Sand Casting Lit Re
Sand Casting Lit Re
in Sand Casting
M.Tech Dissertation
Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of degree of
Master of Technology
(Manufacturing Engineering)
by
Ankur Sharma
(07310033)
Supervisor
Prof. B. Ravi
Abstract
The productivity and yield of sand casting process can be improved by increasing the number
of cavities in a given size of mould box. The main challenge lies in finding the optimum
number of cavities for a multi cavity mould such that quality is not compromised.
Number of cavities and their layout in a given mould depends on two main parameters, that
is, cavity-cavity gap and cavity-wall gap. Solidification time of a casting is affected by the
change in cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap in the case of multi cavity mould. This means
that these gaps affect the solidification rate of a casting. Productivity and mechanical
properties of a casting are the functions of its solidification rate. To get better mechanical
properties and productivity, the solidification rate of the casting should be optimum. The
values of the gaps corresponding to optimum value of solidification time are optimum. Heat
transfer through the casting and mould during solidification decides the solidification time of
casting. The variation of solidification time with these gaps has been calculated and studied
in this research work. Transient thermal analysis of casting solidification is done using Finite
element method tools like ANSYS and ABAQUS, to calculate the optimum value of the
above gaps in sand mould.
Experimental validation is carried out to validate the simulated results. Thermocouples are
used to measure temperatures at some particular points inside the mould, during the
solidification of casting. These temperature profiles are then compared with the profiles
obtained from simulation. The numerical results are found to be in good agreement with the
experimental ones. A methodology is developed for optimizing mould cavity layout for sand
mould. A case study is solved using the methodology and optimum cavity-cavity gap is
calculated for it.
Keywords: transient thermal analysis; FEM; sand casting; cavity-cavity gap; cavity-wall gap;
simulation; solidification
Table of Contents
Abstract
Table of Contents
List of Figures
List of Table
i
ii
iv
vi
INTRODUCTION
Metal Casting
Mould Construction
1-7
1
2
Mould Design
Casting Solidification
Organization of Report
3
5
7
LITERATURE REVIEW
Basic Mechanisms of Heat Transfer
Heat Transfer in Metal Casting
Heat Flow and Solidification of Casting
Mould Temperature Analysis
Numerical Modelling
8-23
8
9
13
16
19
21
23
Chapter 3
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
PROBLEM DEFINITION
Motivation
Goal and Objectives
Research Approach
Scope
24-25
24
24
24
25
Chapter 4
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
26-52
26
27
29
30
Simulation Results
4.5.1 Solidification analysis of solid cube
4.5.2 Solidification analysis for different types of mould sand
33
33
34
Chapter 1
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
Chapter 2
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
4.5
ii
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
4.10
Chapter 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Chapter 6
6.1
6.2
35
36
38
41
41
46
47
50
52
53-64
53
56
60
61
64
CONCLUSION
Summary of Work
Future Scope
65-66
65
66
References
Acknowledgements
67
70
iii
List of Figures
Figure
Description
Page
1.1
1.2
1.3
2.1
10
2.2
16
2.3
17
2.4
21
2.5
21
4.1
31
4.2
31
4.3
Mesh generation
32
4.4
Applying loads
32
4.5
32
4.6
33
4.7
33
4.8
34
4.9
35
4.10
36
4.11
36
4.12
37
4.13
38
4.14
39
4.15
39
iv
4.16
40
4.17
40
4.18
41
4.19
42
4.20
43
4.21
44
4.22
44
4.23
45
4.24
48
4.25
48
4.26
48
4.27
49
4.28
49
4.29
50
4.30
50
4.31
51
5.1
54
5.2
55
5.3
56
5.4
56
5.5
57
5.6
57
5.7
58
5.8
60
5.9
62
5.10
62
5.11
62
List of Tables
Table
Description
Page
4.1
27
4.2
29
4.3
30
4.4
42
4.5
43
5.1
58
5.2
64
vi
Chapter 1
Introduction
This chapter contains the basic introduction of metal casting, mould construction, mould
design and casting solidification.
1.1 Metal Casting
Metal casting is a versatile manufacturing process in which liquefied metal is
poured into previously prepared mould cavity and allowed to solidify. Subsequently the
product is taken out of mould cavity, trimmed and cleaned to shape. Casting can produce
products from few grams to several hundred tons and from simple shapes like watch cases to
most complex parts like engine blocks. It is a near net shape manufacturing process involving
less or no further operations. Almost any metal or alloy which can be easily melted is
castable.
Casting has many process variations depending upon the material, the type of pattern, mould
and the pouring technique like sand casting, investment casting, die casting, squeeze casting
and lost foam casting. Sand casting is the most widely used process which can be used to
produce intricate parts in almost every metal that can be melted. According to worldwide
census of casting production over 75 million metric tons of castings are produced annually.
India is the fourth largest producer of castings.
For successful production of castings one needs knowledge in the following operations:
Preparation of moulds and patterns
Melting and pouring of liquefied metal
Solidification and further cooling to room temperature
Inspection and quality control
One of the major concerns of the foundries worldwide today is to produce castings of
superior quality with minimum rejections (Ravi, 1996). Because of the complex physics
involved and the number of steps needed to produce a casting, the parameters which govern
1
the quality of a casting are huge in number. The major sources of defects arise from
inappropriate design of the part, feeding and gating system. The defects arising due to bad
design are mainly because of isolated thick and thin sections or sudden increase in the section
thickness. Solidification related defects arise mainly because of improper part design or
improper method design (feeding and gating systems).
Casting can be produced in either permanent metal mould or expandable refractory mould.
The use of metal moulds or dies for making parts in die casting has certain major limitations.
The continual contact of die with molten metal reduces the die life, as it is subjected to very
high temperature. Therefore die casting is generally preferred for low melting point metals. In
addition, the cost of die manufacture can only be sustained by large production. Thus greater
part of the output of the foundry industry consists of sand castings.
The manufacture of sand castings mainly consists of three stages: production of mould,
melting, casting and finishing operations. The first major stage in founding is the production
of mould. It contains a cavity, which is similar to the shape of the required part and has a
planned provision for metal flow and feeding. For this purpose a pattern is required, along
with other foundry equipments ranging from moulding and core making machines to
moulding boxes and hand tools. The moulding procedure for a particular casting is largely
determined by the means chosen at the outset of pattern removal and embodied in the
construction of pattern. For this reason, decisions as to the entire manufacturing technique
should be taken at the earliest stage, including consideration of the orientation of the casting
for gating and feeding as well as pattern withdrawal. A rational choice can be made of the
system of parting lines, cores and other feature to achieve overall economy in manufacture
(Beeley, 2001).
