoplasm, inner intine and exine walls
pollen grain morphology
biological and ecophysiological properties of particular species
Permanent monitoring of pollen allergens in Serbia started in 2002. Concentration of
allergenic pollen in the air depend on meteorological parameters (Figure 80)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
1-J ul-05 16-J ul-05 31-J ul-0515-Aug-0530-Aug-0514-Sep-0529-Sep-05
t
,

t
N
,

o
C
;


R
R
,

m
m
0
50
100
150
200
250
c
o
n
c
.
,

n
/
m
3
d
Rain Ambrosia
Normal.temp temperature
Figure 80
Seasonal variation in
ambrosia pollen
concentrations in
Belgrade in 2005
84
Concentrations of ambrosia pollen in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Ruma and Subotica in 2005 are
shown in Figure 81.
AMBROSIA 2005
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
1600
1800
k
o
n
c
.
/
m
3
Subotica
Ruma
Novi Sad
Belgrade
25.July-30.October
Figure 81
Concentrations of
ambrosia pollen in
Belgrade, Novi Sad,
Ruma and Subotica in
2005
Regional phytogeographic characteristics of vegetation (presence of many aeroallergen
species, strong-reaction aeroallergens, strong allergens throughout the pollination period,
high concentrations and long periods of pollination) as well as local climate
characteristics put Serbia in the line of countries where risk of allergic reactions is
running high, especially of respiratory disorders. Over the past several years, a growing
number of people have developed symptoms of allergies worldwide, and the situation is
similar in this country. Apart from more admissions for allergy treatment after intensive
or long exposure to inhalable allergens (pollen), there is also a growing number of
patients with bronchitis, asthmatic episodes and chronic asthma.
The Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Water Management in 2006 adopted a decree
on measures to be taken to control the weed species Ambrosia artemisiifolia in order to
prevent damage that it causes to agricultural and forest land, construction sites and
marshes.
85
WATER
WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALI TY
USE OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES
BOD ANDCONCENTRATION OF AMMONIUM INRIVERS
NUTRIENTS INFRESHWATER
BATHINGWATER QUALITY
URBAN WASTEWATER TREATMENT
86
87
WATER RESOURCES AND WATER QUALITY
Water is an essential compound for life. Humans use drinking water to maintain basic
metabolic functions in arid, terrestrial environment. However, humans additionally
require water for use in industry, agriculture, transportation, and electrical power
generation. As the world's human population and industrial activity increase, so does the
need for water. Water demand that rose during last few decades created a general
conclusion that the access to the water resources will be the main limiting factor for social
and economic growth in the future (Baumgartner, and Reichel, 1975, UNESCO, 1978).
The concept of sustainable use of fresh water resources has been established as the main
tool for solving water related problems resulting from the population growth, increased
need for drinking water and food, development of the industry and lack of space for the
industrial and residential infrastructure.
Figure 82
Average water balance for the
territory of Republic of Serbia
88
Already established plans and strategies for water resources use and management in the
Republic of Serbia are based on the concept of the sustainable development.
However, during last 15 years the overall political and economical situation was the main
obstacle for strategic approach in the field of water resources. International experiences
in this field reveal that the same problems appeared in all the countries where the policy
implementation in the field of water resources protection strongly depended on the
general state of the country development and internal social, economical and political
situation. The final success of the integral water management approach can be
evaluated using internationally established set of indicators that indicate the quantity and
quality of available water resources. Quantity of available water depends on the natural
conditions (hydrologic cycle and its conditions for particular area/region, seasonal
precipitations distribution and water inflow) as well as on the anthropogenic influence
(changes in water flow regime - reservoirs and use of water for irrigation).
Figure 82 shows an average water balance for the territory of Republic of Serbia. Climatic
changes have a major influence on the water cycle characteristics, provoking occasional
floods or droughts. The disturbed hydrological cycle can be seen as a result of
deterioration of natural ecosystems - forests in the first place. In the past, these systems
were the main stabilizing factor which reduced the negative influence of climatic change
by absorbing a large portion of rainfall, diminishing the direct runoff while controlling
evaporation and air humidity with their large transpiration area.
The territory of Serbia is drained into three seas. The entire territory of the Vojvodina
Province (21,506 km2) and most parts of Central Serbia is drained by the Danube into the
Black Sea, Only 2.17% of the territory of Central Serbia (or 1,215 km2) is drained by the
Pcinja and Dragovitica Rivers into the Aegean Sea. Due to specific geographical position
and characteristics of its relief, the territory of the Kosovo Province is drained into all
three seas: 50.74 (or 5,524.61 km2) into the Black Sea; 42.85 (or 4,665 km2) into the
Adriatic Sea; and 6.41 (or 697.4 km2) into the Aegean Sea. A hydrographic hub in which
all three marine watersheds converge is located at the peak Drmanska Glava (1363 m
a.s.l.) in the Crnoljeva Mountains above the Kosovo Basin. It represents a unique
geomorphological and hydrological phenomenon not only in Serbia, but throughout
Southern Europe.
Danube is most important river in Serbia (Table 2).
Table 2. Lengths of main rivers in Serbia
River Length
Danube 588 km (total 2783 km)
Zapadna Morava 308 km (308 km)
J uzna Morava 295 km (295 km)
Ibar 272 km (272 km)
Drina 220 km (346 km)
Sava 206 km (945 km)
Timok 202 km (202 km)
Velika Morava 185 km (185 km)
Tisa 168 km (966 km)
Nisava 151 km (218 km)
Tamis 118 km (359 km)
Begej 75 km (244 km)
Water quality is determined by a set of natural processes (precipitation, geological and
pedolocigal characteristics, rinsing level of mineral and organic material, level of organic
89
production in aquatic ecosystems, etc.). The permanent development of energy
production, mining, industry, agriculture and urban areas deteriorates the water quality
at the local and regional level.
The most important changes in the water ecosystems resulting from an anthropogenic
factor are eutrophication, acidification, pollution with organic and non-organic polluters
(oil, heavy metals, pesticides, etc.) as well as increased level of radioactivity.
The enrichment of waters by inorganic plant nutrients is called eutrophication. This
phenomenon can be caused by various sources, both artificial and natural. Eutrophication
has relevant effects on water bodies: the main are algal blooming, excessive aquatic
macrophyte growth and oxygen depletion. Further consequences for human activities are:
the decrease of water quality, aesthetic flow and navigation water problems and
extinction in some water bodies of some oxygen depending organisms or animals (OECD,
1982, EEA, 1999, 2003a).
Eutrophication is a process in which water is enriched with organic matter and/or
nutrients (mineral matter - principally nitrates and phosphates that increases the
production of phitoplanctons and other aquatic flora). The increased amount of biomass
in water then activates the process of decomposing of organic matter which uses large
amounts of dissolved oxygen. Periodic anaerobic conditions created as a result of this
process can be lethal for fishes and other aquatic organisms. Another direct result of
eutrophication is an enormous increase in the algae population. Their metabolic products
are also toxic for both aquatic world and human population. The eutrophication of
aquatic ecosystems can be natural but also provoked by human activities.
Acidification of freshwater ecosystems provided some of the earliest evidence of the
damage caused by sulphur emissions. There are several causes of acidification, and
various mechanisms by which it may occur (atmosphere deposits of NOx and SO2, acid
wastewater from mining and industry, draining of organic soils). Acid rain falling on
water bodies has a direct effect. Environmental impacts involve aluminium acidity and
reduction of pH buffering capacity that may be harmful for water biota (Cresser and
Edwards, 1987). The acidification problem is insignificant in Serbia due to both
favourable climate conditions and the presence of calcareous soils.
Urbanization, industrial and agricultural development led to the pollution of water
ecosystems with communal waste (sewages), industrial and agricultural waste. Detergents
enriched with phosphates significantly accelerate the eutrophication process of aquatic
ecosystems. Point sources of pollution (discharge of urban and industrial waste water) are
not the only cause of eutrophication provoked by humans. The diffuse source of pollution
resulting form an extended use of fertilizers - phosphates and nitrates rinsed from the
agricultural surfaces is another major source of pollution of aquatic ecosystems.
90
USE OF FRESHWATER RESOURCES
This indicator is presented through the Water exploitation index WEI, which is given as an
averaged annual water abstraction divided by the amount of renewable water resources at the
national level, in percents.
Figure 83
The relation between
abstracted amount of water
and capacity of already
existing surface and
groundwater sources as
presented in the Republic of
Serbia Water Resources
Development Master Plan.
Monitoring of water use, performed by the various economical bodies and organizations
at the national, regional and local level is one of the main resources for establishing a long
term sustainable use of freshwater resources. The percentage of abstracted water in
relation to the total available freshwater resources in a simple and easily understandable
91
way indicates the pressure on water resources. At the same time, when the time series
data is available, it can illustrate the change in water resources use during the observed
period indicating the need of change in water resources management. The indicator can
be also applied on the sub-national level, identifying the regions in the country in which
the water abstraction level reaches values above the threshold defined as a sustainable
limit. When combined with other water quality and quantity parameters the WEI can also
give a general overview on the state of water resources, showing a possible cause for
increased pressure on surface and groundwater resources.
Figure 84 shows the relation between abstracted amount of water and capacity of
already existing surface and groundwater sources as presented in the Republic of Serbia
Water Resources Development Master Plan.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
1
9
8
5
1
9
8
7
1
9
8
9
1
9
9
1
1
9
9
3
1
9
9
5
1
9
9
7
1
9
9
9
2
0
0
1
2
0
0
3
W
E
I

(
%
)
Figure 84
Average Water
Exploitation Index (for
drinking water resources)
in Serbia
It is easy to conclude that the use of water resources varies on a regional level. In some of
the regions with low level of available freshwater (Kolubarski, Toplicki, Jablanicki, etc.)
the exploitation index reaches 100%. At the same time, data on water resources
abstracted from their own sources was not included in this analysis, meaning that in some
cases the realistic estimation of water exploitation index will go beyond 100 percents. At
the national level the average exploitation index (for drinking water resources) steadily
increases during last twenty years.
In the last decade this index varies around 80% which can be seen as an alarming value,
specially having in mind that according to the EEA methodology the threshold value for
extreme pressure on water resources is defined as 40%.
92
BIOCHEMICAL OXYGEN DEMAND AND
CONCENTRATION OF AMMONIUM IN RIVERS
The indicator provides a measure of the state of rivers in terms of biodegradable organic load and
ammonium. Level of oxygen concentration in water bodies expressed in BOD (biochemical oxygen
demand) which is the demand for oxygen resulting from organisms that consume oxidiseable
organic matter and concentrations of ammonium (NH4) in rivers.
Figure 85
Average values of BOD and ammonium concentration for three main catchments in Serbia
93
Large quantities of organic matter (microbes and decaying organic waste) can reduce the
chemical and biological quality of river water and result in impaired biodiversity of
aquatic communities and microbiological contamination that can affect the quality of
drinking and bathing water. Sources of organic matter include discharges from
wastewater treatment plants, industrial effluents and agricultural run-off. Organic
pollution leads to higher rates of metabolic processes that demand oxygen. This could
result in the lack of oxygen (anaerobic conditions). The transformation of nitrogen into
reduced forms under anaerobic conditions in turn leads to increased concentrations of
ammonium, which is toxic to aquatic life above certain concentrations, depending on
water temperature, salinity and pH.
The charts with time series of averaged BOD and concentrations of ammonium for three
main catchments in Republic of Serbia are presented in Fig 85. State of the rivers in sense
of BOD at the catchments of Sava River (with sub-catchments of Drina and Kolubara
rivers) and Morava (Velika Morava, Juna Morava, Zapadna Morava) has a positive trend
within last 25 years. It is clear that the economical crisis during the last decade of the
twentieth century had a positive impact on the overall state of water resources. At both
catchments the BOD values are steadily within the II class of water quality (<4 mg/l) with
a stagnating trend during last ten years. Average concentrations of ammonium also have a
stabile trend within the observed period (1980-2005). Except during few episodes in the
nineties the average value stabilized around 500 g/l NH4, value that classified these
rivers and catchments within the I and II class of water quality (according to the current
law on water).
At the catchment of Danube River (Danube, Tisa and smaller tributaries in province of
Vojvodina and in the eastern Serbia) it is easy to conclude that the state of water
resources deteriorates during last couple of years with the increasing trend of BOD,
reaching values from the middle of eighties of last century. The averaged BOD valued
during the period 1997-2002 classified this catchment in the III class of water quality
while the value for the last year for which the data is included in this report (2005) is in
the domain of IV class of quality. The main reason for such deterioration can be found in
possible increase of waste water discharge in the upper parts of the catchment. When
evaluated using the concentration of ammonium, during last seven years the rivers at the
catchment of Danube were classified within I or II class of water quality, an obvious
improvement from the period before 1997 when the concentration of ammonium reached
very high values, even the levels of 4000 g/l.
