Amira
Amira
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
KEYWORDS
Translation;
Equivalence;
Non-equivalence;
Translatability;
Untranslatability;
Arabic culture;
Culture-specic terms
Abstract The concept of equivalence is believed to be a central issue in translation although its
denition, relevance, and applicability within the eld of translation theory have caused heated controversies. Several theories on the concept of equivalence have been elaborated within this eld in
the past fty years. For example, Vinay and Darbelnet (1995), Jakobson (1959), Nida and Taber
(1982), Catford (1965), House (1977), and Baker (1992). Indeed, Equivalence has provided a useful theoretical and pragmatic foundation for translation processes. However, the notion of equivalence has also been criticized as asymmetric, directional, subject-less, unfashionable imprecise
and ill-dened (Bolanos, 2005; Snell-Hornby, 1988; Nord, 1997).
This paper argues that if equivalence is the essence of translation, non-equivalence constitutes an
equally legitimate concept in the translation process. The rationale for this position is that languages articulate or organize the world differently because languages do not simply name existing
categories, they articulate their own (Culler, 1976, p. 21). Further, non-equivalence in translation
is discussed and substantiated by evidence and examples in the process of translating from Arabic
into English, a point that has not been adequately discussed in researches dealing with equivalence.
Many researchers have discussed equivalence in translating mainly from English into Arabic
(Ghazala, 2004). These two languages belong to two different cultures and hence, provide good
evidence for the possibility of translating what is sometimes referred to as untranslatable due
to non-equivalence or lack of equivalence. For example, Arabic is rich in culture-specic terms
and concepts that have no equivalents in English. Yet, these terms can be translated into English
using one of the strategies suggested for translating non-equivalence to convey their conceptual
and cultural meanings to the English speaking readers (Baker, 1992).
48
A.D. Kashgary
In such cases, I argue that equivalence or translating using equivalence is not necessarily the best
strategy, i.e., it does not produce a meaningful rendering of the source term [ST] into the target term
[TT]. Rather, purposefully using non-equivalence results in a better translation. Non-equivalence
becomes more relevant than equivalence. In other words, non-equivalence becomes more equivalent than equivalence. It is a better strategy in these cases. Hence, it is quite legitimate to discuss
non-equivalence and its applicability in translating culture-specic terms and concepts including idioms, metaphors and proverbs.
2010 King Saud University. Production and hosting by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
The phrase translating the untranslatable, which I used as a
part of the title for this paper, brings together two contradictory terms. Juxtaposing these two in this popular and
extensively researched phrase leads to the possibility of
deconstructing the second. The basic premise which this phrase
entails, i.e., the idea that untranslatables can be translated,
leads logically to the negation of the idea of untranslatability. It is possible to translate what is believed to be untranslatable due to incompatibilities between languages (either
individual phrases or entire texts). Therefore, the notion of
untranslatability is open to dismissal because translation
between languages is still possible.
Untranslatability may occur at the word level due to lack of
equivalence between languages at this level. This kind of
untranslatability is circumvented by abandoning equivalence
at the word level in favor of non-equivalent terms in order
to achieve an acceptable degree of equivalence at the text level.
Starting with this premise, the discussion naturally leads to a
notion closely associated with translatability and its requirements; i.e., the notion of equivalence. Is equivalence a basic
and necessary condition for translatability? Can we translate
in the absence of equivalence? Why do we have to chase the
illusive concept of equivalence in translation knowing, as
Schopenhauer said, that there is no exact equivalence between
two languages in terms of lexical items and concepts? The
question of the feasibility of the equivalence model in translation raises some concerns: is it suitable to look at equivalence
as a central issue in translation?
Theoretically, and in practice, equivalence has been a controversial issue in translation studies and translation theories.
Equivalence has been viewed as a basic and central concept
and a requirement in translating (Catford, 1965; Nida, 1964;
Newmark, 1988). Nevertheless, throughout the long history
of translation research and studies, Equivalence has been challenged by many translation theorists from different perspectives. Snell-Hornby (1988, p. 22) criticized equivalence as
imprecise, ill-dened, and as representing an illusion of symmetry between languages. It has also been criticized as having
seven drawbacks (Nord, 1997, p. 44): lacking consistency,
losing intrinsic interrelationship between situational and linguistic factors of communicative interaction, excluding target
language texts which do not satisfy the criterion of equivalence
from translation proper, not accounting for culture-specic
differences, ignoring cultural aspects, treating source texts
as the only standard, to which the translator has to subordinate any decision and perpetuating low social prestige of
translators.
Recognizing these shortcomings, Xiabin (2005) posed the
challenging question can we throw equivalence out of the
window proposing that equivalence, in spite of all the challenges raised against it, is absolutely necessary, but not in
its absolute mathematical sense. The justications that Xiabin gave for this claim include:
1. Equivalence does not mean the source text is the only signicant factor. However, equivalence does distinguish
translation from writing.
2. Equivalence to a text in another language entails more
obstacles, linguistic, temporal and cultural, and therefore
more challenges than monolingual interpretation.
