This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op amps). It begins by defining an op amp as a differential amplifier with very high voltage gain, usually realized as an integrated circuit. It then describes the ideal op amp model and its key characteristics like infinite input impedance and gain. The document outlines the summing point constraint used to analyze op amp circuits. It provides examples of common op amp circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and differential amplifiers. It also discusses op amp design considerations. Finally, it examines non-ideal characteristics of real op amps like finite gain and bandwidth, input/output impedance, slew rate limitations, and DC offsets.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op amps). It begins by defining an op amp as a differential amplifier with very high voltage gain, usually realized as an integrated circuit. It then describes the ideal op amp model and its key characteristics like infinite input impedance and gain. The document outlines the summing point constraint used to analyze op amp circuits. It provides examples of common op amp circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and differential amplifiers. It also discusses op amp design considerations. Finally, it examines non-ideal characteristics of real op amps like finite gain and bandwidth, input/output impedance, slew rate limitations, and DC offsets.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op amps). It begins by defining an op amp as a differential amplifier with very high voltage gain, usually realized as an integrated circuit. It then describes the ideal op amp model and its key characteristics like infinite input impedance and gain. The document outlines the summing point constraint used to analyze op amp circuits. It provides examples of common op amp circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and differential amplifiers. It also discusses op amp design considerations. Finally, it examines non-ideal characteristics of real op amps like finite gain and bandwidth, input/output impedance, slew rate limitations, and DC offsets.
This document provides an overview of operational amplifiers (op amps). It begins by defining an op amp as a differential amplifier with very high voltage gain, usually realized as an integrated circuit. It then describes the ideal op amp model and its key characteristics like infinite input impedance and gain. The document outlines the summing point constraint used to analyze op amp circuits. It provides examples of common op amp circuits like inverting amplifiers, non-inverting amplifiers, and differential amplifiers. It also discusses op amp design considerations. Finally, it examines non-ideal characteristics of real op amps like finite gain and bandwidth, input/output impedance, slew rate limitations, and DC offsets.
Operational amplifier: A differential amplifier with very high voltage gain. Usually realized as integrated circuit.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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2.1 The Ideal Operational Amplifier
Ideal operational amplifier: Infinite input impedance. Infinite open loop gain AOL for differential signal. Zero gain for the common - mode signal. Zero output impedance. Infinite bandwidth.
Figure 2.2 Equivalent circuit for the ideal op amp. AOL is very large (approaching infinity).
Common-mode input signal
vicm =
1 ( v 1 + v2 ) 2
Differential input signal
vid = v1 v2
2. Operational Amplifiers
Figure 2.3 Op-amp symbol showing power supplies.
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2.2 The Summing-Point Constraint
Operational amplifiers are almost always used with negative feedback, in which part of the opamp output signal is returned to the input in opposition to the source signal. Ideal op-amp circuits are analyzed by the following steps: 1. Verify that the negative feedback is present. Usually this takes the form of a resistor network connected to the output terminal and to the inverting input terminal. 2. Assume that the differential input voltage and the input current of the op amp are forced to zero. (This is summing - point constraint.) 3. Apply standard circuit analysis principles, such as Kirchhoffs laws and Ohms law, to solve for the quantities of interest.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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2.3 The Inverting Amplifier
v i1 = in R1 i2 = i1
Figure 2.4 Inverting amplifier.
(2.1) (2.2)
v i2 = in R1
(2.3)
vo + R2i2 = 0
(2.4)
Av =
vo R = 2 vin R1
Z in =
vin = R1 i1
(2.5) (2.6)
R2 (2.7) vi R1 vo is independent of the load resistance RL. Thus the output acts as ideal voltage source and output impedance is 0. vo =
Figure 2.5 We make use of the summing-point constraint in
the analysis of the inverting amplifier.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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The Virtual-Short-Circuit Concept
The voltage between both inputs of the Op
Amps is forced to be 0. There is no short circuit between both inputs because the current is also 0.
