Working Paper

Code-switching:
Insights and Strategies for teaching Standard English
in dialectally diverse classrooms
Rebecca S. Wheeler
Christopher Newport University
Newport News, VA 23606
rwheeler@cnu.edu
http://www.ncte.org/profdev/onsite/consultants/wheeler
Overview:
When African American students write I have two sister and two brother, Dad jeep out of
gas, or My mom deserve a good man, teachers traditionally diagnose poor English,
finding that the students are having problems, or making errors with plurality,
possession, or verb agreement, etc. In response, the teacher corrects the childs writing,
showing them the right way to convey these grammatical points. However, research
and longstanding student performance have demonstrated that the traditional correction
methods fail to teach African American students the requisite Standard English skills.
Linguistic research offers an explanation and a solution. When traditional approaches
assess student language as error-filled, they misdiagnose student writing performance:
students using vernacular language (My goldfish name is Scaley, etc.) are not making
errors in Standard English -- they are following the grammar patterns of the home
dialect.
Linguistics offers a two-pronged solution: Contrastive analysis and code-switching, tools
demonstrably successful in fostering Standard English mastery among minority dialect
speakers (Fogel & Ehri 2000, 2006; Rickford 1999; Rickford, Sweetland & Rickford
2004; Sweetland 2006; Taylor 1991; Wheeler & Swords, 2004, 2006). In contrastive
analysis, the teacher draws upon the linguistic insights that all language is patterned and
that dialects systematically contrast with each other. Accordingly, she/he leads students to
contrast the grammatical patterns of home speech to the grammatical patterns of school
speech, and so make the language contrasts explicit and conscious to the child. As the
child then learns to code-switch between the language of the home and the language of
the school, we add another linguistic code, Standard English, to the childs linguistic
toolbox.
This paper documents and illustrates how and why traditional English techniques missassess African American students' writing performance. It then a) details a linguisticallyinformed approach to fostering Standard English mastery in African American
classrooms -- contrastive analysis (CA) and code-switching (CS), b) identifies key
contrasts between the traditional and the code-switching classroom and c) includes a
transcript of one urban educator using contrastive analysis to teach Standard English

possessive forms. The paper then sketches a range of scenarios, suggesting how codeswitching positively transforms the dialectally diverse classroom. It concludes by
reporting NCLB results from classrooms using code-switching. An appendix of graphic
organizers and lesson plans for code-switching is included.
In short, this paper seeks to answer three questions regarding teaching Standard English
in African American classrooms:
1) Why do traditional English techniques fail to teach Standard English with African
American students?
2) What approach works and why?
3) How does English instruction in the code-switching classroom differ from English
instruction in the traditional classroom?
That is, what do contrastive analysis and code-switching look like in the public school
classroom?
Traditional assessment of African American grammar: Error in Standard English
Many African American students arrive at school speaking and writing in a dialect that
differs from the Standard English expected by the school and NCLB tests. For example,
students home speech grammar patterns for plural (It takes 24 hour; 365 day ) or subjectverb agreement (Waning mean to get smaller; Waxing mean to get biger) may transfer into
school writing (Figure 1).

Poss./
plural
s-v agree
s-v agree
s-v agree
plural
s-v agree
plural

Figure 1: 3rd grade writing: Student follows AAE grammar for possessive, plural, and
subject-verb agreement.

Similarly, home speech patterns for plurality (do educational thing) or possessive (Joni exboyfriend, Joni birthday party, Ms. Parker permission) or be-understood (Since there no
television) also transfer into the writing of secondary students as seen in this 2006 year-end
NCLB test of writing (Figure 2).
*double neg.
*be
understood
*plurality
*double neg.
*possessive

*it v. there

*possessive
Figure 2. 8th grade NCLB year-end writing test. Student follows various AAE grammar patterns.
Traditional response to vernacular grammar: Correction
Following traditional strategies, teachers correct what they believe to be errors in
students grammar, showing them the right, proper way to convey these grammatical
points. (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Teacher corrects 8th grade student writing

Teachers correct student writing from the earliest elementary grades through the early
years of college (Taylor 1991), with AAE grammar patterns continuing to transfer into
student writing. See Figure 4 for student writing indicating transfer of AAE possessive
features from elementary through community college levels, from New York, to Virginia
and New Orleans.

Elementary
I went to my cousin house.
And we have sweets on the weekend at my mom house.
Sometimes I go to my little God brother house
If my mom old Jeep is low on gas we can drive the new car around.
The dog name was bear. The rabbit name was Tina.
When they were married Coretta Scott last name was King.
Christopher family moved to Purgal.
Middle School
Think about someone use of pictures.
You was going to say that boy name.
If I played on Derick team
I cant understand my little sister work.
Community College
Ellen Goodman essay tell because all about violence.
Ms Goodman theory of adding the consequences may help future generation, but not
today generation.
Today generation has already brainwashed with violence
There is a link between violence on TVs and violence in children behavior.
it is not the parents or children fault
Figure 4: Transfer of AAE possessive features into student writing from elementary
through community college.
It comes as no surprise to linguists that traditional correction techniques fail to teach
Standard English to minority dialect speakers: Nearly 10 years ago, key dialectologists
were clear that while various strategies can be useful for learning Standard English
equivalents... [o]ne that does not work is correcting vernacular features (Wolfram, Adger
and Christian, 1999).
Traditional English techniques misdiagnose African American grammar
Linguistics correctly assesses African American student grammar performance
In response to the failure of traditional correction techniques, linguistics offers an
explanation and a solution.
An explanation: Traditional English language arts misdiagnose African American student
writing performance. Thus, students employing vernacular features in their writing
(Waxing mean to get smaller; It take 365 day; You can do educational thing; Without
Mrs. Parker permission) are not making mistakes in Standard English; Instead, they are
hitting a different target, the grammar patterns of Everyday English, the language of
nurture (Wolfram, 1969; Labov 1972; Green, 2002). More technically, the students are
using the grammatical features of African American English (AAE), a variety spoken by