94
NUTRIENTS IN FRESHWATER
The indicator provides a measure of the state of freshwater (rivers, lakes and groundwater) in
terms of nutrient concentration through the measurements of concentrations of phosphates and
nitrates in rivers, total phosphorus and nitrate in lakes and nitrate in groundwater.
Figure 86
Average concentration of orthophosphates and nitrates in the rivers at the three main
catchments in Republic of Serbia
95
Large inputs of nutrients to freshwater bodies from urban areas, industry and agricultural
areas can lead to eutrophication of water bodies. This causes ecological changes that can
result in a loss of plant and fish species (reduction in ecological status) and have negative
impacts on the use of water for human consumption and other purposes.
The indicator can be used to illustrate current geographical variations in nutrient
concentrations and long-term trends. Environmental quality of surface waters with
respect to eutrophication and nutrient concentrations is an objective of several
documents: The Drinking Water Directive, The Surface Water for Drinking Directive, The
Nitrates Directive, The Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive.
The upper picture shows the averaged concentrations of orthophosphates and nitrates for
the rivers at the three main catchments in Republic of Serbia (Danube, Sava and Morava)
while the picture on the left displays the level of nutrients in the lakes (total phosphorus
and nitrate).
The amount of nitrates varies during the observed period with a trend of slight decrease
and stabilization in the range between 1.5 and 2 mg/l for rivers and around 0.5 mg/l for
lakes.
The level of orthophosphates in rivers also has a decreasing tendency comparing to the
period before the year 1995. When compared to the European standards in this field, the
averaged values of total phosphorus and orthophosphates for lakes in Serbia are within
requested range for these parameters (recommended value of 400 g/l).
Figure 87
Average concentration of total phosphorus
and nitrates in lakes
96
BATHING WATER QUALITY
The indicator describes the changes over time in the quality of designated bathing waters (inland
and marine) in EU Member States in terms of compliance with standards for microbiological
parameters (total coliforms and faecal coliforms) and physicochemical parameters (mineral oils,
surface-active substances and phenols) introduced by the EU Bathing Water Directive
(76/160/EEC).
Figure 88
Bathing water quality in
Belgrade and Novi Sad
97
The Bathing Water Directive (76/160/EEC) was designed to protect the public from
accidental and chronic pollution incidents, which could cause illness from recreational
water use. Examining compliance with the directive therefore indicates the status of
bathing water quality in terms of public health and also the effectiveness of the directive
The Bathing Water Directive is one of the oldest pieces of environmental legislation in
Europe and data on compliance goes back to the 1970s. Under the directive Member
States are required to designate coastal and inland bathing waters and to monitor the
quality of the water throughout the bathing season. The directive sets both minimum
standards (mandatory) and optimum standards (guide). For compliance with the
directive, 95% of the samples must comply with the mandatory standards. To be classified
as achieving guide values, 80% of the samples must comply with the total and faecal
coliform standards and 90% with the standards for the other parameters.
As a result of the control of the bathing water quality it is possible to propose and to take
measures that will lead to the better quality of surface water, to the protection of the
environment an after all to the protection of health of bathing facilities users. Sampling,
microbiological, physical and chemical analysis and reporting on bathing water quality in
the area of two largest cities in Republic of Serbia, Belgrade and Novi Sad is performed by
the Health Protection Institutes in both cities according to the current legislative.
Control of bathing water quality in Belgrade's area is performed for two main bathing
facilities - Ada Ciganlija on the Sava River and Veliko Ratno Ostrvo on the Danube River
having a main objective to protect health of public users of these facilities. At the same
time, the control of the Savsko Lake (Ada Ciganlija) also aims the protection of one of the
main resources of drinking water for the capital of Serbia. During the bathing season
(June - September) the Savsko Lake has about 150000 daily visitors, reaching 200000
during the weekends. The other bathing facility on Danube River, Lido, has about 10000
daily visitors due to the limited area available at the beach and its surroundings. The
results of performed analysis show that the Savsko Lake has a decreasing level of water
quality in sense of microbiological aspects while the physical and chemical quality
remains stable during the observed period (2000-2005). The overall situation puts
pressure on the sanitation issues while the water abstraction for drinking water
production is still not endangered. On the other hand the water quality at the second
Belgrade's main bathing facility strongly depends on the hydrological and meteorological
conditions and industrial activities in the municipality of Zemun especially because the
sewerage system discharge point is upstream of the bathing facility. The results of
analysis show the increased health risk because of the permanent presence of faecal
bacteria during the observed period.
Bathing facilities around city of Novi Sad have several thousands of daily visitors. Water
quality analysis made in these areas through monitoring of microbiological and physico-
chemical parameters during the pervious three years classified the water quality of
Danube River bellow the requested II class of water quality.
Different sanitary measures have to be undertaken aiming improvement of water quality
in above mentioned areas. In case of Savsko Lake the most important is to provide
conditions for permanent water flow through the lake during the bathing season. Lido
bathing facility requires different measures, solving of problem of upstream waste water
discharges above all. For facilities around city of Novi Sad it is necessary to create a
cadastre of upstream polluters that will lead to the implementation of already existing
legislative measures on the main polluters in the area.
98
URBAN WASTE WATER TREATMENT
Percentage of population connected to primary, secondary and tertiary wastewater treatment
plants. The indicator illustrates: changes in wastewater treatment in the regions of Europe since
the 1980s, conformity (in terms of providing tertiary treatment) by Member States with the
requirement to provide stringent treatment for agglomerations with population equivalent (p.e.)
more than 10 000 that discharge into sensitive areas, levels of urban wastewater treatment in
large cities (>150 000 p.e.) in the European Union.
Figure 89
Wastewater treatments in
Serbia
99
Wastewater from households and industry represents a significant pressure on the water
environment because of the loads of organic matter and nutrients as well as hazardous
substances. With high levels of the population in EEA member countries living in urban
agglomerations, a significant fraction of wastewater is collected by sewers connected to
public wastewater treatment plants. The level of treatment before discharge and the
sensitivity of the receiving waters determine the scale of impacts on aquatic ecosystems.
The types of treatments and conformity with the directive are seen as proxy indicators for
the level of purification and the potential improvement of the water environment.
Primary (mechanical) treatment removes part of the suspended solids, while secondary
(biological) treatment uses aerobic or anaerobic micro-organisms to decompose most of
the organic matter and retain some of the nutrients (around 20 - 30 %). Tertiary
(advanced) treatment removes the organic matter even more efficiently. It generally
includes phosphorus retention and in some cases nitrogen removal. Primary treatment
alone removes no ammonium whereas secondary (biological) treatment removes around
75 %. The indicator tracks the success of policies to reduce pollution from wastewater by
describing the trends in the percentage of the population connected to public wastewater
treatment plants with different levels of purification.
In most European cities the percentage of households connected to the sewerage system
varies around 95% while in Belgrade this number reaches only 85%. At the national level
these indicators show even worse situation, for example in Province of Vojvodina the
same indicator is around 45% while in the central Serbia it goes even lower, around 37%
of population is connected to the sewerage system. The picture above displays the current
situation in the field of waste water treatment showing regions with already existing waste
water treatment plants combined with those for which there is an existing plan for
building such plants (the type of existing/planned type of treatment included).
The results of analysis performed within the project Global Waste Water Study in Serbia
& Pre-feasibility Study for Belgrade Waste Water Management show that about 75% of
total urban population in Serbia is connected to the public sewerage system while the
percentage of rural population connected to such a system remains very low, at the value
of about 9%. Only three urban municipalities have a rate higher of 75% - Kragujevac, Novi
Sad and Sremski Karlovci, while for 16 local communities this value varies between 50
and 75%. Percentage of urban population connected to the sewerage system in
municipalities of Bor, Cucak, Kragujevac, Kruevac, Ni and Novi Sad goes above 90%.
Agglomerations with the population smaller then 25000 are usually equipped with the
general sewerage system while the municipalities with 25000 to 250000 citizens have a
separate storm sewerage system. The city of Novi Sad on the other hand has only one
sewerage system while in Belgrade there are both of them with 50% share. In general, the
municipalities covered in this study have about 7200 km of sewerage network thus giving
a specific length of 2.3m per capita.
According to the survey, there are 19 municipalities in Republic of Serbia with wastewater
treatment plants - 14 with biological treatment and 5 with mechanical treatment.
Concerning the rest of Serbia, only seven local municipalities already started to build such
a plant (6 with biological treatment) while 11 municipalities reported that they are
planning the construction in the near future.
The situation looks even worse when we analyze the number of wastewater treatment
plants through the population connected to such a system. Namely, only 16% of
population in Serbia is connected to the wastewater treatment plant. Taking in account all
100
the municipalities covered in this survey, only 62% of them are planning to build such a
system.
This project didn't cover the industrial wastewater. In many cases, especially when the
industrial objects are situated within urban areas the industrial wastewater is discharged
directly to the local sewerage system without any previous treatment. Larger industrial
zones outside of the urban areas usually discharge their wastewater directly to the
recipient (river) without any kind of treatment. It is estimated that direct discharge of
industrial wastewater reaches a value of 730 millions of cubic meters per year.
101
SOIL
ECOLOGICAL ANDECONOMIC VALUES OF SOIL
LANDUSE IN SERBI A
SOIL CLASSIFI CATION AND MAPPING
MONITORING OF SOIL FERTILITY
SOIL CONTAMINATION
SOIL EROSION
102
103
ECOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC VALUES OF SOIL
Soil is a complex and unconsolidated mixture of weathered rocks and minerals, organic
matter, water, and air in varying proportions. Soil genesis is continuous process that is
determined by chemical composition of parent material (rocks and minerals), climate,
orography, vegetation, macro and microorganisms. Parent material specifies the initial
state for soil development, climate and organisms determine the rate at which
(bio)chemical reactions occur in the soil, and time measures the extent to which a
reaction will have proceeded (Jenny, 1980). As a consequence of different intensities of
soil-forming processes, multiple layers (soil horizons) differ in depth, texture (from
coarse sand to fine clay), organic matter content and chemical composition. Since
formation of soil is extremely slow process, soil may be considered as partialy renewable
resource. Soils have regional patterns, and also differ substantially over short distances.
Weathering of rocks and minerals result in formation of clay particles with a mean
diameter less than 2 micrometers, and consequently significant increase of
surface/volume ratio of soil. Clay particles are able to retain ions from solution and in
exchange process to release ions held at their surface. Moreover, degradation of complex
organic compounds results in relatively fast mineralization of proteins, fats and low
molecular weight hydrocarbons, and humification or formation of humus, a relatively
stable acid organic compounds of non-constant molecular weight, which involve fulvic
acids, humic acids and humins (Flegman and George, 1975). Humus additionally
increases water and ion retention capacity of soils. Soil is main pool of mineral nutrients
and water that are essential for plant growth. Due to high water storage capacity, soil
prevents sudden flooding. Moreover, soil is the most important compartment of
ecosystems for filtering and buffering of contaminants.
Agriculture necessarily lowers soil fertility (soil ability to support plant growth) by
removing soil nutrients incorporated in the harvested crops. Excessive cropping or
grazing can depress soil-nutrient levels and degrade soil structure. Exposure of soils to
wind and rain during cultivation encourages erosion of the fertile surface. Soil erosion is a
natural process, occurring over geological time, and indeed it is a process that is essential
for soil formation (Kirkby et al, 2004). However, human activities (deforestation,
agricultural depletion soil nutrients, urban conversion, irrigation, pollution) accelerated
natural rate of erosion.
Artificial fertilisation in agriculture contributes to higher yields but it leads to
eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems. A balance therefore needs to be found for an
optimal use of artificial fertilisers.
Mismanagement of soils may lead to chemical, physical and biological deterioration of
soil. Deteriorating chemical properties of soil include loss of nutrients, soil
contamination, acidification and salinisation.
104
Soil acidification inhibits absorption of phosphate ions, increases solubility of toxic ions
of manganese, iron and aluminium, and at the same time decreases the rate of
humification (Flegman and George, 1975, Kojic, Popovic and Karadic, 1997). These
harmful effects significantly decrease the level of primary production.
Soil salinisation is a process of accumulation of readily soluble salts in parts of soil
profiles. Inadequate irrigation may speed up salinisation, a process that is more evident in
Vojvodina than in any other part of this country.