Figure 2.5 We make use of the summing-point constraint in
the analysis of the inverting amplifier.
2. Operational Amplifiers
The circuit between both inputs is called
virtual-short-circuit: v = 0; i = 0.
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Exercise 2.1. Summing Amplifier
A circuit known as a summing amplifier is illustrated in Figure 2.7. (a) Use the ideal-op-amp assumption to solve for the output voltage in terms of the input voltages and resistor values. (b) What is the input resistance seen by vA? (c) By vB? (d) What is the output resistance seen by RL?
+ -
iB
vA + -
vB
RB
v=0
iB =
vB RB
i f = i A + iB =
v A vB + RA RB
Rf Rf
vo = i f R f = v A + vB RB RA
if
RA
iA
Solution: v iA = A RA
Rf
Input impedance seen by vA: RA
+
vo -
RL
Input impedance seen by vB: RB
vo doesnt depend on RL, thus the output impedance is 0.
Figure 2.7 Summing amplifier.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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Exercise 2.3. Find an expression for the output voltage of the circuit, shown in Figure 2.9.
vo1
Figure 2.9 Circuit of Exercise 2.3.
The second Op Amp is connected as summing
amplifier
Solution: The first Op Amp is connected as an inverting amplifier. Thus
The high gain increases the input voltage vi, this
increases further the output voltage and so on. Very soon the output voltage reaches the supply voltage, the amplifier enters in switching mode of operation and doesnt function any more as amplifier.
Figure 2.10 Schmitt trigger circuit.
The current equation at the noninverting input is
vi vin vi vo + =0 R R vi =
1 (vin + vo ) = 1 (vin + AOL vi ) 2 2
2. Operational Amplifiers
(2.18)
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2.4 The Noniverting Amplifier
The Voltage Follower Av = 1 when R2 = 0 and/or R1 = . The circuit is called voltage follower.
Figure 2.11 Noninverting amplifier.
Since vi = 0
v1 = vin
R1 v1 = vo R1 + R2 v R Av = o = 1 + 2 vin R1
(2.19) Figure 2.12 Voltage follower.
(2.20) (2.21)
Since ii = 0, Ri = . Since vo doesnt depend on RL; Ro = 0. 2. Operational Amplifiers
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Exercise 2.5. Differential amplifier.
Find an expression for the output voltage in in terms of the resistance and input voltages for the differential amplifier shown in Figure 2.14. i1 i1 + -
v1
+ -
v2
R1
v-
R1
v+
R2
R2
vo
RL
Figure 2.14 Differential amplifier.
Solution:
i1 =
v1 vo R1 + R2
Since Op Amp input voltage is 0, v- = v+ and
v1
v1 vo R1 R1 + R2 From voltage divider principle R2 v + = v2 R1 + R2
v1 vo R2 R1 = v2 R1 + R2 R1 + R2
v = v1 i1 R1 = v1
2. Operational Amplifiers
vo =
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2.5 Design of Simple Amplifiers
Amplifier Design Using Op Amp Example 2.1 Noniverting Amplifier Design Design a noninverting amplifier that has a voltage gain of 10 using an ideal op amp. The input signal lie in the range from -1 V to 1 V. Use 5 % tolerance discrete resistors for the feedback network.
Figure 2.20 If low-value resistors are used, an impractically large
current is required.
Solution: R Av = 10 = 1 + 2 R1 From the formula follows that only the ratio R2/R1 is important to achieve the desired gain. The values of R2 and R1 are restricted from additional practical considerations and must be in the range 100 .. 1M. 2. Operational Amplifiers
Figure 2.21 If very high value resistors are used, stray
capacitance can couple unwanted signals into the circuit
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Example 2.2 Amplifier Design
Suppose that we need an amplifier with input resistance of 500 k or greater and a voltage gain of -10. The feedback resistors are to be implemented in integrated form and have values of 10 k or less to conserve chip area. Choose a suitable circuit configuration and specify the resistance values. Finally, estimate the resistor tolerance needed so that the gain magnitude maintained within 5 % of its nominal values.