A multi-part moulding box (known as a casting flask, the top and bottom halves of which are
known respectively as the cope and drag) is prepared to receive the pattern. Moulding boxes
are made in segments that may be latched to each other. For a simple object - flat on one side
the lower portion of the box, closed at the bottom, will be filled with prepared casting sand
or green sand - a slightly moist mixture of sand and clay. The sand is packed in through a
vibratory process called ramming. The surface of the sand may then be stabilized with a
sizing compound. The pattern is placed on the sand and another moulding box segment is
2
added. Additional sand is rammed over and around the pattern. Finally a cover is placed on
the box and it is turned and unlatched, so that the halves of the mould may be parted and the
Fig. 1.1 Casting layout in multi cavity sand mould (Courtesy Jintan Inc, 2009)
pattern with its sprue and vent patterns removed. The box is closed again. This forms a
"green" mould which must be dried to receive the hot metal. In some cases, the sand may be
oiled instead of moistened, which makes possible casting without waiting for the sand to dry.
Sand may also be bonded by chemical binders, such as furnace resins or amine-hardened
resins.
1.3 Mould Design
A decision which greatly influences production costs concerns the size of mould unit to be
adopted and the arrangement of patterns in relation to mould dimension. The objective should
be to employ the largest size of mould that can be conveniently handled by the plant, and to
achieve intensive use of mould space through a high packing density of castings (Beeley,
2001). This reduces the number of moulding operations and minimizes sand consumption.
These objectives are achieved by the use, whenever possible, of multiple casting moulds in
which two or more patterns are grouped round a common sprue or feeding system (Fig. 1.1).
Advantages of multi cavity mould are as follows:
utilization and more is the packing density. Therefore more castings can be made from a
fixed amount of sand volume which leads to cost reduction.
Metal to sand ratio: It is the ratio of the sum of weight of casting(s), weight of gating system
and weight of feeder(s) to the weight of sand used in a mould.
m etal
M/S Ratio =
sand
( N cVc
Vf
Vg )
Vf
(1.1)
Vg )
= Volume of casting
Vf
= Volume of feeder
Vg
Higher Yield: Yield is the ratio of the casting volume to the sum of casting volume and
gating volume. Better the yield, better is the productivity. Multi cavity mould has higher yield
than single cavity mould because common feeders and gating system can be used.
Yield
(1.2)
N c vc
( N c vc
v fg )
i
Reduce production time per casting: Since more castings are formed in a single cycle of
operation, production time per casting is reduced.
Multi cavity moulds are preferred when the castings are small compared to the smallest size
of production moulds and the production quantities are large. The mould cavity layout is
usually taken up after deciding the casting orientation and parting.
The number of cavities and the orientation depends on two main parameters of a mould,
which are as follows:
Cavity-Cavity Gap
Cavity-Wall Gap
Cavity-Cavity gap
Mould
Cavity
Cavity-Wall gap
Cavity
The heat flow rate during casting solidification is affected by cavity - cavity gap and cavity wall gap. So there is a need to study solidification of casting and its behaviour. Next section
discusses the same.
Solidification in all castings begins with the initiation of crystallization at the mould walls
shortly after casting is poured, thus forming a thin layer of solid metal there, solidification
proceeds by gradual thickening of this layer of solid metal. During the freezing period, the
solid and liquid portions of the casting are separated by a sharp line of demarcation-the
solidification front-which advances steadily from the surfaces to the centre of the castings.
As the molten metal is poured in the sand mould it starts losing heat to the mould material.
Heat lost during solidification can be divided into three distinct phases
The heat rejected by the liquid metal is dissipated through the mould wall.
The solidification process is quite complicated, especially when complex geometry, freezing
of alloys and temperature dependent thermal properties are considered. As an approximation
the temperature at the surface of an insulating mould adjacent to solidifying metal is assumed
equal to the freezing point of that metal. Because the thermal conductivity of the sand mould
is only 1-2% that of the metal, practically all of the thermal resistance to the heat transfer is
within the mould.
6
From the above discussion it is clear that mould design is very significant in improving the
yield and in reducing the defects in casting. Therefore there is a need of optimizing the design
of mould to improve the productivity of a foundry. Deciding the optimum number of cavities
in a mould is very important in mould designing for a multi cavity mould. In this work, we
have developed a methodology for optimizing the cavity-wall and cavity-cavity gap for
simple castings, which helps in deciding the mould cavity layout and the number of cavities
in a mould.
1.5 Organization of Report
The report is organised in six chapters. The first chapter contains the introduction about metal
casting, mould design, mould construction and casting solidification. The second chapter
covers the literature reviewed in the area of casting solidification and its numerical
modelling. In the third chapter problem and the research approach are defined. The fourth
chapter discusses the solidification simulation of simple castings using FEM and their
validation with experiments. The fifth chapter presents criteria and a methodology to
optimize the cavity-cavity layout of a mould. The last chapter contains the summary of the
report and future scope of the work.
Chapter 2
Literature Review
In this chapter basic mechanisms of heat transfer in casting are discussed. This includes heat
flow in metal casting process and the types of resistances offered to the flow of heat are
studied. Theoretical equation for calculation of solidification time of casting is discussed.
Work performed on numerical modelling of casting solidification is also discussed in this
chapter.
2.1.1 Conduction: In the context of metal casting, conduction is the mechanism by which
heat is transferred within the solidifying metal and the mould. Conduction can be steady state
or transient state. In casting application, transient conduction is more prevalent.
kA
( T)
t
(2.1)
Where
Q = Heat flow
k = Thermal conductivity of the medium
A = Area through which heat is flowing
t = Thickness of the medium through which heat is flowing
T = Temperature difference between two surfaces.
2.1.2 Convection: Convection mode of heat transfer is considered in many contexts like
Heat transfer at the outer surface of the mould is assumed to take place by natural convection
and radiation. The heat transfer value is given by:
h(T T )
(2.2)
Where
q = Heat flux
h = Heat transfer coefficient
T = The mould surface temperature
T = Ambient temperature
2.1.3 Radiation: In contrast to conduction and convection, which involve transport of energy
through a material, energy may also be transferred through a vacuum. The mechanism is by
electromagnetic radiation, and is specifically called thermal radiation. Radiation occurs on
the outer surfaces of the mould and at casting-mould interface.
A1 (T1
T24 )
(2.3)
Where
1
T1 and T2 are the temperatures of the two bodies, which are mould and air.
The hot liquid metal takes time to lose its heat and solidify. The rate at which it loses heat is
controlled by the number of resistances to heat flow (Fig. 2.1)
Conduction in
the casting
Convection on
the mould
surface
Interfacial heat
transfer
coefficient
Conduction
inside the mould
Fig. 2.1 Schematic diagram of heat transfer in a sand mould
The resistances to heat flow from the interior of the casting are
1. The liquid
2. The solidified metal
3. The metal-mould interface
4. The mould
5. The surroundings of the mould
As it happens, in nearly all cases of interest, resistance 1 is negligible, as a result of bulk flow
by forced convection during filling and thermal convection during cooling. The turbulent
flow and mixing quickly transport heat and so smooth out temperature gradients.
