MACROMOLECULES-Most macromolecules (large molecules) are polymers (polymany, mer-part) consisting of many identical or similar subunits (monomers) chemically

bonded.

Formation of macromolecules from smaller subunits depicts another level of structural

hierarchy. Chemical reactions that link two or more small molecules to form larger
molecules with repeating structural units are polymerization reactions. Most
polymerization reactions in organisms are condensation reactions. Condensation
reactions are polymerization reactions in which monomers are covalently bonded
producing a net removal of one water molecule for each covalent linkage. One monomer
loses a hydroxyl (-OH) and the other monomer loses a hydrogen (-H). This chemical
reaction requires energy and enzymes as biologic catalysts.

These covalent bonds can in turn be broken through hydrolysis, a reaction process that
breaks covalent bonds between monomers by the addition of water molecules.

I.

Amino acids-monomers of proteins.

Groups:
1.
Amino group-NH2
2.
Carboxyl group-COOH
3.
Hydroxyl group-OH
4.
R group-varies among the 20 different amino acids.

See diagram
20 different amino acids. Differ in the composition and arrangement of the atoms that
make up the R group. . Every amino acid except glycine exists in two forms. They
differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms. One is a mirror image of the other called
right and left handed molecules. . Only left handed configurations occur in organisms.
Nonpolar side chains do not have electronegative atoms capable of forming hydrogen
bonds with water. They are hydrophobic.
Polar side chains do contain electronegative atoms that interact with water. They are
hydrophilic.
.

Polymerization of Proteins
A chemical bond forms between the carboxyl group of one molecule and the amino group
of a second molecule.

Characteristics of a polypeptide-a chain of amino acids.

1. Flexible
2. with polarity
3. functional groups extend out

Primary structure-sequence of amino acids in a protein. When proteins are in aqueous

solution, they fold in a way that places hydrophobic side chains of the amino acid away
from water and hydrophilic side chains towards water. Folding stabilizes the molecule, it
releases free energy. Folding occurs spontaneously. Folding gives a protein a complex 3
dimensional shape and makes additional levels of structure possible.

Secondary structure-is created by hydrogen bonding between peptide groups.

Tertiary structure-is formed by interactions between R groups or between R groups and
peptide a peptide backbone.

Functions:
1. Structural
2. Enzymes-biological catalysts.

II.

Carbohydrates-important as source of energy and as monomers of

macromolecules. Composed of Carboxyl group-COOH and several hydroxyl
groups-OH. All sugars can form from heated fromaldyhyde.

A.

monosaccharide-simple sugar. C6H12O6

1. glucose
2. fructose
3. galactose

B.

disaccharide-double sugar.
1. sucrose-table sugar. Glucose+Fructose
2. maltose-important in brewing beer. Glucose+Glucose
3. Lactose-milk sugar. Glucose+Galactose

C.

Nucleotides- monomers of RNA (ribonucleic acid) and DNA

(deoxyribonucleic acid).
3 Parts of a nucleotide:
1.
phosphate group
2.
5 carbon sugar( ribose in RNA, deoxyribose in DNA
3.
one of four nitrogenous bases.
Purine-double ring molecular structure. Pyrimidine-single ring molecular structure.
adenine
uracil (RNA only)
guanine
cytosine
thymine(DNA only)
III.

RNA
RNA can catalyze reactions and carry information. In RNA, a phosphate of one
nucleotide bonds with the hydroxyl group of the sugar of another, this is called a
phosphodeister bond. The phosphodeister bond, a condensation reaction, links the 5
carbon on the ribose of one nucleotide to the 3 carbon on the ribose of another
nucleotide. In a strand of RNA, then, one end has an unlinked 5carbon while the other
end has an unlinked 3carbon. The sugar phosphate bond is polar. Often, the sugarphosphate backbone of RNA spontaneously folds into a specific shape determined by
hydrogen bonding. Adenine forms hydrogen bonds only with uracil, and guanine forms
hydrogen bonds with cytosine. When As and Gs on one part of an RNA strand fold over
and align with Us and Cs on another segment, hydrogen bonding results in a stable
stem-and-loop configuration. This result is a secondary structure called a hairpin. The
specifics of hydrogen bonding between purines and pyrimidines is called complimentary
base pairing.
The RNA molecule itself can serve as the source of information for making itself.
RNA Synthesis
RNA serves as a template.
1. Free ribonucleotides pair with complimentary bases.
2. The ribonucleotides that have formed hydrogen bonds polymerize as their sugarphosphate groups form phosphodeister bonds. 5-3 of the new strand is opposite to
the template.
3. Hydrogen bonds between the strands are broken by heating or catalyzed reactions.
4. Copy serves as template. Ribonucleotides pair with complimentary bases.
5. New copy polymerizes (phosphodeister bonds sugar-phosphate).