105
LAND USE IN SERBIA
Serbia has 5,113,307 ha of agricultural land, which is 66% of its total area (Figure 90).
Arable land and gardens dominate as a category with by far the greatest areas under
agricultural production (3,343,916 ha or 65.4%). In the territory of Central Serbia, of the
total agricultural area of 3,321,148 ha, arable land and gardens account for 1,762,094 ha
and these amounts to 53.1%, while in the territory of Vojvodina, out of 1,792,159 ha of
agricultural area, arable land and gardens account for 1,581,822 ha (88,3%).
Figure 90
Land use in Serbia
As for agricultural utilization of soils, the potential of Serbian soils is classified into 8
classes, where the first 4 classes are higher-quality soils and classes 5-8 cover soils mainly
unfit for agriculture (Table 3). As for the whole of Serbia, the distribution of arable and
non-arable land is almost identical. Intensive agricultural production is least restricted in
Vojvodina and most restricted in Kosovo and Metohija. The latter territory, similar to that
of central Serbia, has a wide range of natural fertility in narrow geomorphological units.
Table 3. Land quality classes in Serbia
Soi l cl ass km
2
%
1 11,650 14.4
2 9,357 11.6
3 10,522 13.0
4 8,682 10.8
Arable 40,211 49.8
5 11,073 13.7
6 20,144 25.0
7 8,069 10.0
8 1,178 1.5
Non-arable 40,464 50.2
Productive 80,675 91.3
Infertile 7,686 8.70
Total 88,361 100
106
SOIL CLASSIFICATION AND MAPPING
Classification and cartography in Serbia has passed through different phases of
development. The first classification of soils of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, was prepared
by Stebut (1927). Other classifications, based on the genetic principles, were published
subsequently: Neugebauer et al., 1963, Filipovski et al., 1964.
Figure 91
Soil map of Serbia
(1:2,000,000)
1. Karst (rocky soil) with spots
of terra rossa, brown soil and
lithosol 2. Lithosols and eutric
cambisol 3. Lithosols on acid
rocks and rankers 4. Regosols,
rendzinas and eutric cambisols
5. Arenosols and Eutric
cambisol on sand 6. Lime
dolomite black soisl, lithosols
and rendzinas 7. Lime dolomite
black soils, cambisols and terra
rossa 8. Rendzinas and regosols
9. Rankers and distric
cambisols 10. Chernozem on
loess 11. Chernozem and
chernozem-semigley soil
12.Smonitzas 13. Eutric
cambisol 14. District cambisols,
luvisols and calcocambisols 15.
Cambisols, luvisols and
calcomelanosols 16. Terra
rossa (ilimerized) and
calcocambisols 17. Luvisols and
eutric cambisols 18. Luvisols 19.
Pseudogley soils and rendzinas
20. Acric soil and cambisols on
limestone 21. Fluvisols and
eugleys 22. Pseudogleys 23.
Pseudogleys and ilimerized
pseudogley soils 24.
Chernozem-semigley soil 25.
Humogleys 26. Gley and
semigley soils 27. Eugleys 28.
Histosols 29. Halomorphic soils
In order to facilitate international communication, the national system of soil
classification in Yugoslavia was adapted to the international classification valid at that
time in Europe (koric et al., 1973; 1985). That classification is still accepted and in use in
Serbia, but unfortunately it does not completely correspond to WRB criteria. The first two
107
soil maps of Kingdom of Yugoslavia, at the scale 1:3,500,000 and 1:1,200,000, were
compiled by Stebut (1926; 1931). During the period from the late 1970s to mid 1980s, soil
mapping in Yugoslavia was intensively conducted resulting in:
The soil map of Yugoslavia (in a scale 1:1,000,000);
The soil map of the Vojvodina Province (1:100,000);
The soil map of Yugoslavia (1:50,000).
Figure 91 shows the soil map of Serbia (1:2,000,000), which was made on the basis of the
classification of soils of Yugoslavia (koric et al., 1985), by reducing and generalizing the
existing soil maps prepared in larger scales.
Proportion of different soil types in Serbia is represented in Table 4,
Table 4. Soil types in Serbia
Soil type Area (ha)
Lithosol 107.000
Aeolian sands (Arenosol) 86,000
Rendzinas ~527,000
Black earth on limestone
(Calcomelanosol)
~155,000
Humus-siliceous soil (Ranker) 572,000
Chernozem (Phaeozem) 1,200,000
Smonitza (Vertisol) 780,000
Brown soil on limestone
(Calcocambisol)
~350,000
Eutric brown, typical- brown forest
soil (Eutric Cambisol)
560,000
Dystric Cambisol ~2,280,000
Illimerised soil (Luvisol) ~510,000
Pseudogley (Planosol) 538,000
Podzol ~17,000
Alluvial soil (Fluvisol), Meadow soil
(Humofluvisol), Hydromorphic black
earth and Marsh-gley (Humogley,
Eugley)
~760,000
Solonchak and Solonetz 233,000
Peaty soil (Histosol) ~3,000
Deposol ~50,000
Digitalized soil maps
At present, there is no digital soil map of the whole country; only the soil map of
Vojvodina (Figure 92) has been digitalized (Benka and Salvai, 2006).
The basis for constructing the soil map was the Soil Map of Vojvodina published by the
Institute of Agricultural Research in Novi Sad in 1971. The map is made in a scale
1:50,000, and the Vojvodina territory is presented on 60 sheets.
The potential application would be the possibility of constructing thematic maps showing
the spread of particular parameters related to soil types. In the combination with other
GIS layers it is possible to obtain new layers that are the result of the intersection or
difference of these layers connected to the corresponding databases.
108
Figure 92
The soil map of Vojvodina based on classical map in scale 1:50,000 (Benka and Salvai, 2006).
109
MONITORING OF SOIL FERTILITY
Serbia lacks monitoring and integrated soil information system. The state of soil in Serbia
has been surveyed through different researches and projects which are implemented in
some parts of the country.
The Project Control of soil fertility and determination of harmful and hazardous
substances in soil on the territory of the Republic of Serbia was carried out on the entire
territory of Vojvodina (1.6 mill ha; 1600 samples) in 1993, and in parts of central Serbia in
1997. The implementation of the project was divided mainly between the Institute of Soil
Science, Belgrade and Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad. In 2003, soil
monitoring continued in central and western Serbia on another 250 000 ha.
Georeferenced soil samples were collected from every 1000 ha (10 km
2
), in a grid pattern
with precisely determined coordinates. One composite sample, which presents an average
sample of 25 soil samples from the depth of 0-30 cm was taken at each location.
Figure 93
Soil fertility classes in Central Serbia
110
The program included determination of:
Acidity (pHkcl in soil), carbonates (CaCO3), quantity of humus and presence of
phosphorus and potassium in soil which are easily accessible to plants;
Microbiological activity of soil (total number of bacteria, dehydrogenic activity of
soil, the number of ammonificators, free nitrogen-fixing bacteria, azotobacteria,
fungi and actinomycetes);
Heavy metals and micro-elements concentration (As, B, Cd, Cr, Cu, F, Hg, Ni, Pb,
Zn);
Remains of 17 active ingredients of pesticides in soil (4,4 DDD, 4,4 DDE, 4,4 DDT,
Aldrin, alfa HCH, beta HCH, Lindan (gamma HCH), Diazinon, Dieldrin, Endrin,
Endrin aldehyde, Heptachlor epoxide, Alachlor, Atrazin, Prometryne, Sinazine,
Terbutryn).
Control of the contents of nutrients (P2D5, K2D), humus and carbonates, and soil acidity
(pHKCl) indicated an unsatisfactory condition regarding soil fertility in Central Serbia. The
low fertile soils, with increased acidity, low concentration of easily accessible phosphorus
and potassium and smaller quantity of humus include: Eutric Cambisol and Luvisol in
Central Sumadia, also partially present in the Kolubara basin where Eutric Planosol
dominates whereas Cromic Luvisol, Eutric Planosol and Dystric Cambisol on different
substrata dominate in the eastern Serbia.
Soils with increased acidity, low participation of available forms of P and (slightly less of)
K, and decreased humus content were found in eutric cambisol illimerised and illimerised
soils (luvisol) in central parts of the umadija region, in pseudogley soils of the Kolubara
basin, as well as illimerised soil and illimerised eutric cambisol to some extent, while acid
soils in eastern Serbia mostly occur in illimerised acid soils, pseudogleys and dystric
brown soils formed upon different parent materials. The most fertile soils (fertility classes
3 and 4) are located in Macva, southern Srem, Stig and Velika Morava valley.
Results of the Project indicate that food production can develop with no high degree risks
in approximately 93% of researched areas of Serbia. In 13% of researched areas, food
production should be organized with a reduced risk (the choice of cultures) and/or
periodical /permanent inspections of soil quality and plants along with appropriate
agritechnical measures which would cause preventive reduction of potential as well as
real risk in the first place.
The research of microbiological characteristics shows that certain parameters have
extremely irregular distribution in comparison to the observed data base. It was observed
that fungi presence in soil is far more stable than dehydrogenic activity.
No great deviation was observed in the remains of 17 pesticides on soil. The occurrence of
DDT and its metabolites and Lindan gHCH is connected to their use in forest protection
whereas slightly higher values of the remains of triazine active ingredient were observed
in the soils used in farming. According to the recent findings there is no soil pollution
from the group of analyzed pesticides remains in almost 99% of examined samples.
111
Figure 94
Soil quality of Central Serbia (pH in KCl, K2O mg/100g, P2O5 mg/100g, Cu mg/kg)
There were no surprising findings in the study of residues of 17 pesticides in soils of
central Serbia. The occurrence of DDT and its metabolites, and lindane gHCH, is
associated with their usage in forest protection, while slightly increased values of triazine
residues were recorded in soils used for grain crop cultivation. Nearly 99% of the samples
investigated were unpolluted with residues of any of the analysed group of pesticides. The
study of pesticide residues in eastern Serbian soils (Figure 95) showed that the mean
content of all investigated compounds in soil was below 5 g/kg. Some pesticide residues,
such as |-HCH, alachlor, diazinon and chlordane were not detected at all. Mean o-HCH and
heptachlor were low (<1 g/kg), while DDT and symazine were found to have the highest
average content (4.4 and 4.6 g/kg, respectively).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
lindan HCH heptahlor DDT aldrin hept.-
epo.
DDE
%
0-2g/kg 2-5g/kg 5-10g/kg 10-20g/kg iznad 20g/kg
Figure 95
Organochlorine pesticides found
in soils of eastern Serbia
112
Spatial variation of contents was most evident for the organochlorine pesticides DDD,
o-HCH and heptachlor epoxide. Some samples collected form forest soils, or meadows
close to forests, were found to have increased concentrations of DDT, DDD, o-HCH and
heptachlor epoxide, which is associated with their use in forest protection. On the other
hand, contents of atrazine and other herbicides were low in most samples. Maximum
concentrations of atrazine and symazine, found in some plough-field areas, were below the
limit values envisaged by relevant rules (Official Gazette of the Republic of Serbia, 23/94).
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
endrin DDD simazin atrazin terbutrin prometrin
%
0-2g/kg 2-5g/kg 5-10g/kg 10-20g/kg iznad 20g/kg
Figure 96
Insecticides and herbicides
detected in soils of eastern Serbia
Scientific basis of the Soil Fertility and Fertilizer Use Control System was established in
1980 and it was legislated in 1985. The System encompasses the control of all factors that
determine soil fertility and fertilizer action, i.e., how soil affects the growth, development
and yield of crops and which measures must be undertaken to ensure high, stable and
economic yields and adequate protection of the biosphere (Manojlovic, 1986). Because of
the economic crisis that pestered the country over last 15 years the System was not fully
exploited. In 2002, a campaign was launched to conduct soil analyses in the private sector
free of charge. In Vojvodina, the campaign was organized by the Secretariat of Agriculture
of the Vojvodina Province and the Institute of Field and Vegetable Crops, Novi Sad. In
Serbia, the soil monitoring system was realized by agricultural extension service through
the project funded by Ministry of agriculture, forestry and water resources of the Republic
of Serbia. Since 2002, more than 83,000 samples were collected and analyzed. In 2006
the proportion of georeferenced samples was much higher.
The database contains the following information: Owner, cadastre parcel, land use, crop;
pH value in soil suspension with sodium chloride, determined potentiometrically; CaCO
3
content; Humus content; Available phosphorus; Available potassium.