In many instances, resistance 5 is also negligible in practice. For instance, for normal sand
moulds the environment of the mould does not affect solidification, since the mould becomes
hardly warm on its outer surface by the time that a steel casting has solidified inside.
However there are of course a number of exceptions to this general rule all of which related
to various kinds of thin-walled moulds, which, because of thinness of mould shell, are
somewhat sensitive to their environment (Campbell, 1991).
10
Therefore the fundamental resistances to heat flow from castings are resistance 2, 3 and 4.
The effects of all three simultaneously can be simulated with varying degree of success by
computers. However, the problem is both physically and mathematically complex, especially
for casting of complex geometry.
Resistance in Casting
For the unidirectional flow of heat from a metal poured exactly at its melting point Tm against
a mould wall initially at temperature T o, the transient heat flow problem is described by the
partial differential equation, where s is the thermal diffusivity of the solid
(2.4)
T
t
T
x2
The boundary conditions are x=0, T=To; at x=S, T=Tm; and at the solidification front, the rate
of heat evolution must balance the rate of conduction down the temperature gradient as
follows
S
T
Ks
T
x
(2.5)
x s
Where Ks is the thermal conductivity of the solid, S is the thickness of the metal solidified.
Resistance at Metal-Mould Interface
A perfect contact between the metal and the mould surfaces may not be realized in actual
practice as the surface irregularities of the solidifying skin result in irregular contacts to be
established between the die-wall and the skin. The degree of thermal resistance at the
interface is a function of actual contact area, thermal and physical properties of the materials
in contact and interstitial fluid present in the voids formed by the two contacting surfaces.
The thermal resistance to heat transfer results in a temperature drop at the interface (Prabhu,
2005). The heat transfer at the interface can be characterized either by interfacial heat flux q
or by an interfacial heat transfer coefficient h, defined as the ratio of the interfacial heat flux
to the temperature drop at the interface:
h q
(2.6)
11
When conditions are favourable, a skin of solidifying casting may physically separate from
the mould wall resulting in a gap of finite thickness. The mould configuration and Biot
number have been shown to be important parameters affecting the formation of the gap. Once
the air gap forms, the heat transfer across the interface drops rapidly. Conduction is the
predominant mode of heat transfer through the gap at lower temperatures. While the radiation
heat transfer depends on the surface temperatures and emissivities, conduction heat transfer
depends on the thermal conductivity of the gas in the gap and the air gap size as well.
The heat transfer coefficients due to radiation (hr) and conduction (hc) are expressed as
hr
(Tc
Tm2 )(Tc
1
1
c
hc
Tm )
(2.7)
kg
(2.8)
Tc and Tm are the casting surface and mould surface temperatures, respectively; c and r are
the emissivities of the casting and mould surfaces; and kg and are the thermal conductivity
of the gas in the gap and the width of the air gap, respectively (Prabhu, 2005).
Since molten casting metal is poured into the mould cavity, it is initially in the liquid state.
Metal with high fluidity quickly becomes very viscous in the early stage of solidification, and
later completely solidifies. During this process, a gap is formed between the casting metal
and mould.
12
Pouring the liquid metal in sand mould cavity, the dilation due to heating and drying of the
mould causes the inner surface of the mould cavity to move outward. The initial cooling rate
of metal in sand mould is quite low compared to that in the metallic mould due to which the
metal remains in liquid state for longer time. The liquid metal tries to follow the outward
movement of the mould wall, till sufficiently thick solid skin is formed. After this the liquid
metal will no longer follow the mould wall movement but it will move inward due to
contraction, giving rise to the air gap at the mould metal interface.
The air gap formed at the metal-mould interface offers considerable resistance to the cooling
process. It controls the total solidification pattern of castings and thereby affects the
microstructure and quality of castings. Due to this, it has drawn considerable amount of
interest among the researchers in this field.
Resistance in Mould
Castings made in silica sand mould are generally controlled during freezing by the rate at
which heat can be absorbed by the mould. The sand mould acts like an insulator, keeping the
casting warm. Investment and plaster mould are even more insulating, avoiding premature
cooling of metal and aiding fluidity, giving excellent ability to fill thin sections for which
these casting process are renowned.
The conduction heat flux in a mould is expressed with the usual rate equation:
T
x
(2.9)
Since the situation is transient, the temperature distribution is non-linear, and the temperature
should satisfy the following equation. Assuming one dimensional conduction in x direction
(2.10)
x2
13
The heat rejected by liquid metal is dissipated through the mould wall. The heat released as a
result of cooling and solidification of the liquid metal passes through different layers. The
thermal resistance which govern the entire solidification process are those of the liquid, the
solidified metal, the mould metal interface, the mould, the ambient air.
Assumptions
The flow of heat is unidirectional, and the mould is semi-infinite.
Properties are not temperature dependent and remain uniform throughout the
solidification process.
The metal is in complete contact with the mould surface.
The metal mould interface temperature remains constant (Solidus temperature)
throughout the solidification process.
At time t=0 the liquid metal is poured at temperature Tp into the mould. Since the metal
which comes in the contact with the mould wall and solidifies instantly therefore temperature
of the interface reaches the solidus temperature, that is, Ts. To is the room temperature. Due to
this immediately very steep thermal gradient heat conduction starts (Porier et al., 1994).
Now according to the equation discussed in the resistance offered by the mould
(2.11)
x2
To get a particular solution for T(x,t) without any integration constants, we specify an initial
condition and two boundary conditions as follows
Initial Condition
T(x, 0) = Tp at
x0
(2.12)
Boundary Conditions
T (0, t) = To
(2.13)
14
T (, t) = To
(2.14)
Tx (t )
x
2
(2.15)
erf (z) is called the error function. The function is very useful for heat conduction problems in
semi-infinite mediums
2
erf ( z )
3
(z z
z5
3.1!
5.2!
z7
7.3!