3. Sameness to the source texts is neither possible nor even
desired.
4. Text type is an important factor in deciding how much a
translation should be equivalent as well as other factors
such as translation purposes, demands of the clients and
expectations of the target readers.
5. Equivalence is never a static term, but is similar to that of
value in economics.
6. Equivalence and the techniques to achieve it cannot be dismissed all together because they represent a translation
reality.
Xiabin concludes that equivalence will remain central to
the practice of translation . . . even if it is marginalized by
translation studies and translation theorists (Xiabin, 2005,
p. 19).
This paper carries the process forward by introducing and
employing the counterpart, yet complementary concept to
equivalence, i.e. the concept of non-equivalence. Particularly, the paper attempts to introduce non-equivalence as a
legitimate issue in dealing with cases where translation problems arise especially where cultural aspects are crucial in translating texts. The paper argues specically that if equivalence is
an important factor in translation, the nature of equivalence
should be understood and dealt with according to its multifaceted dimensions: formal, dynamic, situational and contextual.
A part of understanding equivalence is our ability to build
on it by promoting the concept of non-equivalence as a complementary concept which focuses on cases of translation
problems encountered by translators working on English
Arabic and ArabicEnglish texts. Since these two languages
embody different cultures, non-equivalence issues in translating
texts and even phrases between them gure out prominently.
Examples and evidence are examined by analyzing linguistic
data encountered by the researcher in her own attempts in
translating and in already existing translated texts in the two
languages. The fact that these texts and phrases are translated
and recognized as acceptable translations is the empirical
evidence to the legitimacy of non-equivalence in translation,
a claim made by this paper.
The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. non-equivalence in translating from Arabic into English
49
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Vowels
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The identication of equivalents, according to Newmark, is
involved in the process of transference. The more the text is
difcult, the more it is hard to identify them. But even then,
they should never reach the exact meaning of the SL text because a good translation is deft, neat, and closely shadowing
its original (1983, p. 18).
Wolfram Wilss (1982, p. 134) states that the concept of
TE (translation equivalence) has been an essential issue not
only in translation theory over the last 2000 years, but also
in modern translation studies and that there is hardly any
other concept in translation theory which has produced as
many contradictory statements and has set off as many attempts at an adequate, comprehensive denition as the concept
of TE between SLT (source language text) and TLT (target
language text). In his denition, translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written SL text into
an optimally equivalent TL text, and which requires the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the SL text (1982, p. 3).
The concept of equivalence has also been discussed in the
context of various dichotomies such as formal vs. dynamic
equivalence (Nida), semantic vs. communicative translation
(Newmark) and semantic vs. functional equivalence (Bell).
According to Bell, for example, the translator has the option
of focusing on nding formal equivalents which preserve the
context-free semantic sense of the text at the expense of its context-sensitive communicative value, or nding functional
equivalents which preserve the context-sensitive communicative value of the text at the expense of its context-free semantic
sense (1991, p. 7).
Bolanos (2005), in a paper entitled Equivalence Revisited:
A Key Concept in Modern Translation Theory, discusses the
two conicting approaches to translation, the linguistic/text
oriented theories (TOT) and the non-linguistic/context oriented theories (COT). These approaches, according to the
author, are two complementary perspectives to deal with translation. He argued for the text linguistic approach supported by
the concepts of equivalence. Arguments for and against the
concept of equivalence within the TOT and the COT were also
discussed in detail. The author nally opted for the concept of
equivalence within the framework of the Dynamic Translation
Model (DTM) as a basis for translation. In this model,
translation should be understood within the framework of a
communicative process. Three main components are distinguished in this model of translation:
1. Participants (client, sender, translator, receiver);
2. Conditions and determinants (participants competence
and socio-psychological characterizations, context);
3. Text (linguistic realization of the communicative purposes
of the sender in L1).
The last component (text) is seen at ve levels: syntactic,
lexical, semantic, pragmatic and semiotic. The main task of
the translator in this model is the establishment of equivalence
in a continuous and dynamic problem-solving process. Equivalence, therefore, is the relation that holds between a SL text
and a TL text and is activated (textualized) in the translation
process as a communicative event in the ve text levels identied in the model.
In conclusion, we can say that translation equivalence is a
troubled notion. There are so many types and levels of equiv-
A.D. Kashgary
alence, and the term equivalent itself is a standard polysemous English word, with the result that the precise sense in
which translation equivalence is understood varies from writer
to writer (Shuttleworth and Cowie, 1999, p. 49). Equivalence
is not a set of criteria which translations have to live up to, but
is rather a group of features which characterizes the relationships linking the TT with its ST.
3. Non-equivalence in translation
The concept of Equivalence has had its share of criticism and
challenges. If equivalence is considered the essence of translation, the next question is what about cases of non-equivalence
in translation? As Baker (1992) puts it, the difculty and problem in translating from one language into another is posed by
the concept of non-equivalence, or lack of equivalence. This
problem appears at all language levels starting from the word
level up till the textual level.