These values exceed the maximum values
allowed. A voltage follower at the input must be added as a buffer amplifier. Values for R1 and R2: R1 = 1k; R2 = 10k. Resistor tolerances: not more than 2.5%; practically 1%.
Solution: To attain desired input resistance R1 = 500 k The formula for the gain is R Av = 2 R1
Figure 2.22 To attain large input resistance with moderate
resistances for an inverting amplifier, we cascade a voltage follower with an inverter.
2.6 Op-amp Imperfections in the Linear Range of Operation
The nonideal characteristics of real op amps fall
into three categories:
Input Impedance and Output Impedance
1. Nonideal properties in the linear range of
operation.
BJT input stage: > 100k, typically few M;
FET input stage: ~1012
2. Nonlinear characteristics.
Output impedance: ~100 or less.
3. DC offsets.
If the gain the Op Amp is high, the influence of
the input and output impedance is small.
2. Operational Amplifiers
Input impedance
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Gain and Bandwidth Limitations
When the Op Amp is included in a feedback loop
in order to realise a finite gain amplifier, the bandwidth of the finite gain amplifier is extended proportionally to the feedback.
Figure 2.25 Bode plot of open-loop gain for a typical op amp.
AOL ( f ) =
A0OL 1 + j( f / f BOL )
(2.24) Figure 2.27 Bode plots.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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Some Popular Op Amps
Table 2.4 Typical specifications for two popular Op Amps Type A0OL Ft SR Input resistance Output resistance Voff IB Ioff
2. Operational Amplifiers
LM741 2105 1.5MHz 0.5V/s 2M 50 1mV 80nA 20nA
LF411 2105 4.0MHz 15V/s 1012 50 0.8mV 50pA 25pA
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2.7 Large Signal Operation
Output Voltage Swing
Output Current Limits
The maximum that an Op Amp can supply to a load is restricted. For A741 this limitation is 25mA. If a small-value load resistance drew a current outside this limits, the output waveforme would become clipped.
Figure 2.28 For a real op amp, clipping occurs if the output
voltage reaches certain limits.
For A741: If the supply voltages are +15V and
15V the amplitude of the output voltage without clipping is 14V typically (guaranteed is 12V). 2. Operational Amplifiers
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Slew-Rate Limitations
Slew-rate: the speed of the change of the output
voltage. Maximum slew rate SR is limited for every Op Amp.
dvo SR dt
(2.45)
Figure 2.31 An example of the effect of the slew-rate limitation
on the output wave-shape in a certain finite gain amplifier, realized with Op Amp. 4vs(t) is the expected output wave shape based on the voltage gain. vo(t) is the real output wave-shape, distorted due to the limited slew rate of the Op Amp.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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2.8 DC Imperfections Dc currents flow into Op Amp inputs (they are the base currents of the input transistors). Two input currents: IB+ and IB-. Their average is called bias current IB
IB =
I B+ + I B 2
(2.47)
The difference between IB+ and IB- is called
offset current Ioff
I off = I B + I B
Figure 2.33 Current sources and a voltage source model the
dc imperfections of an op amp.
2. Operational Amplifiers
(2.48)
Output voltage may not be zero for zero input
voltage. The Op Amp behaves as if a small dc source known as offset voltage Voff is in series with one of the input terminals.
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2.11 Integrators and Differentiators
v (t ) iin ( t ) = in R
1t vc ( t ) = iin ( x )dx C0
(2.50)
(2.51)
vo ( t ) = vc ( t )
(2.52)
1 t vo ( t ) = vin ( x )dx RC 0
(2.53)
Figure 2.60 Integrator.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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Differentiators Circuit vo ( t ) = RC
dvin dt
(13)
Figure 2.18 Differentiator.
2. Operational Amplifiers
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Operations on the Input signals, Which Can Be Realized With Op Amps
Linear operations: Multiplication with a constant (amplification); Summation Subtracting Differentiation Integration Other nonlinear operations are also possible.