..... )
(2.16)
Tx
(x=0)
x
Q = -kA
(2.17)
A is the cross section area of the mouldmetal interface (approximately the surface area of
casting). Using equations 2.15 and 2.17 we get
Q=
kA(Ts
To )
t
(2.18)
Thus the total heat flow across the mould face up to a certain time t o is
t0
Qto
Qdt
2 Ak (Ts
To ) t 0
(2.19)
V [ L cm (T p
(2.20)
Ts )]
15
To )
ts
V [ L c m (T p
Ts )]
(2.21)
or
V
( )2
A
ts
(2.22)
[ L cm (T p
Ts )] 2k ( Ts
To )}2
(2.23)
100 mm
10 mm
16
Consider a thin slice of material with a thickness x. The gradient at x is somewhat greater
than x + x. Therefore heat conducted into the thin slice across the surface at x is greater than
the heat conducted out of the slice across the surface x + x. Therefore energy and
temperature within the slice must increase. All this can be expressed by making a
mathematical statement of the conservation of energy. (Poirier et al., 1994)
Aq
Aq
A x Cp
T
t
(2.24)
T=f(x)
x
x
Fig. 2.3 Non linear temperature distribution in transient heat conduction
Temperature after each layer is found by using the following equation
Tx (t )
T0
(Ts
T0 )[1 erf
x
2
(2.25)
2 Ak (Ts
ts
To )
ts
V [ L cm (T p
Ts )]
(2.26)
V
( )2
A
(2.27)
A = Area of the mould wall, which is approximately equal to the area of one of the cube face
= 100100 mm2 or 10-2 m2
V = Volume of the casting = 10-3 m3
To = Room temperature = 300 K
17
Ti To
T
x
exp
x2
4 t
(2.28)
Notice that the gradient varies with both x and t. At fixed time (e.g., t=t 1), the gradient
decreases with increasing x; at a particular location, the gradient decreases with increasing
time.
Rate of heat flow through the mould at any instant t is
.
kA
kA
Tx
x
(2.29)
Ti To
t
exp
x2
4 t
(2.30)
At the interface x = 0,
T T
Q kA i o
t
(2.31)
Qto
Q dt
2 Ak (Ts To )
to
(2.32)
18
Qt
2kA
Tf
To
exp
x2
4 t
(2.33)
Qi
(2.34)
2kA(T f To ) t o /
Q1
2 0.898kA(T f To ) t o /
(2.35)
Q2
2 0.65kA(T f To ) t o /
(2.36)
Q3
2 0.38kA(T f To ) t o /
(2.37)
on the boundaries of the field. Depending upon the type of physical problem being analysed,
the field variable may include physical displacement, temperature, heat flux and fluid
velocity to name a few. In our problem the field variable is temperature being a thermal
analysis (Hutton., 2004).
( x, y )
N1 ( x, y )
N 2 ( x, y)
N 3 ( x, y)
(2.38)
Where 1, 2 and 3 are the values of field variables at the nodes, and N 1, N2 and N3 are the
interpolation function, also known as shape function or blending function.
Elemental matrices are obtained using variational principles and are assembled in the same
way, as the elements constitute the domain. This procedure results in a set of simultaneous
equations. The solution of the set gives the fields variable at the nodes.
The use of FEM enables thermal modelling of solidification close to reality taking into
account
The advantage of using FEM is the ability to handle complex boundaries and the ease in
implementing boundary conditions. But this method requires considerable effort for
formulation of the problem, data preparation and processing time.
2.5.1 Incorporation of air gap
For the simulation of casting solidification, the behaviour of the interface is very important as
cooling rate is controlled by the interface. To model the interface, two methods are used, viz
1. Thin element for air gap
2. Coincident node technique
In this first method (Fig. 2.4) air gap is incorporated during simulation by introducing a
virtual element of appropriate thickness for the air gap and giving an appropriate value for the
interfacial heat transfer coefficient h (Venkatesan et al., 2006).
In coincident node technique, the nodes of cast and mould at the interface have the same
spatial coordinates.
The heat transfer from cast to the mould is incorporated through the convective heat transfer
coefficient. This method offers significant savings in computer time and greater ease in
modelling the mesh (Fig. 2.5).
Air
gap
Cast
Mould
Cast
Mould
2&3
Fig. 2.5 Linear quadrilateral with coincident node
21
Value of h is found out experimentally. Two methods have been proposed to measure the
interfacial heat transfer coefficient. One is to measure the size of the gap formed between the
casting metal and the mould and convert this gap size to an appropriate heat transfer
coefficient. The other method is inverse method.
From the literature review it is found that no gap is formed at the start of solidification. This
is because of the adhesive forces between the liquid metal and the mould surface. However,
the moment solidification starts the strength of solid layer increases. The strength is strong
enough to resist the hydrostatic pressure of the molten metal which tends to push the metal
shell outward. Therefore the interfacial heat transfer coefficient is rather high before the
solidification temperature and drops significantly at the solidification temperatures.
Vijayaram et al., 2006, used solidification simulation of casting to calculate time-temperature
data, temperature contours, hot spots location, and solidification time. The time-temperature
plot explains the effect of under cooling of solidifying castings which reflects more on the
inside microstructures responsible fro material properties.
Prabhu et al., 2001, investigated heat transfer at the casting/chill interface for the case of
solidification of cast iron in ceramic cylindrical moulds with chill and sand block at the
bottom. An inverse method of solving the one-dimensional fourier heat conduction equation
was used to determine the interfacial heat flux transients and heat transfer coefficients.
Berry and Pehlke, 1988, proposed formulation of a model involving finite element
approximation to the solution of the general energy equation for a given volume and the
bounding surface consisting of sub surfaces governed by the boundary conditions, including
specified temperature, specified flux, convective heat transfer and radiation heat transfer.
Pariona et al., 2005, compared the solidification process of sand and in mullite moulds,
during 1.5 hours of solidification using numerical simulation by the finite element method.
Results in 2D were obtained, such as the heat transfer, the thermal flow, the thermal gradient,
the convergence control and the behaviour of temperature in different selected paths.
Lewis et al., 2000, used Finite Element modelling for optimization of feeder shape and
volume of a hub casting. They investigated several geometric variants within allowable
constraints using FEM and finalized the design with considerable reduction in size of feeder.
Application of FEM for optimization of cylindrical feeder design for plate castings has been
reported by Sun and Campbell 2003. Generally numerical modelling for solidification heat
22
transfer is performed to determine temperature distribution in cast metal. This is applied for
identifying regions of high thermal concentration to assist in feeder design for the production
of sound casting with maximum possible yield.
Heat is transferred in metal casting during solidification through all three basic
mechanisms, which are, conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction occurs in the solid metal and mould, convection and radiation at the
interface and outer surface of mould.
Heat flow from casting at the time of solidification experiences various resistances in
its path of flow, which include
i. The solidified metal
ii. The metal-mould interface
iii. The mould
The resistance offered by metal-mould interface is due to the formation of air gap
because of the shrinkage of casting during solidification.
Air gap controls the total solidification pattern of castings and thereby affects the
microstructure and quality of castings.
Theoretical equations developed for calculating solidification time are based on
certain assumptions like one dimensional conduction and constant material properties.
The advantage of using FEM is its ability to handle complex boundaries and the ease
in implementing boundary conditions.
FEM requires much effort for formulation of the problem, data preparation and need
long processing time.
Casting solidification simulation helps us in determining the solidification time of
casting, hot spot location, cooling curves, heat flux, temperature gradient, etc.