6. New copy identical to original. Hydrogen bonds between the strands are broken.
DNA ( deoxyribonucleaic acid) structure (Blue print of Life)- It contains the
information needed for growth and reproduction.
3 Important differences in RNA and DNA:
1. DNA does not contain uracil, thymine bonds with adenine.
2. The sugar is a deoxyribose rather than ribose sugar. OH group on # 2C of ribose
sugar is reactive and participates in chemical reactions that tear the molecule apart.
Since DNA lacks this OH group it is a much more stable molecule.
3. Extrinsic secondary structure of DNA also stabilizes it. DNA has more secondary
structure than RNA. DNA is a double stranded molecule whereas RNA is a single
stranded molecule. Complimentary pairing and hydrogen bonding of nitrogenous
bases double ring molecular structured purines ( Adenine and Guanine ) with
single ring molecular structured pyrimidines ( Cytosine and thymine ) unite the
two strands and twist it into a double helix.
Watson and Crick developed a model for the secondary structure of DNA in 1953. DNA
is a long linear polymer that has two major components: a backbone made up of sugar
and phosphate groups and a series of nitrogenous bases that project from the backbone.
These two long strands twist around each other and certain of the nitrogenous bases pair
inside the spiral forming a double helix molecule. The structure is stabilized by hydrogen
bonds that form between the bases called adenine and thymine and the bases guanine and
cytosine. Watson and Crick suggested that the A-T and C-G pairing rules suggested a
way for DNA to be copied prior to mitosis or meiosis. They suggested that the existing
strands of DNA served as a template for the production of new strands, with bases being
added to the new strands according to complimentary base-pairing rules. Each existing
or old strand separated and served as a template for the synthesis of a new second strand
so that each daughter DNA molecule consists of one old strand and one new strand, This
is called semi-conservative replication and though other hypotheses were proposed
experiments proved this hypothesis.
DNA Replication-the process by which the DNA molecule makes an identical copy of
itself.

IV.

Lipids-large class of biological molecules that does not include polymers.

They are grouped together because they share one important trait and that is
that they are hydrophobic. Their hydrophobic behavior is based on their
molecular structure. Lipids consist mostly of hydrocarbons. Although fats are
not polymers, they are large molecules, and are assembled from smaller
molecules by dehydration reactions, a chemical reaction in which two
molecules covalently bond to one another with the removal of a water
molecule. A fat is constructed of two kinds of smaller molecules, glycerol and
fatty acids. Glycerol is an alcohol with three carbons each bearing a hydroxyl
group. A fatty acid has a long carbon skeleton, usually 16-18 carbon atoms in
length. At one end of the fatty acid is a head composed of a carboxyl group.
Attached to this is a long hydrocarbon tail. The nonpolar C-H bonds in the
tails of fatty acids are the reason fats are hydrophobic. Fats separate from
water because the water molecules hydrogen bond with one another and
exclude the fats.

Saturated fats-no double bonds between the carbon atoms composing the tail
therefore as many hydrogen atoms as possible are bonded to the carbon skeleton.
Includes animal fats which are usually solid at room temperature (lard).

Unsaturated fats-one or more double bonds, formed by the removal of hydrogen

atoms from the carbon skeleton. The fatty acid will have a kink in its shape wherever
a double bond occurs. Includes fats of plants and fishes which are usually liquid at
room temperature.
Functions:
1. Energy storage-one gram of fat contains twice as much energy as one gram of
carbohydrate.
2. Cushions vital organs.
3. Insulates the body.
Phospholipids-only have two fatty acids rather than three. The third hydroxyl group of
glycerol is joined to a phosphate group, which is negative in electrical charge.
Phospholipids are amphpathic having both a hydrophobic and a hydrophilic region.