At the moment the project New technologies in agricultural soil management in
Vojvodina is being conducted with the general objective of managing soils in Vojvodina,
especially agricultural soils. It is of particularly great significance because over 90% of the
territory of Serbia is privately owned. The project is based on the most modern
technologies (Figure 97) which include remote detection and image processing software,
image content classifying software and its distribution to end users. The result of the
project is a complex information system which enables managing reforms in space. An
information system like this is necessary for documented agricultural production, but it
will also enable us to obtain other important information, such as yield estimate,
vegetation status, etc.
113
Figure 97
Multispectral
satellite image
(Provincial
Secretariat for
Agriculture, Water
economy and
Forestry & Faculty
of Technical
Sciences, Novi Sad
The Project ''Environmental quality monitoring in the territory of Vojvodina non-
agricultural land'' (Figure 98) is a systematic research that is conducted by the Institute of
Field and Vegetable Crops in Novi Sad. For monitoring of soil quality in Vojvodina,
locations under various kinds of protection were chosen in order to follow the impact of
pollution which is a consequence of NATO bombing of industrial complexes in Vojvodina
and their state was observed for three years.
Figure 98
Soil monitoring sites in Vojvodina
114
The database consists of the findings made by the Project with the georeferenced localities
examined in 2002, 2003, and 2004.
Within this Project, the quality of non-agricultural land of larger towns with developed
industry was monitored in the territory of Vojvodina, specifically in Pancevo, Sombor,
Kikinda, Zrenjanin and Beocin. The results are available in digital format with
georeferenced sampling localities.
Examined within the analyses were basic chemical properties (pH, CaCO3 and humus)
and soil fertility in the most important biogenic elements (N, P and K), content of heavy
metals and microelements, as well as organic pollutants (polychlorinated biphenyls
PCBs, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons - PAHs).
Findings of the examination of heavy metal content in non-agricultural land of industrial
zones in 2005 demonstrate that their origin in the soil is primarily geochemical, namely
that non-agricultural land of the Vojvodinas industrial zones are not contaminated by
heavy metals. At the two localities of cement plant in Beocin, the soil is contaminated by
nickel of anthropogenic origin, and the soil in the area of the battery factory in Sombor is
contaminated by the lead of anthropogenic origin.
Due to the absence of legislation that governs the MAC for polychlorinated biphenyls and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in soil, the comments on the findings were made
applying the German MAC criterion.
PCB contamination is the most intense in the area of Pancevo. Applying the German MAC
criterion for PCBs of 0.05 mg/kg, this value is exceeded in 33% samples of soil in Pancevo
and only one sample in the vicinity of the battery factory in Sombor.
The average PAH content is highest in the soils of Kikinda and amounts to 2.138 mg/kg of
soil. Of the total number of samples, 76.7 % of the examined soil samples were
contaminated by PAHs in the quantity that exceeded the MAC. This practically means
that the soil can potentially be a source of underground water contamination by polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons.
Examination of soil quality in urban zones is conducted in some of the larger towns and
cities and it is mainly associated with accidents. In the area of the City of Belgrade,
systematic examination of the soil condition has been conducted since 1999 to determine
the contamination level and potential risk to population health. The findings are available
in digital format with georeferenced sampling localities.
The laboratory testing of soil contamination in the territory of Belgrade is conducted by
the City Institute for Public Health. The processed soil samples are analyzed for the
content of following parameters: pH value, humidity, nitrogen, phosphors, sulphates,
arsenic, nickel, chrome, zinc, copper, cadmium, lead, quicksilver, pesticides, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), mineral oils, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).
The Program of survey of soil pollution on the territory of Belgrade is directed towards:
Soil in the zone of sanitary protection of drinking water sources;
Soil in city parks and other facilities;
Soil in the vicinity of industrial complexes;
Soil in the vicinity of important motorways.
115
Within the Project ''Monitoring of the health status of forests in the Republic of Serbia'',
the Faculty of Forestry in Belgrade performed the surveying the soil in the 16 x 16 km grid
at 103 bioindication points (Figure 99). In all selected land plots, pedological profiles
were opened and soil samples were taken from fixed depths, from the following layers:
organic, 0-5 cm, 5-10 cm and 10-20 cm, as well as from the depth of 20-40 cm and
further to the holding substrate, with the aim of making the full characterization of soil.
As in 2003 the sample plot grid 16x16 km did not cover all the most important forest
ecosystems in Serbia, in 2004 another additional plots were installed in 4x4 grid.-
During 2003/2004, in the above network of points, according to the ICP methodology,
chemical analyses were conducted for organic and mineral layers of soil. Besides the
chemical analyses, also conducted were the analyses of the mechanical composition of
soil. The findings of these analyses for deeper layers allowed more precise identification
of soil types, both according to the national and FAO classification.
Figure 99
The ICP sample plots in Serbia
116
SOIL CONTAMINATION
In 2006, the Environmental Protection Agency set up a database of the contaminated
areas in the territory of Serbia. The database covers the localities that were identified
before 2005 and have not been georeferenced. Large land areas in the vicinity of
industrial complexes (Bor, Pancevo, Novi Sad, Smederevo, Belgrade and Kragujevac) are
contaminated with various pollutants discharged from industrial facilities.
Figure 100
Soil polluting
activities from
localized sources as
% of total sites
where site
investigation has
been completed
Considering the manner in which contaminated areas are managed, the following
conclusions can be made:
Management of contaminated sites in Serbia is not institutionalized and it is not
possible to completely quantify the progress in this field at the national level.
There is no specific methodology yet that can be used for defining contaminated
sites in Serbia. Presented contaminated localities are identified on the basis of
laboratory analysis of soil and groundwater in the near vicinity of localized
pollution sources and their long term presence.
Preliminary studies are conducted at most of the identified contaminated sites in
Serbia.
The greatest number of registered sources of localized soil pollution are related to
municipal waste disposal sites, oil extraction and storage sites, industrial and
commercial sites (Figure 100). The municipal waste disposal site database was
updated in 2005. There are 164 municipal waste disposal sites on the territory of
Serbia which present a potential source of soil and groundwater pollution.
The greatest part of the identified polluted soil localities within industry (Figure
101) belongs to the oil industry (59.2%), followed by the chemical industry (15.2%)
and the metal working industry (13.3%).
The database does not include military localities.
117
Figure 101
Breakdown industries
responsible for local
soil contamination as
% of total
Sites contaminated by depleted uranium
During the conflict NATO had reportedly deployed weapons containing depleted uranium
(UNEP, 2002, 2004). Shortly after the NATO actions against Serbia and Montenegro
systematic reconnaissance of locations which were under the fire of A-10 planes was
organized. According to NATO data 112 locations in Kosovo were contaminated with DU,
and 31000 30-mm projectiles, equivalent to 10 tones of DU were fired. According to our
military data it must be at least 50000 projectiles, or 15t of DU. Till now nothing has done
on decontamination of Kosovo and Metohija locations. The harmful effects of ionising
radiation are well documented (UNSCEAR, 1993). Although a higher incidence of
Hodgkin's lymphoma among Italian Balkans troops confirmed, the systematic
investigation on effects of DU on public health in Serbia is missing.
Outside the borders of Kosovo, 3000-5000 projectiles were fired too, mostly on the south
of Serbia. All the locations are marked, co-ordinates of all marked and isolated locations
were defined, and the residents informed. Entrance in contaminated locations was
forbidden till the end of decontamination
The clean-up of some 5,000 square meters of land in the village of Bratoselce near
Bujanovac, contaminated by depleted uranium during the 1999 NATO bombing of
Yugoslavia, was finished on Nov. 9, 2003. During the clean-up, the team performing the
task discovered around 100 kilograms of depleted uranium in the soil and stored some 2.5
tons of contaminated earth in the Vinca institute's facilities.
Decontamination of Pljackovica (Vranje) was finished during 2004 year when 48
penetrators and 30 projectile s fragments were found. It was collected and delayed on
radioactive waste disposal 1300kg of contaminated soil.
The clean-up of the radioactive pollutants has been completed at a major site in southern
Serbia. Approximately 3,468 cubic meters of contaminated soil were removed from the
Borovac site, hit by 44 depleted uranium shells.
A total of 161 depleted uranium bullets have been recovered in Reljan near Preevo in
southern Serbia, A total of 2.4 cubic meters of contaminated soil has been collected and
removed. The Serbian government has funded the cleanup operation of the Reljan site
with 350,000 Euros.
118
SOIL EROSION
The occurrence and progress of erosion processes is one of the major causes of soil
degradation and its deteriorated quality. It is estimated that erosion processes (of various
degrees) affect up to 80% of agricultural soil in Serbia. While in central regions and the
hilly-mountainous regions the predominant type is water erosion, the predominant type
in Vojvodina is eolic erosion. Approximately 85% of agricultural soil in Vojvodina is
affected by wind erosion with an annual loss of over 0.9 ton material per ha.
Degradation of soil is a process of reduction or loss of its biological or economic
productivity and complexity and it occurs as a result of a particular form of land use and
certain processes or combinations of processes such as:
soil erosion caused by winds;
deterioration of physical, chemical or biological properties of soil
long-term loss of natural vegetation.
In Serbia, erosion causes immediate annual loss of 20,500 ha of land compared to total
annual production of deposits, or 6,000 ha of arable land due to transport of soil deposits.
Research conducted in Serbia (Department of Erosion Protection of the Belgrade Faculty
of Forestry) showed that water and aeolian erosion cause, apart from other effects,
considerable losses of humus and nutrients (as well as suspended deposits).
Table 5. Amounts of humus and nutrients lost to erosion
Soil component Amount (t/annually)
Humus 580 327,00
Nitrogen 40 159,00
Phosphorus 3 832,00
Potassium 14 367,00
An erosion map incorporated in the Serbian Water Management Guidebook (Institute of
Water Management Jaroslav Cerni, Belgrade, 1996) shows that different intensities of
erosion have been observed on a total area of 88,361.0 km
2
, Figure 102.
3%
10%
22%
50%
15%
Excessive Haevy Medium weak very weak
Figure 102
Erosion percentages by
category in Serbia
119
South of the Sava and Danube rivers, the dominant type of erosion is water erosion with
devastating torrential streams, while aeolian erosion, or deflation, predominates in the
northern region of Vojvodina. Areas undergoing aeolian erosion are found along the main
rivers, the Danube and the Tisa in northern parts of the country. The deserts known as
Deliblatska, Subotica-Horgo and Ram-Golubac sands are especially important in this
context.
Most endangered areas in Serbia are hilly and mountainous parts where water erosion
processes ranked I-III category are most intensive with estimated 12,500 torrential
streams. Those areas cover about 2,000,000 ha of existing forests and most of the
1,350,000 ha planned for forestation by the year 2050. Anthropogenic impact on the
ecosystem also adds to increasing soil erosion.
Apart from erosion, however, soil can also be degraded by surface mining and tailings
near mines and metal processing plants or by communal waste landfills.
Unplanned urban development and unplanned development of transport infrastructure
in areas with top-quality soils is a special problem.
Figure 103
Orthophoto image of the
Majdanpek surface mining sites.
Figure 104
Orthophoto image of the ash
landfill near Obrenovac
120
121
WASTE
WASTE MANAGEMENT
UNOFFICIAL AND OLDLANDFILLS ANDDUMPS
INTERNAL ANDTRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT OF WASTE
122
123
WASTE MANAGEMENT
Poor standard of waste management has been identified as one of the pressing
environmental issues in Serbia, resulting mainly from an inadequate social treatment of
this issue so far. High-cost, uneconomical organisation, poor quality of service and
inadequate care for the environment are the result of a devastatingly poor organisation of
waste management.
The existing relevant legislation in the Republic of Serbia defines local municipalities as
the administrative and spatial entities responsible for managing communal waste. Wastes
and waste management have been recognised as a major public issue. However, people
generally tend to consider wastes as somebody elses problem, rather than their own, so
that solutions are expected from the state, its agencies, local governments, industry, etc.
Cooperativeness in solving the problem of waste disposal is voiced mostly in moments of
crisis and public concern.
The only method of managing waste that is currently practiced in Serbia is disposal in
landfills, which mostly fails to meet the most basic requirements of hygiene, as well as
technical and technological standards, and some of them are already filled to full capacity.
The National Strategy for Managing Waste, adopted in 2003, provides a basis for an
economical and sustainable management of wastes. One of its basic conclusions suggests
that regional landfills should be established for communal waste. The Strategy envisages
the establishing of 29 regional sanitary landfills, as well as a number of other facilities
that are expected to help waste management to become more efficient and effective.