23
Chapter 3
Problem Definition
3.1 Motivation
Our main aim is to maximise the productivity and yield without deteriorating the quality of
cast part. The productivity and yield can be maximised by increasing the number of cavities
in a mould. Increase in the number of castings however, also increases the possibility of
getting defects. Therefore there is a need to create a balance between productivity and
quality. In current industrial scenario, foundries lack design, methoding, and analysis experts.
To overcome this, we have to take the advantage of mathematical modelling and casting
simulation.
To achieve the above mentioned goal, the following objectives are identified
1. Thermal analysis of solidification of sand casting using FEM
2. Calculate solidification time for a single cavity mould
3. Calculate optimum cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap for multi cavity mould, using
the solidification time and cavity-cavity gap relation, such that mechanical properties
of casting are not affected
4. Decide the number and layout of the cavities in a multi cavity mould using optimum
cavity-wall and cavity-cavity gap calculated in the previous step.
5. Verify the FEM simulation results experimentally
Finite Element Method planned for thermal analysis of solidification process in sand
casting. The values of temperatures at different points on mould and casting are
calculated. The maximum temperature of casting, which is the hot spot, is calculated
and the time at which the temperature of hot spot comes to solidus temperature of the
metal, is the solidification time of casting.
A criterion is developed to find out the permissible limit, up to which the
solidification time can change without affecting the mechanical properties of the cast
part substantially.
Optimal cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap are calculated by placing the cavities in a
mould in such a manner, so that the solidification time does not change by more than
the permissible limit, which is calculated as per the criterion.
Experimental analysis of solidification of casting is done by placing thermocouples in
the mould. The results obtained from FEM analysis of solidification of casting are
validated with the experimental results.
3.4 Scope
The scope of the work is limited to sand casting. This is because sand casting enjoys the
major share as close as 80% of castings produced by weight and the widely used metals in
sand castings are Ferrous and Aluminium alloys. Mould design is optimised considering only
thermal constraints.
25
Chapter 4
Casting Solidification Simulation and Validation
This chapter discusses the methodology for simulating castings solidification using FEM, the
various inputs required for solidification simulation, the output of the simulation and its
validation with the experimental results.
4.1 Methodology
This section presents the methodology for performing FEM simulation on different castings.
Single cavity mould
Solidification time is calculated for simple shapes castings using ANSYS for a single cavity
mould. For single cavity two types of castings are considered
Solid cube
Hollow cube with different thickness
Solidification time variation with mould thickness is calculated for a solid steel cube of 100
mm dimension. The thickness of mould is varied from 10 mm to 100 mm in steps of 10 mm.
The solidification time is calculated for each case and graph is plotted.
The mould thickness beyond which the solidification time does not change with further
increase in mould thickness is taken as the optimum mould wall thickness.
Now this wall thickness is also calculated for hollow cube casting and is further used in
simulations, where cavity-cavity gap is varied keeping cavity-wall gap constant. The effect of
different types of sands on solidification time of casting is also studied.
Two cavity mould
Solid Cube Cavity (100 mm): In this arrangement two solid cubes are placed in a mould and
the effect of cavity-cavity gap on solidification time of casting is plotted. The mould wall
thickness of the casting is the same which is calculated in the case of single cavity mould.
26
20
5-20
30
10-30
35
20-30
40
20-30
The results obtained from simulating the above cases are used in calculating the optimum
cavity-wall and cavity-cavity gap.
4.2 Simulation Modelling
In this section the inputs required for FEM simulation of casting are discussed. Governing
equation, boundary conditions, material properties and the steps involved in simulating the
solidification of casting using ANSYS are described.
This is a transient heat transfer analysis of casting process. The objective is to track the
temperature distribution in the steel casting and the mould during the solidification process
and to calculate the solidification time of casting. The casting is made in a cubical sand
mould with a cavity of 100 mm cube.
Numerical simulation can overcome the limitation of theoretical equation derived in chapter 2
for calculating solidification time of casting. In numerical simulation the effect of interfacial
27
heat transfer coefficient is taken into account. The physical properties of cast metal and sand
are temperature dependent and the interface temperature is not constant.
A 2-D analysis of a solid cube is performed using ANSYS (Ansys Inc., USA). The
temperature profiles through the mould are drawn and the solidification time of a casting is
calculated.
Temperature dependent properties for steel are taken into consideration
Sand physical and thermal properties are temperature dependent
Radiation effect is neglected
Convection at the interface is neglected
Mould Cavity is instantaneously filled with molten metal
Effect of latent heat is taken into account
Temperature dependent material properties like thermal conductivity and enthalpy are used to
determine heat transfer during phase change. The following three steps are used to carry out
the analysis
Pre-processing: Define geometry, material properties, element type and meshing
Solution: Define analysis type, ex. transient or steady state, apply thermal loads and initiate
the solution
Post processing: Review the results in the form of colour coded images, graphs or tables
The general post processor is used to view results at one time step over the entire model. The
time history post processor is used to determine the model over all time steps.
Solidification/melting are accompanied by the release/absorption of latent heat at the solidliquid and solid-solid interfaces. Consequently, solidification process involves phase changes,
in this case, the enthalpy method is more appropriate to describe this process, because, in this
method the latent heat is inserted in the step that represents the phase transformation. Then,
the general differential equation of heat conduction for the transient nonlinear state that
describes this phenomenon is
T
x2
T
y2
T
z2
dh
dt
(4.1)
28
(4.2)
cdT
T
x
K
x 0
T
y
K
y 0
T
z
h f (T Tanm bient)
(4.3)
z 0
Where q is the heat, K is the thermal conductivity, c is the specific heat, and is the density
of the material. These properties may be temperature-dependent. Then Equation 4.1 is
transformed into a nonlinear transient equation. hf is the coefficient of convective heat
transfer on the moulds external surface, T is the temperature and Tambient is the temperature of
the environment. Through equations 4.1 and 4.3 one can determine the distribution of
temperature or transfer of heat during the process of solidification in casting.
Temperature (K)
Thermal conductivity
Temperature (K)
(W/m-K)
Specific heat
(KJ/Kg-K)
298
0.733
300
0.676
473
0.64
400
0.858
673
0.586
600
0.993
873
0.590
800
1.074
1073
0.640
1000
1.123
1273
0.703
1200
1.156
29
Thermal conductivity
Specific heat
(W/m-K)
(KJ/Kg-K)
273
51.9
0.45
1.00109
873
35.6
0.773
4.55109
1073
26.0
0.931
5.23109
1853
29.7
0.735
11.00109
Temperature (K)
Enthalpy (J/m3)
3. Meshing: Size of mesh is 1 mm (Fig. 4.3). Fine mesh is generally used to obtain
better results. However the overall time of obtaining a solution increases with the
reduction of mesh size and it requires more space in memory for calculation.