many (but not all and not only) African Americans (Rickford & Rickford 2000).This
distinction is crucial to the school classroom.
Contrastive Analysis and Code-Switching: Linguistically-informed, research-based
approach to teaching Standard English in minority dialect classrooms
A solution: Based on accurate assessment of students grammar performance and
grammar needs, linguistics offers a two-pronged solution to teaching Standard English:
Contrastive analysis (CA) and code-switching (CS).
In contrastive analysis, the teacher draws upon the linguistic insights that all language is
patterned, systematic and rule-governed and that dialects systematically contrast with
each other. Through contrastive analysis, a well-established method from second
language and second dialect acquisition (Lado 1957; Odlin 1990), the teacher leads
students to contrast the grammatical patterns of home speech to the grammatical patterns
of school speech, and so make the language contrasts explicit and conscious to the child.
Then, the child learns to code-switch between the language of the home and the language
of the school as appropriate to the time, place, audience and purpose. CA and CS build on
students existing knowledge (knowledge of the home speech grammar) to add new
knowledge (knowledge of Standard English equivalents). This approach applies
Marzanos #1 most successful teaching strategy comparison & contrast to the
teaching of Standard English in African American classrooms (Marzano et al 2001).
Code-switching response an additive, bi-dialectal approach, seeking to add another
linguistic code, Standard English, to the childs linguistic toolbox.
Key traits of the code-switching classroom:
The code-switching classroom differs from traditional English classroom in three key
ways: The Traditional classroom operates under a deficit model of language varieties,
seeking to eliminate or subtract student vernacular language, assuring Standard monodialectalism among the students. The code-switching classroom operates under a
linguistically informed, difference model of language varieties, seeking to add Standard
English to students existing linguistic repertoire, assuring bi- or multi-dialectalism for all
students.
Traditional Classroom

Code-switching Classroom

Deficit model

Difference model

Subtractive
(Subtract community dialect
from students repertoire)
Mono-dialectal
(Standard English only)

Additive
(Add Standard English
to students repertoire)
Multi-dialectal
(Community English + Standard English)

These contrasts are manifest in how teachers talk about, perceive, assess, and respond to
students who speak vernacular varieties (see Table 1).

The red-pen,
Correctionist approach

Code-switching,
Contrastive approach

Teachers and students see language as

proper or improper
good or bad

Teachers and students see language as

appropriate or inappropriate
effective or ineffective
in a setting (according to the time,
place, audience, and communicative
purpose)

Grammar as
right or wrong
correct or incorrect

Grammar
follows a pattern
varies by setting

The student
makes mistakes, errors

The student
is following the patterns of home
speech/informal English
is using a grammatical pattern different
than formal English

is having a problem with plurals,

possessives, tense etc.
left off an s, -s, -ed
The student
should have, is supposed to, needs to
correct

The student
May code-switch
(choose the language pattern to fit the
setting)

Teachers
correct the language

Teachers
help students translate, change, codeswitch from one variety to another

repress, seek to eliminate vernacular

Add Standard English to students
grammar
existing language repertoires
Table 1: Modified from Wheeler & Swords (2006), p. 57.
Close-up in the code-switching classroom
This section shows what contrastive analysis and code-switching look like in the public
school classroom. This approach is currently being used in three school systems in South
Eastern Virginia. As exemplar, I describe the work of Rachel Swords, my collaborator
and co-author who teaches code-switching in her 2nd and 3rd grade urban school (78.9%
African American and 69% economically disadvantaged) in Tidewater, Virginia.

By November of any given year, after Swords has engaged her students in the core steps
of the writing process, she turns to code-switching. First she introduces the basic notion
of variation: we all vary our self-presentation, situation by situation. Using a tree map
from the schools Thinking Map she leads children to give examples of formal/informal
places/clothing/behavior, to compare and contrast what makes a place or item of clothing
etc. formal, and what makes it informal (see Figure 5).
Places
Informal
home, neighborhood
street with friends
mall

Formal
jobs
school
church

Figure 5: Classroom chart categorizing formal v. informal places

Swords then makes the link to language, talking about how she switches her language to
suit the setting. She tells children, at home I might say, Im fixin to go the store yall
need anything? However, she wouldnt ask fellow Virginia teachers, Im fixin to
make copies yall need any? but instead, Im going to make some copies, do you
need any? Rachel talked to the students about how she changes her language setting by
setting and told them that when she makes these language choices, she is code-switching.
Swords invites the children to explore how their language might differ between formal
and informal situations. The students explained that yes, sir and excuse me were
formal and that yo, wuz up? and he ain nobody were more informal (see Figure 6).

Figure 6: 3rd grade student explores formal and informal language

On one occasion, the class thought back on an exchange between two students. One
student had excitedly exclaimed, Yo, Mz. Swords! Dat junk be tight! A second student
challenged that language choice: McKinzie! You ain sposed ta talk t Mrs. Swords dat
way. Oh, ok. Ms. Swords. Dat stuff be cool! Clearly, students had come to school
already having a good grasp of language style (the variation language shows in levels of
formality) within their own variety, in this instance AAE. In this way, students used their
own prior knowledge to define formal and informal language.
Swords then applies students understanding of change and variation to the grammar of
sentences. Using chart paper, she creates two columns of sentences drawn from her
students own writing, the left in vernacular English (Taylor cat is black), the style
many students speak, and the right in Standard American English (Taylors cat is black)
(see Figure 7).