The Environmental Protection Agency, in keeping with its legal competencies, started in
2005 a series of activities to set up a waste management information system as part of
an integrated environmental protection information system.
In an effort to create a national database on landfills in the Republic of Serbia, two
projects were outlined:
Improvement of the cadastre of waste disposal sites in the Republic of Serbia, and
Establishment of a cadastre of unofficial and old landfills and dumps in the
Republic of Serbia.
The former project aims at upgrading the existing sets of database on official landfills
where waste is being brought to and disposed of in an organised fashion. The other one
concerns efforts to create a registry of unmanaged and old dumps, and contains data on
their location, quantities, type of material disposed of and other information.
Relevant municipal bodies and public utilities are the crucial partners in these projects.
Both projects were expected to produce an electronic database of waste disposal sites with
a geographic information system (GIS) component included.
124
Figure 105 shows that 15 of the total number of municipalities have no landfills on their
own territory, and therefore use landfills in other municipalities.
Figure 105
Serbian municipalities with landfills for disposals of waste
According to data provided in this project, Serbia has 164 landfills that are used by local
utility companies for disposal of wastes (Figure 106).
The land used for landfills is either the property of the Republic of Serbia, or it is public or
company property. Landfill ages vary considerably, ranging from that of five new ones set
up in 2005 (Backa Palanka Obrovac, Bela Palanka, Malo Crnice, Pancevo and Tutin) to
the landfill at Silba, the municipality of Backa Palanka, which was set up in 1956. Data
on the sizes and volumes of landfills are not fully reliable as quantification was mostly
done based on estimates, which is only understandable as many of them have no
appropriate technical documentation.
Waste covering is practiced in 117 landfills or 72%, and it is done mostly with earth or
some other inert material. Daily covering is practiced in 15 landfills, monthly covering in
one, and it is done occasionally in 101 landfills.
125
Most municipalities own mechanical equipment and vehicles for collecting waste. Various
types of waste collection vehicles are being used from the special Rotopress vehicles with
rotating drums and forks for collecting from large containers to common trucks or even
tractors with vans. It would be true to say that lack of adequate equipment for waste
collection is significant in a great many municipalities.
Figure 106
Distribution of landfills for
disposals of waste in Serbia
There is a similar situation concerning mechanised equipment used in landfills.
Bulldozers are commonly used for digging up, levelling and compaction of waste, while
compactors are being used in no more than 10 landfills. Mechanised equipment is
occasionally rented for these operations in several landfills, Figure 107.
126
Figure 107
Mechanised equipment in landfills (Photo: Hristina Stevanovic Carapina).
Of the total number of landfills, 12 (or 7.3%) are situated within 100 m range of a local
settlement. Such data clearly point at the risks undertaken by the local population from
being exposed to contaminating emissions and to possible diseases carried by mice, rats
and other animals moving about landfills.
Data on the distance between landfills and water resources give us a bleak picture as 25
landfills (15.2%) are situated within 50 m from a river, stream, lake or reservoir. Of this
number, 14 landfills are practically located on the very bank of a waterway or in its
channel. Eleven landfills (or 6.7%) are situated within 500 m from waterworks zones, and
another 28 (12.2%) within 1000 m. Data on landfill distances from conserved
environments and objects of cultural heritage were submitted only by 63 municipalities.
In 3 municipalities, landfills are less than 100 m away from such facilities, while another
8 are situated within 1000 m. Data on landfill equipment include information on the
infrastructural systems, installations and facilities used to ensure effective landfill
management.
Table 6. Infrastructural systems of landfills.
Descri ption of system,
device or facility
Number of
l andfil l s
Electricity 34
Fuels (tanks, power units, etc.) 6
Water supply 25
Sewage 10
Weighbridge 6
Internal road network 48
Access to public road 113
Fire-fighting equipment 33
Gas collecting system 12
Car wash platform 18
Working front 22
127
Table 7. Activities and equipment used to protect the environment
Acti vi ty or equi pment Number of
l andfil l s
System of rainfall draining
canals
30
Leachate collection system -
drainage
17
Leachate purification 7
Levelling 124
Compaction 83
Disinfection, pest and rodent
control
56
Noise prevention 2
Wind-blown waste
prevention
47
Regarding the state of the discharged waste, solids alone are allowed in 163
municipalities, while liquid waste is allowed in addition to solids in 41 landfills.
Table 8. The types of waste material discharged in landfills.
Type of waste material Number of l andfil l s
Communal waste (households) 163
Metal waste and household appliances 138
Car waste 82
glass 160
plastic 159
paper 158
paperboard 157
Packaging waste
tins 156
Agricultural waste 82
Construction waste 134
Electronic waste 52
Hazardous waste 60
Medical waste 84
Animal waste (dead animals, slaughterhouse by-products) 83
Waste tyres 117
Green waste from gardens and public parks 134
Forest and wood processing wastes 48
Industrial and mining waste 30
Slimes/sludges/ashes/slags/tailings/muds 95
A large number of municipalities have banned disposal of certain types of wastes in their
landfills, primarily hazardous, medical and animal wastes, car tyres, etc.
Organised recycling of waste in Serbian landfills is practically non-existent as 160 of them
(97.6%) have no processing of waste developed in any form.
Table 9. Operative status of landfills
Operation status Number of landfills
Under construction 22
Active 72
Closed down 5
Restored 0
Under reconstruction/restoration 39
Under close-down procedure 19
Landfill planned 18
128
Table 10 Permissions required for the operation of landfills.
Permi t status Number of landfills
Operating permit 24
Building permit 13
Under environmental assessment 28
Analysing the data on amounts and types of waste discharged in landfills, it is readily
apparent that very little care is currently taken of this issue. The fact that only 30 landfills
(18.3%) have records of the types and quantities of waste is suggestive enough.
Monitoring of the state of local environment and possible effects of landfills and their
disposed materials on the environment is sporadic.
0
5
10
15
20
Land Surface water Ground water Air
Monitoring
N
o
.

o
f

l
a
n
d
f
i
l
l
s
Figure 108
Number of monitoring programs
Figure 108 clearly indicates that monitoring of the impact of landfills on environment is
scarce. In the European Union, on the other hand, it constitutes one of the main
principles of waste management.
129
UNOFFICIAL AND OLD LANDFILLS AND DUMPS
Over 800 questionnaires were sent out within the project Establishment of a cadastre of
unofficial and old landfills and dumps in the Republic of Serbia. Some local governments
reported unofficial landfills in their territories but without going into detail, explaining
that those are being removed regularly and therefore have temporary character.
In most cases, unofficial landfills are found in rural environments and they are mostly the
outcome of meagre funds allocated for improving the quality of the waste collecting
system, as well as poor organisation of waste management at local level.
Figure 109
Unofficial landfills. Photo curtsey of the Environment Protection Inspection in Cccak
Unofficial landfills also occur along thoroughfares, primarily on slopes and road fills,
where wastes are simply being unloaded from trucks. There is mostly a difficulty involved
in collecting such wastes due to their inaccessibility.
130
Natural depressions, cavities and pits that are virtually inaccessible are also being used
for waste disposal.
Data on the bulks of unofficial and old landfills, and estimates as to the amounts of
disposed waste indicate that some of them have been used for several years, which raises
concern over their possible effect on the environment. All kinds of waste are being
disposed of in these landfills in an unrestrained fashion communal, medical, animal
corpses, hazardous waste, etc.
131
INTERNAL AND TRANSBOUNDARY MOVEMENT OF
WASTE
The amounts of imported and exported waste are determined based on import and export
permits and customs declarations. Such documents enable controlled monitoring of waste
transport in the country. Besides, they show whether the waste transported could possibly
be recycled in domestic industry as a secondary raw material. The Recycling Agency has a
database on transboundary movement of waste.
The established Waste Database is being updated to include fresh data on transboundary
movement of waste based on import and export permits, issued by the Environmental
Protection Directorate, and the uniform customs document verifying the amounts of
imported/exported waste with the idea of monitoring operation of a national control
system of imports, exports and transit of waste.
Import of hazardous waste is prohibited. Hazardous waste is exported to EU approved
facilities for further treatment. The Ministry of Capital Investments enforces the
Republics laws related to transport of hazardous waste. In addition to safety measures
related to hazardous substances, the Traffic Authority currently applies and enforces the
European Agreement on International Road Transportation of Hazardous Substances
(ADR) and the International Rulebook concerning Railway Transport of Hazardous
Substances (RID).
There are neither reliable data on the total number of sources generating hazardous
wastes nor the total number of sources generating waste that could be recycled as
secondary raw materials.
There is no facility for treatment of hazardous waste, or one for treatment of car waste
and other specific types of waste, or indeed any permanent disposal site for hazardous
waste complying with relevant legal provisions, so that temporary disposal is mostly done
inside the company fence, and very often inadequately. For all these reasons, hazardous
waste is being stored temporarily prior to export for further treatment.
132
133
BIODIVERSITY
SPECIES DIVERSITY
ECOSYSTEMDIVERSITY
AREAS DESIGNATED FOR NATURE PROTECTION
PROGRAMS OF BIODIVERSITY MONITORING
REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS AND
EX SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
134
135
SPECIES DIVERSITY
Biological diversity represents the variability of life at all levels of biological organization
(Gaston and Spicer, 2004). Such, general definition requires further elaboration since
biological diversity involves itraspecific (population) and interspecific (community)
variability. Population or intraspecific diversity depends on genetic variability and
variability induced by environment. On the other hand, community diversity involves
within community (alpha) diversity, species diversity between ecosystems (beta
diversity) and gamma diversity or overall biodiversity within a region (Whittaker, 1972).
Investigations of biological diversity have a long and very rich tradition in Serbia. In a
series of articles and monographs, PancIc (1860, 1867, 1869, 1874, 1883) initially
described Serbian flora and fauna. His classical work Flora Principatus Serbiae,
initiated intensive floristic investigations. As a result of accumulated knowledge, the 10
volume edition of (vascular) Flora of SR Serbia was published (Josifovic, 1970-1977;
Saric, 1986). Numerous vegetation studies in Serbia were integrated in precious
monograph Vegetation Sdosteuropas (Horvat, Glavac, et Ellenberg, 1974). More
recently Saric (1997), Kojic, Popovic and Karadic (1997) reviewed vegetation units in
Serbia. BlaencIc, Cvijan and Lauevic (1995), Cvijan and BlaencIc (1996) and Cvijan and
Subakov-Simic (2003) reviewed taxonomy and distribution of algae in Serbia.
Faunistic investigations covering both Vertebrates and Invertebrates (Radovanovic, 1951,
1957, Petrov, 1992: Simonovic, 2006, Gasc et al., 1997, Raajski, 2004, CurcIc,
Dimitrijevic and Legakis, 2004, Jakic, 2003, Matvejev, 1950, Vasic, 1995).
Despite the great diversity of different taxa, the process of biodiversity erosion is marked,
not only in Serbia but in wider regions of Balkan peninsula. Many species disappeared
from Serbia, and some rare species are endangered to alarming limits. Human induced
pressures on habitats (urbanization, development of agriculture, industry, mining,
transport infrastructures) resulted in:
degradation of natural ecosystems to cultivated agroecosystems, sylvicultures or
(sub)urban area,
fragmentation of habitats
overexploitation of genetic and biological resources
introduction of alien species from remote areas
contamination of air, water and soil by toxic, mutagenic or cancerogenig
pollutants
increased level of ionizing and nonionizing radiation
induced climate changes
Synergy of all these effects resulted in significant biodiversity reduction in Serbia and
neighbouring region. According to the Red data book of Flora of Serbia (Stevanovic,
1999), four local endemic taxa disappeared from Serbia, and consequently, from the
global gene pool (Althea kragujevaciensis PancIc, A. Vranjensis Diklic & Nikolic,
Scabiosa achatea Vis. & PancIc and Trapa annosa Jankovic). More than 40 vascular
136
plants disappeared from Serbia, but not from other parts of Balkan peninsula.
Populations of numerous plant species permanently declined during past 50 years.
According to the Red data book of Serbian butterflies (Jakic, 2003), the species Leptidea
morsei Fenton 1881 disappeared from Serbia, whereas 22 taxa belong to the IUCN
category of endangered species. Unfortunately, the Red data book of other faunistic
groups of Serbia is not available yet.
Flora
Floristic diversity in Balkan peninsula is much greater than in other parts of Europe.
More than 100 endemic taxa are recorded in numerous mountain regions of the Balkans.