4. Apply convection on the lines of the solid model (Fig. 4.4). Loads applied to solid
modelling entities are automatically transferred to the finite element model during
solution. Heat transfer coefficient which is applied to the boundary is 12 Wm-2 K-1.
Temperature at the boundary is room temperature i.e. 300 K (Pariona et al., 2005).
5. Define initial condition: The mould is initially at ambient temperature of 300 K and
the molten metal is at 2000 K, which is, pouring temperature (Fig. 4.5).
Fig. 4.1 Two dimensional model of mould with cast part inside
Solidification Time(secs)
600
500
393
400
300
216
200
100
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
33
70
This analysis helps us in deciding the optimal mould wall thickness as there is no point in
taking the mould wall thickness in the flat region of the curve if it is satisfying the strength
criterion. In this case the optimum mould wall thickness is 35 mm. Therefore we can say that
the major deciding factor while calculating optimal cavity-wall gap is the strength of the
mould.
4.5.2 Solidification analysis for different types of mould sand
While designing the mould for a particular casting, solidification time of the casting helps us
to decide the optimum number of cavities in a mould. Therefore every aspects of sand casting
which affects the solidification time of casting is very important in optimum designing of the
mould which in turn leads to higher yield, higher productivity and lesser defects.
Mould sand is a major factor which affects the solidification time of a casting. In general four
types of sand are used in foundries, which are,
Silica sand
Zircon Sand
Chromite Sand
Cerabeade Sand
Types of sands
3
1= Zircon
2= Chromite
3= Cerabeade
4= Silica
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.2
34
It has been observed that the solidification time is minimum for zircon sand (Fig. 4.8).
Therefore in terms of productivity zircon sand provides best alternative. However mould sand
is chosen for a casting considering various requirements. Higher productivity is one of these
requirements. Other requirements can be good strength, low cost, permeability, collapsibility,
high fusion temperature etc. Therefore mould sand selection varies from casting to casting
35
600
500
500
400
300
188
200
60
100
7
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Thickness (mm)
In Figure 4.11 it can be seen that heat is being accumulated between the two castings, which
in a single casting would have released without any obstruction. This increases the
solidification time of casting.
Previous research and literature in casting solidification shows that lower the solidification
time of a casting the better it is for the part properties and foundry productivity. The reasons
are
It increases the productivity of foundry as it is getting more number of castings in the
same time.
Lower the solidification time higher will be the chilling effect and better will be the
mechanical properties.
Therefore there is a need to create a balance between the productivity and quality of casting.
Packing more castings in the mould will increase the productivity but will also lead to defects
due to high solidification time.
660
630
640
620
600
580
560
534
540
530
520
500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
mm and the solidification time is recorded. The mould wall thickness is taken as 35 mm
which is the critical value calculated in the first case, that is, single cavity solid.
A similar analysis is done for hollow casting (Fig. 4.13). But it is different from the solid
casting analysis because in solid casting the thickness of casting is constant and effect of
thickness is not taken into account. However, here we have varied the thickness as well, and
the cavity-cavity gap of casting and its effect on solidification time is noted. Figure. 4.14 4.17 shows the variation of solidification time of hollow cubes of different thicknesses with
cavity-cavity gap.
It is seen from all the cases (Fig. 4.14-4.17), that the solidification time becomes constant
after a certain critical value of cavity-cavity gap. So taking the cavity-cavity gap more than
this critical value does not affect the solidification rate. Instead, it reduces the metal to sand
ratio, which results in low productivity. The value of the critical gap is a function of casting
thickness, and generally increases with increase in thickness of casting. In case 1 the
solidification time does not change substantially beyond 30 mm cavity-cavity gap. In case 2
the value of this gap is 20 mm. It is 30 mm for both case 3 and case 4. From the above values
one can identify that in all the cases but case 4, the value of critical gap is more or less equal
to the thickness of casting.
38
Case 1: 100 mm hollow cube part (35 mm Thickness) is cast in a sand mould with 30 mm
mould-wall thickness. Gap is varied in steps of 10 mm (Fig. 4.14).
320
Solidification Time (secs)
315
314
310
305
300
295
295
290
293
285
280
15
20
25
30
35
Cavity-Cavity Gap (mm)
40
45
Fig. 4.14 Variation of solidification time with cavity-cavity gap (35 mm)
Case 2: 100 mm hollow cube part (20 mm Thickness) is cast in a sand mould with 30 mm
mould-wall thickness. Gap is varied in steps of 10 mm (Fig. 4.15).
140
120
115
100
80
60
60
55
40
20
0
0
10
15
20
25
Fig. 4.15 Variation of solidification time with cavity-cavity gap (20 mm)
39
Case 3: 100 mm hollow cube part (30 mm thickness) is cast in a sand mould with 30 mm
mould-wall thickness. Gap is varied in steps of 10 mm (Fig. 4.16).
350
Solidification time (secs)
300
322
250
200
183
150
175
100
50
0
0
10
15
20
Cavity-Cavity Gap (mm)
25
30
35
Fig. 4.16 Variation of solidification time with cavity-cavity gap (30 mm)
Case 4: 100 mm hollow cube part (40 mm thickness) is cast in a sand mould with 30 mm
mould-wall thickness. Gap is varied in steps of 10 mm (Fig. 4.17).
515
510
510
505
500
495
490
485
480
480
472
475
470
465
15
20
25
30
35
Fig. 4.17 Variation of solidification time with cavity-cavity gap (40 mm)
40
A case of four cavities is analysed to verify the results obtained above. Four cavities are made
at a 30 mm cavity-cavity gap (Fig. 4.18). The mould wall thickness is 30 mm. It is found that
the solidification time in a four cavity mould is the same as that of a two cavity mould for the
same cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap. The simulation is done for hollow cubical casting of
30 mm thickness. The solidification time is 175 secs (Fig. 4.16).
The basic purpose of performing this analysis is to verify the experimental results which are
conducted for ductile iron casting and sand mould.
A cast part cubical in shape of 100 mm dimension made of ductile iron is considered
Mould is made up of silica sand
Size of mould is 300x300x (125+125) mm.
Temperature dependent thermal properties are considered for both metal and sand
41
Temp (K)
403
608
893
1198
1473
1653
Conductivity
(W/m.K)
38.5
33.5
25.1
18.8
26.0
28.0
Temp (K)
373
673
873
1073
1473
1653
42
Specific Heat
(J/Kg.K)
548
586
619
703
916
912
Temp(K)
Conductivity(W/m.K)
Temp(K)
298
673
1073
1273
1473
0.733
0.586
0.64
0.703
0.7
300
600
1000
1400
1600
Specific
Heat(J/Kg.K)
676
993
1123
1200
1230
43
1550
1500
1450
1400
1350
With IHTC
1300
Without IHTC
1250
1200
1150
1100
0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Time (secs)
44
It is clear from figure 4.22 that the time taken by without IHTC condition is less than with
IHTC condition. As we know at the time of solidification the casting generally shrinks
because of which an air gap is formed at the interface of casting and mould. This air gap acts
as a barrier to the heat which is flowing out of the casting. Therefore air gap will increase the
solidification time of casting. Die casting shows a substantial effect of air gap because in die
casting even the die also expands along with the shrinkage of casting due to high temperature.