Figure 7. Code-switching chart for Formal/Informal possessive patterns from Rachel

Swords 2nd grade classroom, Spring 2007
Swords then leads the class to discover the grammar rules for home speech and school
speech. To do, she employs the scientific method (collect data, examine data, seek
pattern, describe pattern, test description of pattern, revise as necessary) to lead students
in inductive grammar discovery. In this way, we apply Marzanos #1 successful
instructional strategy comparison and contrast to grammar itself (Marzano et al,
2001). The following transcript is excerpted from the first possessive lesson with
Swords 2nd graders in spring, 2007.
9

Transcript: Discovering Informal/Formal Possessive Patterns in Rachel Swords

2nd grade classroom, spring, 2007.
(Swords and class had previously reviewed the meaning of possessive: possession
means someone owns something)
Teacher: Here are some patterns that I came up with, or some sentences I have,
showing the patterns that are possessive, using informal English and formal
English.
Discovering the possessive pattern for informal English
Teacher: Im just going to read through the (informal) sentences:
Taylor cat is black, the boy coat is torn, (Swords reads each informal
sentence in turn).
Lets just look at the informal side. How do you know the cat belongs to Taylor?
(pause) It says Taylor cat is black
Children: It doesnt have an apostrophe s.
Teacher: I dont want to know what it doesnt have I want you to tell me how
we know that the cat and Taylor go together.
Student: The word cat next to Taylor.
Teacher: Right! So Iona said we know that the cat belongs to Taylor because it
says Taylor cat; its right next to it, isnt it?
So, the pattern for informal possessives is [the owner + whatever it is they own].
Do you think that might be the pattern?
Children: yes
Teacher: The owner and what they own? Taylor is the owner and the cat is
what she owns? (Swords checks the pattern against each sentence in the chart)
Children: yes
Teacher: The boy coat is torn: is the boy the owner and the coat what he
owns?
Teacher: So, the pattern could be, owner plus what is owned?

10

Children: yes
(Teacher writes the informal possessive pattern: [owner + what is owned] under
the informal English column)
Discovering the possessive pattern for Formal English
Teacher: Lets see if the pattern is the same for formal English. (Teacher reads
each sentence under the Formal column).
Taylors cat is black
The boys coat is torn
A giraffes neck is long
Did you see the teachers pen?
Teacher: What changed?
Children: (Hands up, children voicing answers. Not audible.)
Teacher: shhh quiet hands if you saw what changed.
Teacher: Tyree, did anything change when we got to that (formal) side?
Taylor Cat Cuz over here (informal) we have Taylor cat is black, and
(here, formal), Taylors cat is black. And I used different colors to show you the
part I really want you to pay attention to. We have Taylor cat and Taylors cat.
Tyree, what changed?
Tyree: You put the s on the second thing.
Teacher: I put there was an s on that one for formal English.
So, what had the s the owner? Or what is owned? What had the s?
Child: the owner.
Teacher: So, we have the owner plus apostrophe s plus what they owned? You
think the rule might be the owner plus apostrophe s plus whatever they own?
Children: yes
Teacher: Lets see Is Taylor the owner?
Children yes
Teacher: Do we have an apostrophe s?
Children: yes.

11

Teacher: Does Taylor own the cat?

Children: yes
Teacher: Oh! It works in that sentence! (Teacher checks the hypothesis with each
sentence in the chart)
Teacher: So, we have owner + s + what is owned.
So, in your school writing, which one of these patterns do you think you need to
use? Owner plus what is owned? Or owner plus s plus what is owned?
Child indicates: Owner + s + owned (see Fig. 8).

Figure 8: Choosing the formal possessive pattern for most school writing
Notable throughout this mini-lesson is the linguistically informed approach to language
varieties. Swords realizes that her students are not making mistakes in Standard English,
not leaving off the apostrophe s; they are successfully following a different grammar
rule for possession: African American English shows possession through adjacency, the
pattern owner + owned. When her students initially speak from the deficit perspective of
dominant language ideology (It doesnt have an s.), Swords challenges and reframes,
asking students to describe not whats missing (as nothing is missing), but instead, to
name the pattern or structure this variety uses to signal possession.
Over the course of the school year, Swords integrates a series of code-switching units
(possessive, plurals, past time, subject verb agreement, is/are, was/were, gonna/wanna) into
12

her writing workshops. Typically, though not always, students are to choose Standard English
in school writing. During the editing process, Swords asks students to check whether their
essay uses the language features they intended. If students chose Formal English for their
paper, they edit to assure that all grammar follows formal patterns. If students chose to build
dialogue using Informal grammar, they edit to assure they met that target. In middle school
and high school, teachers can lead students in more advanced code-switching units (i.e., be
understood, habitual be, a vs. an, seen v. saw).
Research demonstrates this contrastive approach is far more successful in teaching Standard
English than the traditional correction model (for research results, see Fogel & Ehri 2000,
2006; Taylor 1991; Rickford 1999; Rickford, Sweetland & Rickford 2004; Sweetland 2006).
Indeed, according to John Rickford, Martin Luther King Jr. Centennial Professor at Stanford
University, Teaching methods which DO take vernacular dialects into account in teaching
the standard work better than those which DO NOT(Rickford 1996).

Code-switching scenarios in the classroom Empowering student ownership and choice

of language
David and Spy Mouse: Children choosing language to create voice
In 2001, the first semester she began teaching code-switching, Swords students wrote
narratives. Swords circulated around the room, checking student writing. She was
surprised with Davids story, Spy Mouse and the Broken Globe, a tale about Spy
Mouse, the school detective. Indeed, new to code-switching, she was disappointed:
David, I thought we had talked about formal and informal English, and here your story
is filled with informal English! David had more deeply grasped that language changes to
fit the setting. He patiently explained: Ms. Swords: I understand the difference between
formal and informal English, but Spy Mouse doesnt! David, an 8-year old, had used
language variety to create voice. His authors note was written in Standard English.
David was able to independently articulate the reasons for his language choices, an
impressive accomplishment for any student, let alone an urban third grader.
Third graders in the reading classroom: Your kids get subject-verb agreement
As usual during reading group, classes had rotated, so that Ms. Jones, another of Swords
grade-level team was leading a blended class, half of Ms. Jones students, and half of
Swords. One of Ms. Jones students was reading out loud. Where the books Standard
English sentence read Mama talks to her sister, Ms. Jones student read, Mama talk_
to her sister, thus following the phonetic dialect patterns of many African American
students. Ms. Jones interrupts, Read whats printed on the page, Mama talkS. The
child tried again: Mama talk to her Again, the teacher interrupts, more emphatically,
Pay attention! Read whats there! The child tries again. And fails again to find the
Standard English target. This interruption continues through yet another cycle, resulting
in a very unhappy, frustrated child, and a very unhappy, frustrated teacher.