Therefore, entire Balkan peninsula in general, and particularly the mountain regions from
Creta and Peloponnesus to Dinaric Alps westward and eastward to Balkan-Rhodope
mountains represents hot spots of plant diversity on regional (European) level.
Figure 110
Number of endemic
taxa (species and
subspecies) in UTM
network (50x50 km) on
Balkan Peninsula
(source: Stevanovic,
2005)
137
Balkan Peninsula is a biodiversity center for 17 mainly monotypic genera, represented by
one or only few phylogeneticaly isolated species. Generally, endemic genera, being
monotypic, oligotypic or polytypic, indicate age of flora in the specified area and designate
this area as a biodiversity center and center of flora diversification. Such monotypic and
oligotypic genera, i. e. species belonging to the genera are: Halacsya sendtneri Boiss.,
Paramoltkia doerfleri (Wettst.) Greuter & Burdet, Paraskevia cesatiana (Fenzl & Friedr.)
W. & G. Sauer, Petromarula pinnata (L.) A. DC. Degenia velebitica Deg., Leptoplax
emarginata (Boiss.) O.E. Schultz, Haberlea rhodopensis Friv., Jankaea heldreichii
(Boiss.) Boiss., Wagenitzia lancifolia Sieber ex Sprengel (Dostal), Hymenonema
laconicum Boiss. & Heldr. & Hymenonema graecum (L.) DC., Thamnosciadium junceum
(Sm.) Hartvig, Pancicia serbica Vis., Horstrissea dolinicola Greuter , Gertsberger & Egli,
Petteria ramentacea (Sieber) C. Presl, Festucopsis sancta (Janka) Melderis, Festucopsis
serpentini (C.E. Hubbard) Melderis , Lutzia cretica (L.) Greuter & Burdet and Phitosia
crocifolia Kamari & Greuter.
According to the latest researches, there are over 2600 endemic plant species on Balkan.
Territory of Serbia is significant biodiversity center of endemic flora on Balkan Peninsula
(Fig. 110). There are 287 Balkan endemic species and subspecies in Serbia, which is
8.06% of Serbian flora. The number of Balkan endemics increases from lowland regions
in Vojvodina towards high mountain areas. The basic type of endemism in Serbia, like in
the entire Balkan Peninsula, is highmountain endemism. Biodiversity centers of endemic
flora are primary high mountains (Shar Mt., Prokletije Mt., Koritnik Mt., Pastrik Mt.,
Kopaonik Mt., Balkan Mt. and Suva Mt.). Besides highmountain endemis in Serbia, there
exists edaphic endemism, as well. Special features are representatives of ophylotic
endemic flora on serpentine habitats in west and central Serbia, and in Metohija.
Highmountain and edaphic endemism is often combined. In the same time, limestone
massifs are richer in endemic species compared to siliceous soils in Serbia. Local
endemics are of special importance, as specific biological resources globally significant for
preservation of gene fund and biodiversity. There are 59 local floristic endemics in Serbia
(1,5% of total flora in Serbia), mostly Tertiary relics. Shar Mt., with 19, and Prokletije Mt.
with 15 local endemics are mountains with highest local endemism in Serbia.
138
Figure 111
A) Distribution of several local endemics
represented at UTM squares 10 x 10 km
inside of selected UTM squares 50 x 50 km
DM1, DM3, DM4, EM1 and EM4 (orig.);
B) selected UTM squares are represented at
the map of the C.Balkans (black).
(source: Stevanovic, 2005)
Unique remains of the (sub)tropic flora in Europe are paleo-endemic species that belong to the
Gesneriaceae [Rich. & J uss. ex] DC. family. This family is is represented by three genera
(Ramonda Rich., Jankaea Boiss. and Haberlea Friv.) in Balkan peninsula. Species of this family
are mainly distributed in the tropics and subtropics of the Old and the New World, with
transgressions to the north (Europe: Pyrenees, Balkan Peninsula; Asia: Himalayas, China) and the
south (SE Australia, New Zealand, S Chile).
Figure 112
Ramonda nathaliae, endemic and relic
species of Balkan Peninsula Photo: D.
Miic
Both in Asia-Malesia and in America there are around 60 genera; in Africa there are 9
genera (c. 160 spp.), in Europe 3 genera (6 species). Such disjuncted distribution clearly
indicates that endemic representatives of Ramonda, Haberlea and Jankaea are relics of
old flora. Ramonda myconi (L.) Rchb is distributed in Spain, whereas other European
Gesneriaceae (Jankaea heldreichii (Boiss.) Boiss, Ramonda serbica Panc. R. nathaliae
139
Panc. & Petr. Haberlea rhodopensis Friv. and H. ferdinandi-coburgii Urum.) are
restricted to Balkan peninsula (Serbia, Montenegro, Albania, Greece and Bulgaria). Two
Gesneriaceae species (Ramonda serbica Panc. and R. nathaliae Panc. & Petr.) are
distributed in Serbia.
Figure 113
Distribution of
Gesneriaceae. Adapted
from Tcxmc0nu, 1981.
The most important endemic plant species in Serbia is Picea omorika (PancIc) Purkyne
1877. A wide distribution of P. omorika during Tertiary was reduced to an ultimate
extent. Recently, it is native to the Tara Mountain, the Mileevka river canyon and part of
Western Bosnia in the middle course of the Drina River. Serbian spruce is a graceful,
beautiful tree with a narrow pyramidal form.
Figure 114
Forest of Serbian spruce-Picea
omorika (Pancic) Purkyne 1877 at
Tara Mt.
There are 3662 vascular species and subspecies in Serbia. These taxa are grouped in 141
families and 766 genera, which puts Serbia into a group of European countries with
highest floristic diversity per area unit.
Figure 115 presents species density (i. e. number of taxa per 20x20 km UTM squares) of
vascular plants in Serbia. Vojvodina and areas along large rivers have relatively low
species density. Density increases towards south (mountain areas) and the largest is in
the area of Prokletije Mt., Shar Mt., Kopaonik Mt., Balkan Mt., and Tara Mt. Gradient of
floristic richness is greatly correlated to urban areas and anthropogenic influence to the
environment.
140
Figure 115
Species density of vascular plants per
20x20 km UTM (Universal Transverse
Mercator) squares in Serbia (source:
Stevanovic et al, 2005)
High floristic diversity in Serbia is consequence of variety of orographic, geological,
climate and historical factors, which have been or are still active in this area. Not all
groups of flora in Serbia have been equally studied. The best studied groups are vascular
plants, where algae are the least studied.
Fungi
Fungi and bacteria are the primary decomposers of organic matter in most terrestrial
ecosystems. The term Macromycetes or Macrofungi denotes the representatives of
Basidiomycotina and Ascomycotina, two phila (major divisions) of the kingdom Fungi,
that form large macroscopic fruitbodies. Macrofungi are a diverse and ecologically
important group of organisms.
According to Ivancevic (1995), more then 600 species of Macromycetes are recorded in
Serbia. They belong to 232 different families of Fungi. More than 60 species of
Macromycetes are endangered to various degree.
141
Figure 116
Tuber melanosporum. Over
50% of European true truffles
are detected in Serbia
Kuan (1953) reviewed lichenized fungi of Yugoslavia, including many species from
Serbia. According to the most recent data (Savic and Tibell, 2006), 586 lichens are
distributed in Serbia.
Fish diversity
There are 110 fish species registered in Serbia, or 51% of all European ichtyofauna.
Freshwater ecosystems in Serbia comprise large basins (Danube with tributaries),
macroaccumulations (Djerdap, Vlasina, etc.), microaccumulations (larger number of
small accumulations for irrigation and other local purposes), flooded areas and wetlands
(Apatin wetland, Kovilje-Gardinovac wetland, and a series of smaller areas of local
significance) and a canal network (Danube Tisza Danube, and other smaller
networks). There are 4 areas in Serbia with specific ichtyofauna: Danube-Black Sea
System, Tara-Piva-Drina, System, Ohrid-Drim-Skadar System and rivers of Aegean basin.
There are 79 fish species in Danube Basin, from 16 families and 3 species of Cyclostomata.
Family Cyprinidae has 50 species. Specific feature of the Danube-Black Sea system is
seasonal presence of 5 species from Acipenseridae family and 2 species from Clupeidae
family, which migrate from the Black Sea to the Danube during spawning season.
Hydroelectric power plant cut this migratory path, and they can reach only to Djerdap II
plant. There are 12 endemic fish species and subspecies in the Danube basin and one
endemic species of Cyclostomata. There are also 13 allochthonous species. Populations of
some introduced species are rather numerous, and some of them are undesirable in
natural ecosystems.
Tara-Piva-Drina System is significant for mountain areas. There are 32 fish species
registered in this system
Ohrid-Drim-Skadar System represents very important area for it is a main corridor
between riverine, lacustrine and marine ecosystems. It has specific ichtyofauna for the
large number of endemic species and subspecies. Metohija area, as a part of this system,
has 16 autochthonous (Salmo trutta with two subspecies) and 9 allochthonous species.
142
Aegean Basin rivers comprise rather small area in Serbia and there are no precise data on
ichtyofauna.
Aquatic ecosystems enable fast spreading of introduced or non-indigenous species that
are rapidly expanding outside of their native range. Introduced species can alter
ecological relationships among native species and can affect ecosystem function,
economic value of ecosystems, and human health. More than 15 fish species in Serbia are
introduced from other regions (Jankovic and Krpo-Cetkovic, 1995). The newest case of
introduction was recorded in 2006. A specimen of the North American paddlefish,
Polyodon spathula was caught near Prahovo in the Serbian part of the Danube River
(Lenhardt et al., 2006).
Figure 117
Polyodon spathula WALBAUM, 1792, an introduced fish species in Serbia
Amphibians and reptiles
Balkan Peninsula has 95 amphibian and reptile species, of which 45 are endemics, and
therefore represents very significant area of European herpetofauna. Considering Serbian
territory only, 44 amphibian and reptile species were recorder (55 subspecies in total),
within 19 genera and 14 families, which clearly indicates large diversity in herpetofauna in
this area. Some of these species are important from biogeographic point of view. The
Alpine salamander, Salamandra atra (LAURENTI, 1768), is a completely terrestrial, and
viviparous amphibian. It is an endemic species to the Alpine arc from Switzerland to
Austria with some geographically isolated areas in the Dinaric Alps (Slovenia to Albania).
There are two currently recognized subspecies: S. a. atra and the yellow spotted S. a.
aurorae which is restricted to an extremely small area in the Asiago plateau in NE Italy
(Grossenbacher, 1997).
143
10-20
21-30
31-35
36-40
Figure 118
Species density of Amphibians and Reptiles
per 50x50 km UTM squares in Serbia (source:
Dukic, 1995.)
There is a general trend in decreasing of amphibian and reptile populations in the world,
where causes are related to human influence, above all. Such trends are visible in Serbia,
as well. The main causes are alterations of autochthonous landscapes, degradation,
fragmentation and isolation of habitats, pollution of water, air and soil, transportation
and hunting.
Birds
There are 345 bird species in Serbia registered so far, which presents 74% of European
species. This richness is, above all, represented in the number of nesting bird species.
There are approximately 300 nesting species on the Balkans, where 253 are in Serbia
(84%). Migratory species are wintering in Serbia, or continue migration to the south.
Serbian south provinces are the richest in bird species inhabiting dry habitats, as opposed
to the lowland areas of north-east Serbia, along the Danube. Including waterfowls, south
part of Serbia is, after Macedonia, the largest center of bird diversity on the Balkans.
The most important bird migration routes in South-Eastern Europe are the Bosfor strait
(a west-easter route) and a north-south route in the Caucasus region (EUCC, 1999).
However, there are several other migration routes over South-Easter Europe (Fig 119) and
some routes over Serbia are of global importance (Biro, Bouwma and Grobelnik, 2006).
144
General direction of autumn migrating W Siberian Waterfofl
from summer mounting places in Wetlands of N Caspian Sea
Scandinavian and Baltic Cormorants
Autumn migrating W Siberian wetland birds looking for scarce
wetlands in W Balkans
NE European and Wsiberian Passerines, Herons and
small Raptors Quails etc.
N European and C European (partim) Passerines, Storchs,
large and medium Raptores etc.
500 1000 km
0
Figure 119
Bird migration routes in Balkan
peninsula. Source: Vasic, in: Biro,
Bouwma and Grobelnik, 2006.
Decrease of number of species is consequence of synergistic effect of unfavourable factors,
and the most prominent are land use alterations (agriculture), loss of habitats, pollution,
changes in forestry practice, pressure from hunting and chasing, overexploitation of birds
which are not usually hunted and climate changes.