However in sand casting since the expansion of sand mould is less IHTC effect is not very
prominent when compared to die casting.
1650
1550
1350
1250
Temperature (K)
1450
1150
1050
950
850
750
650
Center of Casting
10 mm inside casting
At Interface
4
5
20 mm inside mold
30 mm inside mold
550
450
350
250
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Time (secs)
45
Temperature curves are plotted for different points in casting and mould. In figure 4.23 we
have plotted the cooling curves for the following point.
1. At the centre of casting (Which indicates the solidification of casting)
2. 10 mm from the interface, inside casting
3. At interface
4. 20 mm from the interface, inside mould
5. 30 mm from the interface, inside mould
It is observed from the mould temperature profile obtained from simulation that the outer
temperature of mould does not change and remains at room temperature till solidification.
From the simulation it is found that the temperature of the mould outer surface or rather
outer half of the mould does not change till solidification. Therefore the boundary condition
at the outer mould where heat transfer coefficient is given does not have any effect on the
final results.
Ductile iron undergoes a net expansion during solidification. The volume of the solidified
iron at the end of solidification (before solid contraction) is greater than the volume of the
liquid poured into the mould.
When molten metal is poured in the mould it undergoes liquid contraction from the superheat
temperature to the liquidus. This contraction is very predictable since it is dependent on the
coefficient of expansion of the alloy. Eutectic expansion follows the liquidus. The remaining
liquid transforms into austenite and graphite. Expansion always occurs during the eutectic
transformation and it is very significant. This is because all of the carbon in the liquid iron
minus the carbon dissolved in the austenite precipitates as graphite during the eutectic.
Graphite has a much higher specific volume compared to iron causing the expansion that is
observed. The density of graphite is 2.2 g/cc compared to 7 g/cc for that of iron.
After the above discussion it is clear that air gap formation in the case of ductile iron is not
substantial so the value of interfacial heat transfer coefficient is very high in it. Even the trend
of change of IHTC does not follow the general rule. Therefore the results obtained from
experiments are more close to the simulation results in which IHTC is neglected.
46
Experiments are conducted to validate the results for one case each for single cavity and
multi cavity. The validation is done by installing thermocouples at different points in the
mould and comparing them with the results obtained from simulations for the same cases.
Experiments were conducted at SS Foundries, Ichalkaranji. The cast metal used in
experiments is ductile iron and the mould material is silica sand.
The temperature is recorded with the help of a 16 station data logger which can measure
temperature at 16 points simultaneously. A data logger (data recorder) is an electronic device
that records data over time or in relation to location either with a built in instrument or sensor
or via external instruments and sensors
47
48
7 mm from interface
10 mm from interface
15 mm from interface
20 mm from interface
25 mm from interface
30 mm from interface
40 mm from interface
3
2 4
7 6
1000
900
Temp (C)
800
700
10 mm
600
15 mm
20 mm
500
25 mm
400
30 mm
300
40 mm
200
7 mm
23 mm
100
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
Time (secs)
49
600
550
500
Experimental
450
Simulated
400
350
300
0
Time (secs)
Temperature(K)
inside mould
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
Experimental
Simulated
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Time(secs)
Temperature (K)
inside mould
1100
1050
1000
950
900
850
800
750
700
650
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
Experimental
Simulated
500
1000
1500
2000
Time (secs)
The temperature variations with respect to time are plotted for points which are at 10 mm, 20
mm and 30 mm distance from the interface and lie inside the mould. Figure 4.29 shows the
comparison of temperature profile generated by simulation and experiment at 30 mm inside
the mould. Figure 4.30 and 4.31 show the same comparison for 20 mm and 10 mm
respectively.
An almost good match is obtained between simulated and experimental values for the three
points. The major reasons for some difference between experimental and simulated results
are as follows:
The locations of the thermocouples placed in the mould are not very accurate, as the
movement of sand while ramming displaces the thermocouples wire from their proper
positions.
The difference between the material properties used in simulation and the actual
properties of the material used in experiment.
The effect of air gap at the interface is neglected in simulation.
The diameter of the thermocouple wire itself is 2 mm. So it is not possible to measure
the exact temperature values at specific points like 10mm, 20 mm, 30 mm. etc.
51
52
Chapter 5
Optimum Cavity-Cavity Gap and Layout Optimization
The results obtained from the simulations and the discussions in the previous chapters are
utilized to optimise the cavity-cavity gap and generate a flow chart for optimizing the cavity
layout in a mould. Sand to metal ratio is calculated for different types of mould for
comparison.
Optimum value of cavity-cavity gap is calculated using simulation results and applying
solidification time criterion. We have considered that if a casting is manufactured in a multi
cavity mould and its solidification time does not increase by more than 10% of the
solidification time of the same casting in a single cavity mould, then the mechanical
properties of casting remain almost unaffected and are similar to the properties of single
cavity mould casting.
It has been found out from simulation that solidification time of a 100 mm cube casting in a
single cavity mould casting is 530 secs. But when the same casting is manufactured in two
cavity mould and the cavity-cavity gap is reduced the solidification time increases as
indicated in the figure 5.1. Now we know that we can allow only an increase of up to 10 % of
the solidification time in a single cavity. Therefore 53 secs increase in solidification time will
lie in permissible limit. Then the total solidification time will be 530 +53 = 583 Secs.
To obtain the equation of the trend of increase in solidification time with reduction in cavitycavity gap we tried to fit different curves in the above graph, like exponential, logarithm,
polynomial, linear, power etc. and found that polynomial best fit the curve, as can be seen
from the graph below (Fig. 5.1).
53
640
630
620
y = 0.115x2 - 11.7x + 818
600
580
560
540
534
530
520
500
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
(5.1)
54
335
Solidification Time(secs)
330
325
320
315
314
310
305
300
295
295
293
290
285
0
10
20
30
40
50
Cavity-Cavity Gap(mm)
0.085 x 2
6.15 x 403
(5.2)
55
35
Cavity Cavity Gap (mm)
30
27
25
19
20
15
18
19
10
10
5
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Thickness (mm)
Optimum
cavity-wall gap
= 35 mm
Number of cavities
Mould yield
1.25
1.49
4 (41)
1.65
4 (22)
1.78
58
As seen from table 5.1 that the metal to sand ratio increases with the increase in the number
of cavities in a mould for same cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap. The metal to sand ratio also
gets affected by the layout of cavities in a mould.