13

One of Swords students leans over, Youre using informal English. But the book uses
Formal English. Look at the end of the word. Thats a Formal English ending Say that
ending when youre in school.
From police state to collaboration in the English classroom
Ms. L, an African American, has been teaching 8th grade for 30 years in a Tidewater,
Virginia school with a student body 97.4% African American and 87.7% economically
disadvantaged. She reflects on how code-switching has positively transformed her
classroom.
With code-switching and formal/informal English, kids become involved. Its not
an attack on them. I used to kill them with aint. I would mark each instance of
aint, and would deduct five points for it. I would make marks up on the board
each time a child said aint in class. Students did not eradicate aint from their
vocabularies. Instead they used the forbidden term more, approaching me with
aint, aint, aint, aint. Clearly, I had become part of the problem.
Now, with formal/informal English, I am no longer the proper, overbearing
teacher doing the nice/nasty. The kids used to say, There she goes, doing the
nice/nasty talk. Thats no longer my cross to bear. Instead, I can point at the
chart and ask the kids. What kind of language is this? Is it formal or informal? Is
that the kind we want in this setting? So, its the chart, the whole framework that
supports me. Its not me telling the students how they should be. Instead, together
we can decide what kind of language fits the setting. (personal communication).

NCLB results for code-switching

My work with contrastive analysis and code-switching has focused on framework and
materials development for the past six years. Accordingly, for the moment, my results come
in the form of NCLB outcomes for Swords classroom.
Before contrastive analysis and code-switching, Swords students displayed the usual 30
point gap on Virginia Standards of Learning 3rd grade test of writing.
After implementing CA/CS in 2001-2002, Swords eliminated the achievement gap in her
classroom (Figure 8):
Swords SOL results, Spring 2002, 3rd grade. 12 students
Virginia SOL test
Total passed
Black
Non-black
English
12
6
6
Math
14
8
6
History
12
6
6
Science
13
7
6

14

Figure 8. Black students equaled or outperformed white students with code-switching.

This result zero gap has remained stable annually in subsequent years. In 2006 (the last
year Swords students were tested), 100% of her African American students passed 100% of
the test subjects (Figure 9). This was a class of 19 students (3 white, 2 Hispanic, 1 Native
American, 1 Asian, 12 Black); 1 white child failed Science and Social studies.
Virginia SOL test
Reading
Math
Social Studies
Science

Total passed
19 (100%)
19 (100%)
18 (94%)
18 (94%)

Black
12 (100%)
12 (100%)
12 (100%)
12 (100%)

Non-black
7 (100%)
7 (100%)
6 (85%)
6 (85%)

Figure 9. With code-switching,100% of African American students pass 100% of NCLB

subjects.
Directions for future research
With framework and materials fairly well developed, my top research direction is
experimental documentation of results in code-switching v. non-code-switching classrooms
along a variety of axes: Students a) improved command of Standard English features, b)
flexibility in choosing language to fit the setting, c) attitude toward self, school work and the
school itself; Teachers a) fidelity and success in implementing techniques of contrastive
analysis and code-switching, b) change in attitudes toward and expectations of African
American vernacular speaking students, c) retention rates (for teachers) in code-switching v.
non-code-switching classrooms.
Further, I seek to investigate the degree to which a code-switching approach dismantles
or defuses the oppositional barrier many African American students experience between
the home and school community, as well as the effect code-switching and contrastive
analysis have on students perception of acting white.
Conclusion
In addition to demonstrating successful techniques for adding Standard English to students
linguistic repertoires, this work centrally seeks to change attitudes and responses toward the
vernacular language of African American students. Through the use of the scientific method,
inductive discovery of grammar rules characterizing AAE and SAE, I have found that
students, teachers and administrators profoundly transform their attitudes toward African
American students and their beliefs about the students capacities and educational potential.
Another scenario graphically illustrates how a teachers comprehension of and response to
vernacular varieties materially affects a childs immediate and long-term educational
possibilities.
That child cant learn; didnt you hear her language?

15

One of my in-service education students, Ms. S., was getting to know her 2nd grade students
in September 2004. One child, more than a grade behind, was unable to read or write at even
1st grade level. Ms. S. went to the students first grade teacher to learn more, asking how she
had worked with the child and what obstacles she had encountered. The first grade teacher
responded: Oh, I put her in the corner with a coloring book. Ms. S., flabbergasted, tried to
comprehend what the first grade teacher just told her. Finally, You mean for the whole
year? Ms. S. asked. Thats right, the first grade teacher responded. That child cant learn.
Didnt you hear her language?
The child spoke with common African American English grammar patterns.
My education student, Ms. S., understanding the nature of language variation, and possessing
tools for effectively responding to vernacular varieties on the path toward Standard English,
successfully reached the child. Through after-school individual help with code-switching and
contrastive analysis, Ms. S. brought the child to grade level reading and writing by January of
the same year.
How many children have we failed and lost under the yoke of misanalysis that is our nations
traditional approach to dialect diversity in the English classroom? When will it end? When
will we choose to use the research-based tools at hand contrastive analysis and codeswitching -- to teach Standard English in African American classrooms?