Figure 120
Mergus merganser. Photo: S.
Marinkovic
Table 11 presents the number of nesting species in Serbia. All species taken into account,
and not only nesting ones, shows that diversity per regions is somewhat equalized in
relation to the north-south distribution (Vasic, 1995).
145
Table 11. Number of nesting species in different regions in Serbia
Territory All bird species Dry habitat bird
species
Waterfowls
Vojvodina 188 131 57
west Serbia 183 101 82
central Serbia 188 131 57
Carpathian Serbia 174 143 31
Balkan Serbia 153 144 9
south Serbia 189 169 20
South-west Serbia 191 165 26
Mammals
Mammals have specific position and role in functioning of natural ecosystems. There are
94 terrestrial mammal species in Serbia, within 6 orders (Fig 121). They inhabit preferably
deciduous forests, and less open or semi-open habitats. Endemism is not characteristic
for European mammals. However, Martino's snow vole (Dinaromys bogdanovi (Martino,
1922) is an ancient member of the rodent subfamily Arvicolinae, with a small range on
the karstic bedrock of the Western Balkans.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 10
0
T
o
t
a
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I
n
s
e
c
t
i
v
o
r
a
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h
i
r
o
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r
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a
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r
t
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o
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a
R
o
d
e
n
t
i
a
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a
g
o
m
o
r
p
h
a
No. of species
Figure 121
Diversity of mammalian
fauna in Serbia
There are two areas of high diversity: east area of south Banat, Carpathian and Balkan
Serbia and Sumadija, and west area of Backa, Srem and Drina River valley. The lowest
diversity is in north Banat and Sava River valley.
146
Table 12. Distribution of mammalian fauna in Serbia according to regions/provinces
Region Insectivora Chiroptera Carnivora Artiodactylia Rodentia+
Lagomorpha
Total
Backa
Srem
N.Banat
S.Banat
7
7
7
7
7
17
1
6
9
11
7
13
6
5
2
3
21
20
15
22
50
60
32
51
Sava valley
Drina valley
5
9
2
16
7
10
3
3
14
15
31
53
umadija
W.Morava valley
G.Morava valley
7
5
6
15
6
13
6
7
9
2
2
2
21
16
17
52
36
47
Carpathian Serb.
Balkan Serbia
8
7
20
9
15
13
5
3
19
18
67
50
S. Morava valley
Vlasina and Krajite
Toplica and
J ablanica
4
5
5
2
0
3
10
6
9
2
2
2
17
13
14
35
26
33
Raka
Ibar and Kopaonik
Kosovo
Metohija
7
7
7
9
9
2
4
8
12
11
13
12
3
2
3
5
15
14
17
16
46
36
44
50
Table 12 presents distribution of mammals according to more strict biogeographic zoning
of Serbia (Savic et al., 1995). Compiled data on mammalian diversity are presented in
order to present diversity centers in more realistic way.
Certain species are globally or regionally distributed into different categories of
endangered species. Most of them are low risk (LR) and its sub-categories. Main factors
are degradation of natural habitats, overexploitation and pollution of habitats.
147
ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
The term ecosystem denotes the entire assemblage of organisms (a biotic community or
biocoenosis) living together in a certain space (biotope) and interacting with their
environment. Similar ecosystems may be grouped and classified into ecosystem types. In
general, there are two approaches of ecosystem classifications. Habitat-oriented approach
groups ecosystems which are similar with respect to environmental conditions (climate,
hydrology, geology, soil) within their biotopes. On the other hand, community-oriented
approach groups ecosystems which are similar with respect to physiognomy or floristic
(faunistic) composition of biotic communities.
Habitat-oriented classifications of ecosystems are specified by Directive on Wild Birds
(EEC/79/409 directive) and Habitat Directive EEC/92/43. More elaborated classification
system involves CORINE biotopes. EUNIS in Paneuropean classification system of
ecosystems, which is based on climate, soil, water quality, vegetation, physiographic
elements and characteristic or dominant plant and animal species.
Some countries have developed their national classifications of ecosystems in order to
emphasize the both landscape and biological diversity of their territory. Most of national
classification systems are based on the classification of vegetation, since vegetation is
most important structural (and functional) part of ecosystems.
The vegetation of Serbia is extremely diverse. More than 700 associations, up to 500
subassociations may be grouped in higher phytosociological units (242 alliances, 114
orders and 59 vegetational classes). This fact points out in the best way that the territory
of present Serbia is characterized by a high diversity of habitats, and due to that fact, by a
diverse plant communities which single out this region as one of the most significant
European centers of diversity of vegetation and ecosystems. Polydominant forest
vegetation in Serbian (and more generally Balkan) canyons represents a valuable pool of
species diversity. A great heterogeneity of environmental conditions and specific history
of biota in the canyons resulted with complex communities that represent significant
resource of rare and endangered taxa (Karadic et al., 1996, 2001).
The number of species in various types of vegetation on the territory of Serbia has shown
that the deciduous forests (Querco-Fagetea) with 1,498 recorded species and secondary
xero- and xero-mesophilic grasslands (Festuco-Brometea) with 1,194 of species, have the
highest alpha diversity. The lowest number of species has been recorded in a water
environment, within the zone of a floating and submersed vegetation (Lemnetea,
Charetea, Ruppietea maritimae - between 19 and 37 species).
The highest species diversity is recorded in the inland herbaceous xerophytic and
mesophytic ecosystems (2,399 species and subspecies, which make 84 % of the plants of
the complete flora of Serbia). Contrary to this type of ecosystem, within the water
environment only 74 species have been registered, making just 2.59 % of the analyzed
vascular flora of Serbia. Analysis of the changes of the alpha diversity in the ecological
148
gradients has shown that a decrease of habitats temperature provokes the statistically
significant decrease in the number of species (Lakuic, 2005).
Querco - Carpinetum orientalis s. lat. (1)
Dioscoreo - Carpinetum orientalis (1)
Quercetum trojanae s. lat. (3)
Ostryo - Quercetum petraeae s. lat. (16)
Syringo - Carpinetum orientalis (20)
Quercetum frainetto - cerris s. lat. (39)
Quercetum frainetto moesiacum (17)
Quercetum cerris moesiacum s. lat. (46)
Quercetum pedunculiflorae moesiacum (3)
Quercetum pedunculiflorae macedonicum (1)
Aceri tatarici - Quercetum s. lat. (19)
Querco - Tilietum tomentosae (1)
Genisto - Quercetum roboris s. lat. (40)
Leucoio - Fraxinetum angustifolia (2)
Salici - Populetum s. lat. (33)
Querco - Carpinetum s. lat. (44)
Carpino - Quercetum roboris (17)
Fagetum montanum s. lat. (83)
Colurno - Fagetum (16)
Abieti - Fagetum s. lat. (31)
Fagetum subalpinum s. lat. (7)
Quercetum petraeae s. lat. (101)
Luzulo albidae - Fagetum s. lat. (34)
Piceetum excelesae montanum s. lat. (13)
Piceetum excelesae subalpinum s. lat. (10)
Piceetum omorikae s. lat. (5)
Pinetum mugi s. lat. (14)
Pinetum peucis s. lat. (8)
Pinetum heldreichii s. lat. (6)
Reliktna vegetacija klisura ilirske provincije (3)
Reliktna vegetacija klisura mezijske provincije (13)
Thero - Salicornietea (1)
Festuco - Puccinellietea (50)
Festucion rupicolae Aceri tatarici - Quercetum (15)
Oxytropidion dinaricae (2)
Edraiantho - Seslerion (1)
Seslerion comosae (8)
Figure 122
Vegetation heterogeneity in Serbia (source: Stevanovic, Jovanovic and Lakuic, 1995).
149
Table 13. Number of species (alpha diversity) in various vegetation types in Serbia
(source: Lakuic, 2005)
Vegetati on classes
No of
species
%
species
Querco-Fagetea Br.-Bl. et Vilieger 1937 1498 52.49
Festuco-Brometea Br.-Bl. et R. Tx. 1943 1194 41.84
Molinio-Arrhenatheretea R. Tx. 1937 895 31.36
Vaccinio-Piceetea Br.-Bl. 1939 emend. Zupancic 1976 703 24.63
Erico-Pinetea Ht. 1959 683 23.93
Festucetea vaginatae So 1968 emend. Vicherek 1972 681 23.86
Festuco-Seslerietea Barbero et Bonim 1969 673 23.58
Asplenietea trichomanis Br.-Bl. 1934 corr. Oberd. 1977 568 19.90
Artemisietea vulgaris Lohm., Prsg. et R. Tx. 1950 524 18.36
Juncetea trifidi Hadac 1944 441 15.45
Betulo-Adenostyletea Br.-Bl. et R. Tx. 1943 357 12.51
Nardo-Callunetea Preising 1949 333 11.67
Bidentetea tripartitii Tx., Lohm. et Prsg. 1950 327 11.46
Chenopodietea Br.- Bl.1951 em. Lohm. J . et R. Tx.1961 301 10.55
Stellarietea mediae Tx., Lohm. et Prsg. 1950 292 10.23
Epilobietea angustifolii R. Tx. Et Preising 1950 291 10.20
Phragmitetea communis R. Tx. et Preising 1942 290 10.16
Festuco-Puccinellietea So 1968 246 8.62
Plantaginetea majoris Tx. et Prsg. 1950 242 8.48
Scheuchzerio-Caricetea fuscae (Nordhagen 1936) R. Tx. 1937 238 8.34
Alnetea glutinosae Br.-Bl. et R. Tx. 1943 220 7.71
Drypetea spinosae Quezel 1967 211 7.39
Isoeto-Nanojuncetea Br.-Bl. Et Tx. 1943 148 5.19
Agropyretea repentis Oberd., Th. Muller et Gors 1967 148 5.19
Thero-Brachypodietea Br.-Bl. 1947 112 3.92
Paliuretea Trinajstic 1978 85 2.98
Thero-Salicornietea Pignatti 1953 emend. R. Tx. 1955 77 2.70
Thlaspietea rotundifolii Br.-Bl. et al. 1947 72 2.52
Potametea R. Tx. et Preising 1942 66 2.31
Salicetea purpureae Moor 1958 52 1.82
Salicetea herbaceae Br.-Bl. et al .1947 46 1.61
Montio-Cardaminetea Br.-Bl. Et Tx. 1943 40 1.40
Charetea Fukarek 1961 ex Krauch 1964 37 1.30
Lemnetea W. Koch et R. Tx. 1954 36 1.26
Ruppietea maritimae J . Txen 1960 19 0.67
Total 2854 100.00
150
AREAS DESIGNATED FOR NATURE PROTECTION
Total protected areas in Serbia are 6.6% of the countrys territory. There are 5 national
parks, 14 parks of nature, 72 natural reserves, 17 protected landscapes, 43 cultural-
historical landscapes and 312 monuments of nature. The largest share in protected areas
goes to national parks and nature parks, as presented in Figure 123.
Area envisaged for protection
Area in the procedure to be protected Landscape of outstanding qualities
Area in the procedure to be protected National Park
Area in the procedure to be protected Nature Reserve - Special Nature Reserve
Landscape of outstanding qualities
National Park
Nature Park
Nature Reserve - Special Nature Reserve
Area of cultural and historical importance
Natural monument (botanical, geological, hydrological)
Figure 123
Review of designated
areas in Serbia
(source: Institute for
nature conservation
of Serbia)
151
NATURE MONUMENT
NATURE RESERVE
CULTURE-HISTORICAL AREAS
PROTECTED AREAS
NATURE PARKS
NATIONAL PARKS
Figure 124
Structure of protected areas in Serbia
Serbian legislative system for the protection of natural resources is governed by a number
of international conventions, directives and resolutions including bilateral and
multilateral treaties through which countries systematically regulate the protection of
biological and landscape diversity. Serbia ratified:
The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as
Waterfowl Habitat (1971), which it ratified in 1977;
The Convention on Biological Diversity (1992), which it ratified in 2001;
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (1979) (CITES), which it ratified in 2001.
Like in any European country, there are two categories of designation. Internationally
designated areas involve:
Bern Conventions Emerald Network
Ramsar sites and
UNESCO MAB sites.
Nationally designated areas involve:
Natural Monument Wildlife reserve
Natural Monuments and Landmarks
Nature Landscape Reserve
Nature Park
Landscape (of outstanding value) Special Reserve
Internationally acknowledged areas
Ramsar sites are wetlands of international importance designated under the Ramsar
Convention. Initial Ramsar sites in Serbia were designated in 1977. Since then, many
more have been designated (Figure 125).