59
No
If i j
Yes
Compare and select the mould
box with the highest mould
yield
i = i +1
A cast part of stepped rectangular section with a hole in the centre is simulated in ABAQUS
(Fig. 5.9). The material of the part is cast steel and the material of the mould is silica sand.
The dimensions and shape of the part are shown on the next page. The material properties of
cast steel and sand are same as taken in the previous cases of steel casting simulation (Table
4.3) in chapter 4. The analysis is 3D non linear transient type.
From FEM analysis using ABAQUS (Fig. 5.10), we get solidification time of the casting,
= 141 secs.
As we know the values of optimum cavity-cavity gap for hollow cube castings of different
thicknesses. It is found that the optimum cavity-cavity gap for hollow casting is around half
of the thickness of the casting for most of the cases (Fig. 5.3)
In this case study the thickness of casting is 30 mm. So according to our results the optimum
cavity-cavity gap should be around 19 mm (Fig. 5.3). It means that, if we take cavity-cavity
gap as 19 mm then the solidification time of the castings in a two cavity mould should not
increase by more than 10% of the solidification time of the single cavity mould casting,
which is 141 secs. Now to verify this we have simulated the casting solidification for a two
cavity mould in ABAQUS (Fig. 5.11) and found the solidification time = 151 secs.
Now,
Solidification time for a single cavity is 141 secs
10 % of 141 = 14.1
141 + 14.1 = 155.1 secs (Permissible limit of solidification time)
61
40 mm
20 mm
10 mm
20 mm
80 mm
Solidification time calculated from simulation is 151 secs, which lies in the permissible
range, which is less than 155.1 secs. Therefore it satisfies the solidification time criterion.
So, the minimum cavity-cavity gap for this part is 19 mm.
Now we have to select a mould box from a given set of mould boxes, which gives us the
maximum metal to sand ratio. To decide this we first have to decide the optimum number of
cavities in a given mould box, which depends on the minimum cavity-cavity gap and cavitywall gap. Then we calculate the metal to sand ratio for each mould box, and the one which
has the maximum metal to sand ratio will be selected.
To accommodate a single cavity in a mould box, the sum of the length of casting and the
mould wall thickness on both sides of casting should be less than or equal to the dimension of
the smallest edge of the mould box. For two cavity, the sum of the length of two castings,
cavity-cavity gap and the mould wall thickness on both sides of casting should be less than or
equal to the dimension of the edge parallel to which the two cavities are formed.
n l
(n 1) Gcc
2 Gcw
(5.3)
n = Number of cavities
l = Length of the cavity
Gcc = Cavity-cavity gap
Gcw = Cavity-wall gap
L = Length of mould box
It means that n number of castings of length l, cavity-cavity gap Gcc and cavity-wall gap Gcw
can be accommodated in a mould box of length L, if it satisfies the equation 5.3. The same
equation can be applied to calculate the number of cavities along the breath of the mould box.
But in this case the value of cavity-cavity gap and cavity-wall gap will change if the breadth
of the casting is different from its length.
63
We have considered four mould boxes of different sizes, which are as follows:
1. 200200150
2. 300300200
3. 450450300
4. 550500350
The dimensions are in mm. These are standard sizes of moulds which are widely used in
foundries.
Minimum cavity-cavity gap and cavity-wall gap are 19 mm and 30 mm respectively for the
cast part. All the castings are arranged in a single plane inside the mould box, that is, castings
are not placed one above the other.
The following results are obtained by using the equation 5.3 for each mould box (Table. 5.2).
It is found that mould box 3 has the maximum metal to sand ratio value, hence it is the best
option.
Table 5.2 Metal to sand ratio for different types of mould boxes
Metal
Sand
volume
volume
(mm3)
(mm3)
11
132000
5868000
0.022
22
528000
17472000
0.030
450450
16
44
2112000
58638000
0.036
550500
20
54
2640000
93610000
0.028
Mould
Mould box
Number of
Cavity
box
size
cavities
layout
200200
300300
3
4
Metal to
sand ratio
A methodology to calculate the optimum cavity-cavity gap for a casting is discussed. A flow
chart is presented to optimize the cavity layout in a mould. A case study is solved using the
same methodology.
64
Chapter 6
Conclusions
Summary of the work done and its future scope is discussed in this chapter.
6.1 Summary of Work
To improve the yield and productivity of sand casting process, a simulation based method to
optimize mould cavity layout has been developed. The work is summarised here
Metal casting being one of the major process in manufacturing of metal parts,
therefore there is need to improve the process in terms of productivity and yield to
maximize profit and reduce lead time.
Yield is increased in a casting process by increasing the number of cavities in a
mould.
Number of cavities in a mould depends upon the cavity-wall and cavity-cavity gap.
Lesser the cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap more the number of cavities can be
accommodated in a given mould.
At the same time reducing cavity-cavity and cavity-wall gap increases the
solidification time of the casting. Increase in solidification time affects the grain size
of casting and diminishes its mechanical properties.
Thus, there is a need to develop a balance between the number of castings in a mould
and the permissible amount of increase in solidification time due to increase in
number of castings.
The permissible limit of increase in solidification time of casting in multi cavity
mould is taken as 10% of the solidification time for a single mould. If the
solidification time changes more than this, then it is assumed to affect the mechanical
properties of casting.
Solidification time for solid and hollow cube castings in a single cavity mould is
calculated using FEM. The trend of increase in solidification time due to decrease in
cavity-cavity gap is studied for same castings in a multi cavity mould.
Curve is fitted to the trend obtained from the above step and equation of the curve is
determined.
65
The equation produced is used to calculate the cavity-cavity gap corresponding to the
permissible limit of solidification time. It means the permissible value of
solidification time gives us the optimal value of cavity-cavity gap in multi cavity
mould.
Results obtained from transient thermal analysis using FEM are verified
experimentally.
Thermocouples are placed in mould and temperature is recorded at different points in
the mould using a data logger and then temperature curves are plotted for these points.
These temperature curves are compared with the temperature curves generated by
simulating solidification of same casting in ABAQUS.
Effect of interfacial heat transfer coefficient (IHTC) on the solidification process of
casting is studied. It is found that solidification time decreases with the increase in
IHTC.
66
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69
Acknowledgments
I take immense pleasure in thanking my guide Prof. B. Ravi for his continuous support and
encouragement. He has been a great source of inspiration for me. His timely guidance helped
me to complete this report.
I would like to thank Mr. Durgesh Joshi and Mr. Mayur Sutaria for their support and help in
simulation work. I am very thankful to Mr. V.P. Shinde for providing me the necessary
experimental data to validate the simulated results.
I am also thankful to my lab friends for their timely cooperation and support. I am very
thankful to Mr. Subbu Raj who always guided me in critical situations.
Finally, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my beloved parents for their blessings,
and my friends for their support.
Ankur Sharma
IIT Bombay, Powai
June, 2009
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