References
Fogel, H., & Ehri, L. (2000). Teaching elementary students who speak Black English
Vernacular to write in Standard English: Effects of dialect transformation
practice. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25, 212-235.
Fogel, H. & Ehri, L. (2006). Teaching African American English Forms to Standard
American English-Speaking Teachers: Effects on Acquisition, Attitudes, and
Responses to Student Use, Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 57, No. 5, 464480.
Green, L. (2002). African American English: A linguistic introduction. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
Godley, A., Carpenter, J., & Werner, C. (in press). Ill speak in proper slang:
Constructing and negotiating language ideologies through an urban high school
grammar activity. Reading Research Quarterly.
Labov, W. (1972). Language in the inner City: Studies in the Black English Vernacular.
Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania.
Lado, Robert. Linguistics across Cultures. Ann Arbor: U of Michigan P, 1957.
Marzano, R., Pickering, D., & Pollock, J. (2001). Classroom instruction that works:
Research-based strategies for increasing student achievement. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Odlin, Terrence. Language Transfer: Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning.
Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 1990.

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Piestrup, A. (1973). Black dialect interference and accommodation of reading instruction

in First Grade. Monographs of the Language-Behavior Research Laboratory,
Number Four. University of California, Berkeley. Berkeley: CA.
Rickford, J. (1996). The Oakland Ebonics decision: Commendable attack on the problem. Original
text of the Op Ed article printed in the San Jose Mercury News, December 26, 1996.
Retrieved April 3, 2006, from http://www.stanford.edu/~rickford/ebonics/SJMNOpEd.html

Rickford, J. (1999). African American Vernacular English. Malden, MA: Routledge.

Rickford, J. R. and R. J. Rickford. Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English. New York:
John Wiley, 2000.
Rickford, J., Sweetland, J., & Rickford, A. (2004). African American English and other
vernaculars in education: A topic-coded bibliography. Journal of English
Linguistics. 32(3), 230-320.
Sweetland, J. (Summer 2006) Teaching writing in the multicultural classroom: A
sociolinguistic approach, A dissertation in the Department of Linguistics, Stanford
University, Stanford: California.
Taylor, H. (1991). Standard English, Black English, and bidialectalism: A controversy.
New York: Peter Lang.
Wheeler, R. (2005). Code-switch to teach Standard English. English Journal, 94 (5), 108112.
Wheeler, R., & Swords, R. (2006). Code-switching: Teaching Standard English in urban
classrooms. Urbana, IL: NCTE.
Wheeler, R., & Swords, R. (2004) Code-switching: Tools of language and culture
transform the dialectally diverse classroom. Language Arts, 81, 470-480.
Wolfram, W., Adger, C., & Christian, D. (1999). Dialects in schools and communities.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Wolfram,W. (1969). Detroit Negro speech. Washington, DC: Center for Applied
Linguistics.

17

Appendix
Tools for the code-switching classroom
This appendix contains sample code-switching lesson plans and select classroom tools:
Lessons
1) Diversity in life and language: Introducing formal v. informal places
2) Discovering possessive patterns (formal v. informal English)
3) Discovering past time patterns (formal v. informal English)
Classroom tools:
1) Code-switching shopping list, a tool for
a. Student editing
b. Teachers differentiating classroom instruction
2) Sample code-switching charts
a. Possessive
b. Past time
These lessons and tools are the intellectual property of Rebecca Wheeler and Rachel Swords.
The lessons will become part of supplemental materials to
Wheeler & Swords (2006) Code-switching: Teaching Standard English in Urban Classrooms.
We welcome you to use the lessons and tools with appropriate citation. rwheeler@cnu.edu.

18

Curriculum Lesson Plan Guide

Course or Grade Level: 2nd - 5th
Quarter:
Unit # and Title: Diversity in Life and
Language. (3 pp).

Enduring Understanding(s) and Essential

Question(s) focused on in this lesson:
Understandings:
Variation occurs in life.

Lesson # 1 of 4
Suggested Time: 20-30 minutes

Variation occurs in language.

Questions: How can we use the terms
formal and informal to describe clothing?

Alignment with SOL or other

standards:

Assessing evidence of student learning:

Teacher Observation

National English Standards

Formal/Informal clothing collages

4. Students adjust their use of spoken,

written, and visual language (e.g.,
conventions, style, vocabulary) to
communicate effectively with a variety of
audiences and for different purposes.
9. Students develop an understanding of
and respect for diversity in language use,
patterns, and dialects across cultures,
ethnic groups, geographic regions, and
social roles.
What students will know and be able to
do as a result of this lesson:
1. The students will recognize that
variation is natural and desirable in life.
2. The students will recognize and use
the terms formal and informal to describe
clothing.

19

Resources/Technology:
General classroom supplies (markers, pencils, chart paper)
Scissors
Magazines or catalogs
Construction paper
Introduction: [Hook to prior learning or real life experiences]
Have the students gather around the Informal and Formal Clothing chart shown in the
section below. Ask the students to think the different types of clothing they wear. Have
the students describe how they dress at school. Have students give examples of other
times that they have to dress up. They might give examples such as going out to dinner, a
wedding, or church. Then, ask students if they always have to dress up. Of course your
students will say that they do not always have to dress up. Have students give examples
of times that they do not have to dress up. They may give examples such as the beach, a
baseball game, or playing outside. Explain to the students that today they will be
discussing how people dress differently at different times.
Lesson sequence that develops the Enduring Understandings and
Essential Questions [including activities for student rethinking,
revising, refining]:
1. Show students the chart below.
Clothing
Informal

Formal

2. Ask students to think about the types of clothes that they wear
when they dress up or dress nicely. Say, what do you wear when
you dress up or when you dress nicely? You will likely get
responses such as a nice suit and tie, uniform, or slacks. Write these
responses under the formal heading.
3. Explain to the students that the word formal means to dress up.
Therefore, they have just given some responses for formal clothing.
4. Tell your students that the opposite of formal is informal. You
might say, If formal means you have to dress up and might wear
something like a suit and tie, what would you wear for something
that is informal? Your students will likely respond by saying jeans
and a sweatshirt, a bathing suit, or sports uniforms. Write these
responses under the informal side. Your chart will likely look similar
to the one below.