152
0
5000
10000
15000
20000
25000
30000
1977 1996 2004 2007
total area (ha)
Figure 125
Cumulative area of international
importance wetlands in Serbia
Golija-Studenica MAB (UNESCOs Man and the Biosphere Programme) reserve covers
53 804 hectares. The biosphere reserve includes the Studenica Monastery, which is a
cultural World Heritage site and a popular tourist attraction. In the area, many non-
governmental organizations are interested in the protection of the natural environment
and in the implementation of sustainable development principles. With the establishment
of a biosphere reserve, these organizations will be able to carry out their programmes and
contribute to the functions of the Golija-Studenica Biosphere Reserve, based on a rich
history of scientific research and observations.
Emerald Network sites
The Emerald Network is a network of areas of special conservation interest (ASCIs),
which is to be established in the territory of the contracting parties and observer states to
the Bern Convention, including, among others, Central and Eastern European countries
and the EU Member States. For EU Member States, Emerald Network sites are those of
the Natura 2000 network. The Natura 2000 is a network of protected areas under the EU
Habitat and Bird Directives. The network consists of Special Protection Areas (SPAs) and
Sites of Community Interest (SCIs). Emerald network of Areas of Special Conservation
Interest ASCI are designated by countries observers of Bern Convention, which is still
not ratified in Serbia. A pilot project which is aimed at preparation of Emerald network of
ASCIs started in 2005. Six ASCIs have been designated initially (Kopaonik NP, Obedska
bara, Gornje podunavlje, Deliblatska pecara SNRs, Prokletije Mt. and Vlasina Lake).
However, potential Emerald ASCIs in Serbia cover more than 60 sites.
Prime Butterfly Areas (PBA)
Prime Butterfly Areas are an initial selection of important butterfly areas in Europe,
focussing on target species that are conservation priorities across a large and diverse
region. Protection and proper management of these areas will help to conserve not only
these target species, but also the many other characteristic butterflies they contain. There
are 13 PBA in Serbia.
153
Important Bird Areas (IBA)
BirdLife International provided data on IBAs. A site is recognized as an IBA only if it
meets certain criteria, based on the occurrence of key bird species that are vulnerable to
global extinction or whose populations are otherwise irreplaceable. An IBA must be
amenable to conservation action and management. The IBA criteria are internationally
agreed, standardized, quantitative and scientifically defensible. Ideally, each IBA should
be large enough to support self-sustaining populations of as many as possible of the key
bird species for which it was identified or, in the case of migrants, fulfil their
requirements for the duration of their presence. By definition, an IBA is an internationally
agreed priority for conservation action. According to the Bird Life International criteria,
there are 35 Important Bird Areas (IBA) in Serbia.
Important Plant Areas (IPA)
IPAs are natural or semi-natural sites exhibiting exceptional botanical richness and/or
supporting an outstanding assemblage of rare, threatened and/or endemic plant species
and/or vegetation of high botanical value. The mapping of IPAs in Serbia is still in
preparation. Initial assessments indicated that 222 potential IPAs and 12 cross border
IPA sites may be delimited within Serbia (Boteva et al., 2004). At the moment, there are
59 IPAs in Serbia (Stevanovic, 2005).
Figure 126
Chlidonias hybridus. Photo: S.
Marinkovic.
Nationally acknowledged areas
According to existing legislative, there are 12 categories of nationally designed areas. The
National Assembly establishes national parks. The Government proclaims nature reserves
and other protected areas of national importance. Local authorities (municipalities) may
decide on protected areas of local importance. The Institute for the Protection of Nature
prepares the documents necessary for the establishment of protected areas. Five national
parks are the most important nationally designed areas in Serbia (Table 14, Fig 124).
154
Table 14. National parks in Serbia
Nati onal park Area (ha)
Djerdap 64 000
Tara 19 200
Kopaonik 12 000
Fruka Gora 25 400
ar planina 39 000
Djerdap National Park is situated in the northeast and borders Romania. It is
characterized by the Danube canyon and the huge Djerdap gorge. Vegetation consists of
about 60 forest and shrub community types that provide habitats. The Djerdap National
Park stretches along the right bank of the Danube River from Golubacki grad to the dam
near Sip.
Fruska Gora is a 539 m high mountain in northern Serbia, with 90% of it forested. About
1100 plant species have been identified, 12% of which are relict or endemic. In addition to
200 bird species, wildcat, badger, marten, dormouse, bat and other species can be found.
Kopaonik National Park is situated in the central part of Serbia, on the highest parts of
Mount Kopaonik. Due to altitude and climate zone differences, the area is characterized
by a rich biodiversity, especially of endemic and rare species. Beside biodiversity, its main
feature is a very attractive landscape. National Park Kopaonik was founded and
proclaimed in 1981. It covers an area of 11.800 ha, and has a protecting belt of 19.986 ha.
The wildlife refuges that are under special protection cover 689 ha. The park is placed on
the highest parts of the mountain. The base of the park represents mountainous,
relatively levelled region of the medium height above sea - level about 1700 m. The
upermost point is Pancicev Vrh (Pancic Peak) (2017 m a. s. l.).
Mount Shara National Park is in the very south of Serbia, where 20 endemic species are to
be found. Beside diverse vegetation, many animals live there, among them lynx, bear,
eagle and the griffon vulture. The ar Planina National Park is in the territory of the
Autonomous Province of Kosovo and Metohija. It spreads on 380 square kilometres, on
the northern slopes of the ar Mt. What this national park boasts in particular are the
endemic pine relict species Pinus heldreichii H.Christ and Pinus peuce Griseb.
Tara National Park comprises a mountain chain intersected by river valleys and crags. Its
peculiarity is endemic and relict spruce (Picea omorica). Forests, pastures, peat sites and
riverbank vegetation serve as habitats to many animal species and are the main features
of the attractive landscape. Tara National Park was established in 1981 and it encompasses
Tara and Zvijezda mountains, in vicinity of the Drina River. The park covers
approximately 220 square kilometers with altitudes varying from 250 to 1,500 meters
a.s.l. Habitats with endemic and stenotopic Serbian spruce are important.
Serbias current spatial plan provides some guidelines for natural heritage protection,
including: (1) the enlargement of current protected areas up to 10% by 2010; (2) the
development of protection regimes for protected areas; (3) regional priority areas for
protection; and (4) new Ramsar sites.
155
ENDANGERED AND PROTECTED SPECIES
Decree on protection of natural rarities has been enacted in 1993 in Serbia, aiming to
protect and enhance biodiversity and gene fund. Decree comprises 215 plant and 427
animal species. Also, Decree on putting under control trade and collection of wild flora
and fauna has been enacted.
Majority of endangered species (IUCN List) are part of the Decree, as presented in Fig.
127. It is necessary to include globally endangered species into international mechanisms
of protection.
There are significant differences between lists of nationally and globally endangered
species, as it is in Serbia, as well. Large number of animal species which are extinct,
endangered or vulnerable according to national experts (SRB), are not on global lists
(Figure 10). Even more drastic example is in Red Data Book of Flora in Serbia, where 171
species and subspecies are classified as extinct (EX, EX-Srb) and critically endangered
taxa (CR, CR-Srb), while on IUCN list only one species is listed as extinct.
Figure 127
Globally endangered
species protected at the
national level (Decree on
protection of natural
rarities)
Having in mind significance and specificities of Balkan and Serbian flora and fauna, it is
necessary to expand IUCN list of endangered species with Balkan endemics, above all
(Figure 128).
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Mammals (5/6)
Birds (10/1)
Reptiles (2/1)
Fish (4/8)
Insects (5/3)
% of IUCN threatened species protected at national level
% of IUCN threatened species not included in protection at national level
No of species
156
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
M
a
m
m
a
l
s
B
i
r
d
s
R
e
p
t
i
l
e
s
A
m
p
h
i
b
i
a
n
s
F
i
s
h
I
n
s
e
c
t
s
*
Number species IUCN SRB
Figure 128
Total number of species per
classes and number of
threatened species by IUCN
and SRB
* The data on Insects are not
representative because of
insufficient research of this
class
157
PROGRAMS OF BIODIVERSITY MONITORING
The largest number of biodiversity monitoring projects is related to endangered bird
populations (Gyps fulvus, Otis tarda, Coracias garrulous, Falco cherrug, Aquila heliaca,
Phalacrocorax pygmaeus). There are also monitoring programs of Testudo hermanni,
Rana synklepton esculenta, Cerambycidae, Syrphidae and Pyrgomorphulla serbica.
Figure 129
Gyps fulvus. Protection
measures and construction of
feeding spots increased the
number of nesting pairs in
Serbia. Photo: S. Marinkovic.
Monitoring programs are focused not only on rare and endangered species, but also on
alien invasive species, that are introduced deliberately or unintentionally outside their
natural habitats where they have the ability to establish themselves, invade, outcompete
natives and take over the new environments. Plants, mammals and insects comprise the
most common types of invasive alien species in terrestrial environments.
(www.biodiv.org/programmes/cross-cutting/alien/default.asp).
The Western Corn Rootworm, Diabrotica virgifera Le Conte, (Coleoptera:
Chrysomelidae), was introduced in the 1990s into Serbia (Yugoslavia). This is an
important pest of maize occurring in North America, whose soil-inhabiting larvae can
seriously damage roots of maize (Zea mays) and lead to yield losses. D. virgifera was first
detected in July 1992 in the locality of Surcin near the Belgrade International Airport. The
origin of this introduction remains unknown (European and Mediterranean Plant
Protection Organization (EPPO), www.eppo.org).
The pest multiplied and spread during 1993 and 1994. The main direction of spread was
towards the north-west. In general, the main movement of the populations follows the
prevailing winds. Monitoring of the pest populations has continued in 1995, by visual
inspections and use of cucurbitacin traps.
158
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
Figure 130
Dynamics of the spread of Diabrotica
virgifera Le Conte in Serbia From Camrag,
1995
159
REINTRODUCTION PROGRAMS AND EX SITU
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Reintroduction is rather efficient way for protection of species in their natural habitats.
Directorate for environmental protection initiated several (very successful) reintroduction
projects.
The data from paleontological and archaeological excavations show the continual
presence of European beaver (Castor fiber L. 1758) in Serbia, from Pleistocene through
prehistory to its complete extinction from this area at the beginning of the 20th century.
During the first half of the 19th century beaver was relatively widely spread along the river
beds and swamp areas along our big rivers (the Danube, Sava, Morava). The project of
European beaver reintroduction in Serbia has been realized in association with Ministry
of Science and Environmental Protection - Directorate for Environmental Protection,
Biology Faculty in Belgrade, the Association from Bavaria and SNR Zasavica. Several
beaver families were reintroduced in Obedska swamp and Zasavica special nature reserve.
Figure 131
Beaver (Castor fiber
L.). Photo: S.
Marinkovic
Micropropagation and reintroduction of Nepeta rtanjensis Diklic & Milojevic, an endemic
and critically endangered perennial of Serbia is successful ongoing project that is financed
by the Ministry of Science and Environmental Protection - Directorate for Environmental
Protection. This species was recorded for the first time in 1974 in the territory of Serbia,
in the locality Greda on the southern slopes of Mt Rtanj (eastern Serbia). During the field
investigations in 1996, the species was found on southeastern slopes of Mt Rtanj as well,
in the locality Javor. By its restricted distribution the plant is stenoendemite (local
endemic species) of Serbia. At the same time it is the relict one being geographically
isolated in relation to the other species of the same Nepeta sibthorpii - complex..N.
160
rtanjensis is aromatic, potentially medicinal plant, protected by law in Serbia as local
endemic species of international importance (Diklic,1999).
Figure 132
Nepeta rtanjensis Diklic &
Milojevic, rare and
endemic species. Photo D.
Miic
161
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CIP Kafanorusauuja y nynukauuju
Hapopua unuofeka Cpuje, Eeorpap
502/504(497.11)(082)
ENVIRONMENT in Serbia : an
indicator based review / authors Dedijer
A. [Ana] [et al.] ; editors Karadic
B. [Branko] ... [et al.]. Beograd :
Ministarstvo nauke i zatite ivotne sredine
Republike Srbije, 2007 (Beograd : Graficki
centar). [III] , 154 str. : ilustr. ; 30
cm
Tira 2.000. Str. [III]: Preface / Branko
Karadic. Bibliografija: str. 149-154.
ISBN 978-86-84163-34-1
1. Dedijer, Ana 2. Karadic, Branko
a) Xueofua cpepuua - Cpuja - 3opuuuu
COBISS.SR ID 139727884