20

Clothing
Informal
jeans and sweatshirt
bathing suit
sports uniforms
shorts

Formal
suit and tie
nursing uniforms
military uniforms
school uniforms

Closure Activity:
Once students have finished the independent assignment, call on a
few students to add to your Informal and Formal Clothing chart. You
can display the clothing collages around the room for future
reference.
Suggested modifications for differentiation:
To help struggling students, you might choose to create a felt board with different
examples of clothing. You can cut clothing out of a catalog and paste the clothing to felt.
Students can then use this center to categorize clothing as formal and informal.
Independent assignment or next expectation:
Give the students the two different colors of construction paper that you labeled
Informal and Formal. Have your students use magazines and catalogs to cut out
different articles of clothing. Tell your students to cut out at least five examples of
informal clothing and five examples of formal clothing. Then have them paste the
various articles of clothing on the appropriate piece of paper. Once students have
completed the assignment, have them discuss their decisions in groups of three or four.
Make sure you circulate throughout the room during this time to help promote valuable
discussions. For example, you might ask questions such as, Why did you paste the Girl
Scout uniform on the formal page?

21

Submitted by:

of (school):

on (date):

for NNPS

Course or Grade Level: 2nd - 5th

Quarter:
Unit # and Title: Defining Informal
and Formal Possessive Patterns.
(5 pp).

Enduring Understanding(s) and

Essential Question(s) focused on in
this lesson:
Understandings:
Language shows meaning through pattern.

Note: This unit presupposes prior work

and understanding from Unit 1,
Diversity in Life and Language. That
unit introduces the terms, formal and
informal English.

Informal English uses one pattern to show

possessive.
Formal English uses another pattern to
show possessive

Lesson # 1 of 4
Suggested Time: 20-30 minutes
Alignment with standards:
National English Standards

Questions: What pattern shows possession

in informal English? In Formal English
Assessing evidence of student
learning:
Teacher Observation

4. Students adjust their use of spoken,

written, and visual language (e.g.,
conventions, style, vocabulary) to
communicate effectively with a variety
of audiences and for different
purposes.
5. Students employ a wide range of
strategies as they write and use
different writing process elements
appropriately to communicate with
different audiences for a variety of
purposes.
6. Students apply knowledge of
language structure, language
conventions (e.g., spelling and
punctuation), media techniques,
figurative language, and genre to
create, critique, and discuss print and
non-print texts.
9. Students develop an understanding
of and respect for diversity in language
use, patterns, and dialects across

22

cultures, ethnic groups, geographic

regions, and social roles.
What students will know and be
able to do as a result of this lesson:
1. The students will recognize
possessive patterns in Formal and
Informal language.
2. The students will define possessive
patterns in Formal and Informal
language.
3. The student will distinguish between
Formal and Informal possessive
patterns.
4. The student will write 2 sentences
using the Formal possessive pattern
and 2 sentences using the Informal
possessive pattern.

Resources/Technology:
General classroom supplies (markers, pencils, chart paper)
Introduction: [Hook to prior learning or real life experiences]
Have the students gather around the Possessive Patterns chart (shown in the lesson
section). Keep the chart covered. Review the terms formal and informal with the
students, and tell them that today they are going to look at some formal and
informal language patterns.
Call on several students to give examples of places or situations in which informal
language would be an appropriate choice (home, with friends, a basketball game).
Then have several students give examples of places or situations in which formal
language would be the most appropriate choice (school, talking to the principal, a job
interview).
Ask students to define the word possession If you do not get a response, explain
that a possession is something you have or own. For example, I own a blue truck, so
one of my possessions is a blue truck. Have several students give examples of
possessions they have.

23

Lesson sequence that develops the Enduring Understandings and

Essential Questions [including activities for student rethinking,
revising, refining]:
1. Show students the Possessive Patterns chart. Tell your students that
today they are going to define the patterns for possessives in informal and
formal language.
Possessive Patterns

Informal English

Formal English

Taylor cat is black.

Taylors cat is black.

The boy coat is torn.

The boys coat is torn.

A giraffe neck is long.

A giraffes neck is long.

Did you see the teacher pen?

Did you see the teachers pen?

Discovering informal English possessive pattern

Examine sentences
2. Start by reading through the informal sentences. Then reread the first
sentence.
Seek pattern
3. Say, "Taylor cat is black. Let's see how this sentence shows ownership.
Who does the cat belong to?" Once students answer that the cat belongs to
Taylor, ask "how do you know." Students will most likely answer that it says
Taylor cat.
Define pattern
4. Now you will help your students define the pattern be repeating their
response and putting it in context. "Oh, Taylor is next to cat. So, you're
saying that the owner, or Taylor, is right next to what it is owned, the cat.
Maybe this is the pattern for informal possessives - owner plus what is
owned."
Test pattern
5. Help your students test the pattern in each of the informal sentences.
Read each sentence and have the students determine if the pattern of owner
plus what is owned holds true. So you'll read The boy coat is torn, and say,
"who is the owner?" The students will respond that the boy is the owner.
Then ask, "what does he own." The students will say that he owns the coat.
You can then say, "so the boy is the owner and the coat is what he owns.
That follows our pattern of owner plus what is owned." Read through each
sentence in this manner.

24

Write informal English pattern

6. Write the pattern, owner + what is owned, under the last informal
sentence.
Discovering formal English possessive
Examine sentences
7. Read through the formal sentences.
Seek pattern
8. Ask your students how the pattern differs from the informal sentences.
The students should note that there is an s in the formal pattern.
Define pattern
9. Ask your students to identify which word uses the s. You might say,
when we talked about informal language, we found that there was an owner
plus what they owned. Is this true for formal language? Once students
determine that Taylor is still the owner and the cat is still what is owned, you
can ask to which word the s is attached. Your students should explain that
the s is attached to the owner. Say, so the pattern is owner + s + what
they own. Let's see if that is true for every formal sentence.
Test pattern
10. Lead the students through the process of checking the pattern. You
might say, Lets look at the first sentenceTaylors cat is black. Does that
follow the pattern? Help the students track through the sentence. Point to
Taylor and say we have the owner. Then point to the s and say here is
the s. Then point to cat and say here is what is owned. This sentence fits
the pattern. Check each sentence to make sure they all follow the pattern.
Write pattern
11. After you have led the students to check their rule with each sentence,
write the pattern, or patterns, on the formal side of the chart (owner + s +
what is owned). You might have some students who realize that both of the
words that make up the pattern are nouns. If this is true, you can also write
the patterns noun + noun and noun +'s + noun in the appropriate columns.
Here is what the final chart looks like:

25

Possessive Patterns

Informal English

Formal English

Taylor cat is black.

Taylors cat is black.

The boy coat is torn.

The boys coat is torn.

A giraffe neck is long.

A giraffes neck is long.

Did you see the teacher pen?

Did you see the teachers pen?

The patterns
owner + what is owned

owner + -s + what is owned

Closure Activity:
Have students work in small groups or with a partner to write two informal
and two formal possessive sentences. Allow several students to share their
sentences. Make sure you have the students explain how their sentences fit
the possessive patterns.
Suggested modifications for differentiation:
Students who finish early can share their sentences with one another and discuss the
pattern they use most often when speaking and writing.
Students who have difficulty writing can write one informal and one formal
possessive sentence.
Independent assignment or next expectation:
In the next lesson, students will continue to write sentences using the informal and
formal possessive patterns. They will also categorize sentences as informal or
formal.

26

Submitted by:

of (school):

on (date):

for NNPS

Course or Grade Level: 2nd - 5th

Quarter:
Unit # and Title: Defining Informal
and Formal Past Time Patterns.
(5 pp.).

Enduring Understanding(s) and

Essential Question(s) focused on in
this lesson:
Understandings:
Language shows meaning through pattern.

Note: This unit presupposes prior work

and understanding from Unit 1,
Diversity in Life and Language. That
unit introduces the terms, formal and
informal English.

Informal English uses one pattern to show

the passage of time.

Lesson # 1 of 4
Suggested Time: 30 minutes

Questions: What pattern shows past time

in informal English? In Formal English?

Alignment with standards:

Assessing evidence of student

learning:
Teacher Observation

National English Standards

Formal English uses another pattern to

show the passage of time.

4. Students adjust their use of spoken,

written, and visual language (e.g.,
conventions, style, vocabulary) to
communicate effectively with a variety
of audiences and for different
purposes.
5. Students employ a wide range of
strategies as they write and use
different writing process elements
appropriately to communicate with
different audiences for a variety of
purposes.
6. Students apply knowledge of
language structure, language
conventions (e.g., spelling and
punctuation), media techniques,
figurative language, and genre to
create, critique, and discuss print and
non-print texts.
9. Students develop an understanding
of and respect for diversity in language
use, patterns, and dialects across
cultures, ethnic groups, geographic

27

regions, and social roles.

What students will know and be
able to do as a result of this lesson:
1. The students will recognize past
time patterns in Formal and Informal
language.
2. The students will define past time
patterns in Formal and Informal
language.
3. The student will distinguish between
Formal and Informal past time
patterns.
4. The student will write 2 sentences
using the Formal past time pattern and
2 sentences using the Informal past
time pattern.

Resources/Technology:
General classroom supplies (markers, pencils, chart paper)
Introduction: [Hook to prior learning or real life experiences]

Have the students gather around the Past Time Patterns chart (shown
in the lesson section). Keep the chart covered. Review the terms
formal and informal with the students. Say, "we have been working
with the words formal and informal. Can anyone give an example of
time we would use formal language? When would it be appropriate to
use informal language?" Tell your students that today they are going to
look at some formal and informal language patterns that deal with
action verbs.
Lesson sequence that develops the Enduring Understandings and
Essential Questions [including activities for student rethinking, revising,
refining]:
1. Show students the Showing Past Time chart, and say, "today we are going to
look at how we show that something has already happened, or how we show past
time. We will look at sentences that use the informal pattern and sentences that
use the formal pattern. Let's look at the chart."

28

Showing Past Time

Informal English

Formal English

Yesterday they play in the park.

Yesterday they played in the park.

She mail the letter this morning.

She mailed the letter this morning.

Last Saturday we watch that movie.

Last Saturday we watched that movie.

I call my grandma two days ago.

I called my grandma two days ago.

Martin Luther King talk to the people.

Martin Luther King talked to the people.

Discovering The Informal Pattern for Showing Past Time

Examine sentences
2. Show students the chart. Say, "let's look at the informal sentences first."
Read through each sentence.
Seek pattern
3. Ask your students how they know the action has already happened. They
should recognize that words such as yesterday, this morning, and last Saturday
indicate that the action is past. Circle these words in each sentence. Note that
the last sentence does not contain one of these clue words. Have them focus on
the first four sentences for now.
Define pattern
4. Help your students define the pattern by saying, I wonder what the rule is for
using showing past time in these first four sentences. Your students will probably
repeat each of the words that you circled. Help them further define this by
saying, Oh, so there are other words in the sentence that tell us something
happened in the past.
Test pattern
5. Once students have determined a pattern, test the description of the pattern
by rereading each informal sentence to see if the pattern makes sense. You might
say, "Let's look at the first sentence, yesterday they play in the park. Is there a
word in this sentence that tells us it happened in the past? You're right, we
already circled yesterday because that word let us know that the playing has
already happened."
Write pattern
6. Write the rule, other words in the sentence, on the informal side of the chart.
7. Now focus on the last sentence, Martin Luther King talk to his people. Read
the sentence aloud to the students. Ask your students how they know that the
action happened in the past. They will most likely say that Martin Luther King
lived in a past time or is no longer living, therefore, the action must have
happened in the past.

29

You can call this understanding common knowledge. Say, "oh, so you're saying
that it is common knowledge that Martin Luther King is no longer living? Since
most people already know this, we can call it common knowledge." Add common
knowledge to the rules on the informal side of the chart.
Discovering The Formal Pattern for Showing Past Time
Examine sentences
8. Now read through the formal sentences. Draw the students' attention to the
underlined words by saying, "let's read through all of the formal sentences now.
Pay close attention to the underlined words because they give us a clue as to how
the formal pattern is different from the informal pattern.
Seek pattern
9. Ask your students to look at how the formal sentences are different from the
informal sentences. Your students will most likely notice that the verbs have an
ed on the end of them.
Define pattern
10. Ask your students, "how can we write this pattern on our chart?" They will
most likely determine that the pattern is verb + -ed = past actions.
Test pattern
11. Read through each sentence to see if this rule holds true in each case. So you
will read, "yesterday they played in the park. Is there a verb with an -ed on the
end of it in this sentence? You're right, play ends in an -ed, so this sentence fits
our pattern." Continue to read check each of the sentences in this way.
Write pattern
12. Write the rule (verb + -ed) on the formal side of the chart.
Here is what the final chart may look like:

Showing Past Time

Informal English

Formal English

Yesterday they play in the park.

Yesterday they played in the park.

She mail the letter this morning.

She mailed the letter this morning.

Last Saturday we watch that movie.

Last Saturday we watched that movie.

I call my grandma two days ago.

I called my grandma two days ago.

Martin Luther King talk to the people.

Martin Luther King talked to the people.

The patterns
other words in the sentence

verb + -ed

common knowledge

30

Closure Activity:
Have students work in small groups or with a partner to write two informal and
two formal sentences that show past time. Allow several students to share their
sentences. Make sure you have the students explain how their sentences fit the
patterns for showing past time.
Suggested modifications for differentiation:
Students who finish early can share their sentences with one another and discuss the
pattern they use most often when speaking and writing.
Students who have difficulty writing can write one informal and one formal sentence.
Independent assignment or next expectation:
In the next lesson, students will continue to write sentences using the informal and
formal patterns for showing past time.

These lessons are the intellectual property of Rebecca Wheeler and Rachel Swords.
They will become part of supplemental materials to
Wheeler & Swords (2006) Code-switching:Teaching Standard English in Urban Classrooms.
We welcome you to use the lessons with appropriate citation. rwheeler@cnu.edu.

31

Code-switching Shopping List (a tool for secondary school students)

Name: ________________________
Do any of the top 10 or so informal English patterns appear in your paper? If
so, put a check in the corresponding box and then code-switch to formal
English! Put a smiley face, , to show when you use formal patterns in your
writing. Flip the Switch!
Paper 4
______

Paper 3
______
_
Paper 2
______
_
Paper 1
______

Informal v. Formal English Patterns

Noun patterns
Possessive
The dog_tail

v.

the dogs tail

Plurality: Showing more than one

Three cat_ v. Three cats
A v. an
An rapper
A elephant

v.
v.

a rapper
an elephant
Verb patterns

Subject- Verb Agreement

She walk_ v. She walks
Showing past time(1)
I finish_ v. I finished
Showing past time (2)
She seen the dog v. She saw/had seen
Be understood
He __ cool with me v. He is cool with me
Making Negatives
She wont never v. She wont ever
Other pattern: _____________
Other pattern: _____________
Excerpted from Wheeler & Swords (2006), Code-Switching: Teaching Standard
English in Urban Classrooms, Urbana, IL: NCTE.

32

Code-switching Shopping List Differentiated instruction (a tool for teachers)

Class: Day:________________ Time: ________________
Data-driven differentiated instruction. As you read student essays, note which students need work on which Everyday English patterns.
You might use this tool to form peer-editing groups of students who have similar grammar needs, or to guide you in calling on students in
class, or tracking class needs and progress\.
Informal v. Formal English Patterns

Students

Noun Patterns
Possessive
The dog_tail v.
Plurality: Showing
Three cat_ v.
A v. an
An rapper
v.
A elephant v.

the dogs tail

more than one
Three cats

a rapper
an elephant
Verb Patterns
Subject- Verb Agreement
She walk_ v. She walks
Showing past time(1)
I finish_ v. I finished
Showing past time (2)
She seen the dog v. She saw/had seen
Be understood
He __ cool with me v. He is cool with me
Making Negatives
She wont never v. She wont ever
Other pattern: ___________________

33

SHOWING PAST TIME

I finish__ v. I finished

INFORMAL

FORMAL

I already finish_ my paper

I already finished my paper
Nat Turner change_ the world
Nat Turner changed the world
Yesterday, I went home and turn_ on the TV
Yesterday, I went home and turned on the TV
The sign say Whites only.
The sign said Whites only.
When he said, I have a dream, everything change_ When he said, I have a dream, everything
changed

THE PATTERNS
Other signal words in sentence
Common knowledge

Verb + -ed
(or other change in shape:said, meant, etc)

34

Showing possession
Derick team v. Dericks team

INFORMAL

I played on Derick team

You were going to say that boy name
You step on someone foot by accident
in some old people neighborhood

FORMAL

I played on Dericks team

You were going to say that boys name
You step on someones foot by accident
in some old peoples neighborhood

THE PATTERNS
owner + owned

owner + +-s + owned

35

36