Baker discusses various equivalence problems and their
possible solutions at word, above word, grammatical, textual,
and pragmatic levels. She takes a bottom-up approach for
pedagogical reasons. Baker proceeds with her equivalence
discussion from word to further upward levels. She claims
translators must not underestimate the cumulative effect of
thematic choices on the way we interpret text (ibid: 129).
Baker also acknowledges the fact that there are translation
problems caused by non-equivalence. She identies common
problems of non-equivalence and suggests appropriate strategies in dealing with such cases.
Snell-Hornby (1988) criticized the concept of equivalence
by comparing the meaning of the word equivalence in English and German, which she considered as non-equivalent.
The meaning of this term, she claimed oscillates in the fuzziness of common language between two things: of similar signicance or virtually the same thing. She stated that on the
one hand the term aquivalenz (in German)
as a scientically xed constant for a given goal - is too
static and one-dimensional, and on the other hand equivalence has been watered down up to the loss of its meaning.
Equivalence itself is not equivalent, although the similarity
fakes: the borrowing from the exact sciences has turned out
to be an illusion (15)
In a paper by Varadi T. and Kiss G., under the title Equivalence and Non-equivalence in Parallel Corpora, the authors
discussed how an aligned parallel corpus can be used to investigate the consistency of translation equivalence across the two
languages in a parallel corpus. The particular issues addressed
are the bi-directionality of translation equivalence, the coverage of multi-word units, and the amount of implicit knowledge
presupposed on the part of the user in interpreting the data.
Non-equivalence is a fact among languages. Although we
are constantly engaged in translating between Arabic and
English using certain words that we assume to be equivalent,
we might be surprised to nd that we are in fact using nonequivalents.
Let me rst start with a rather innocently simple example.
Consider the Arabic word [hill] which most of us would readily translate into crescent. The issue seems to be resolved at
that. A rather accurate equivalent is found that appears to be
readily useable even for machine translation.
The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. non-equivalence in translating from Arabic into English
Figure 1
51
But, is this the full story? Lets consider the precise meaning
of [hill] in the Arabic language. It refers to the phase of the
moon in the rst three nights of the lunar month and denotes
the birth of the new lunar month. In English, however, the
word crescent is derived from the geometric shape and refers
to the phase of the moon both in the rst quarter (i.e., 7 nights)
and the last quarter of the lunar month. The Arabic term
[hill] is derived from the Arabic root [halla], and therefore
it is semantically associated with the emergence of the month,
whereas the term crescent is semantically associated with a
geometric shape. Clearly, the two terms are not fully equivalent or universally interchangeable. There is no inherent
equivalence between these two presumably equivalent terms
in English and Arabic (see Fig. 1).
Although the above example illustrates an extremely subtle
case of translating using non-equivalence, translators are constantly faced by countless cases of more straightforward and
clearer examples of non-equivalence in translation. In such
cases, they manage to translate and not only to transfer as
Catford suggested when he grouped such cases under the types
of untransaltability. A more adequate approach to deal with
cases of non-equivalence would be to use a combination of
translation strategies to provide solutions.
4. Translation and untranslatability
Under the title translating the untranslatable, one can nd a
vast amount of internet-based material, as a Google search
would readily reveal. This material ranges from articles on
translating the Quran and literary texts to books and dissertations dealing with the concept and theories of translation and
their applicability when put to practice. Notably, Bond, 2005
book entitled Translating the Untranslatable is to be mentioned. It describes a way for a machine translation system
to generate words and inections that are obligatory in the target language, but not in the source language. The specic case
he looks at is the translation of articles (a, the) and number
(singular and plural), going from Japanese to English.
The question of whether particular words are untranslatable is often debated, with lists of untranslatable words
being produced from time to time. In his book In Other
Words Christopher Moore lists a group of words which he
describes as the most intriguing words around the world
for which there are no equivalents. In Arabic, he cites words
such as djinn, hall, haj, baraka, bukra and
taradhin as words that are difcult to translate into English.
He considers Arabic as a language that must surely come at
the summit of the worlds untranslatable tongues (2004,
52
A.D. Kashgary
Two
Commentary
Allah
Al Salat
Al Zakat
Al Shahadah
Al Sawm
Al Haj
Al Adhan
Al Haraam
Al Halal
Al Ethm
Al Jihad
Al Qiblah
Fatwa
Al Duaa
Al Fiqh
Al Barakah
God
Prayers
Charity
Martyrdom
Fasting
Pilgrimage
Call for Prayers
Forbidden
Permissible
Sin
Holy war
Prayer direction
Verdict
Invocation, supplication
Jurisprudence
Gods blessing
Religious terms are culture-specic par excellence. They represent a category of translation non-equivalence because they
cannot be appropriately translated by providing their dictionary equivalents. The dictionary equivalents of these terms
may be considered within the framework of Nidas approximation in translation where equivalents are given only to approximate the meaning in general terms and not the details because
the content of these terms is highly different from the content
of their equivalents. In a symposium on Translating the
Meanings of the Holy Quran held in Madina, Saudi Arabia
(2002), researchers discussed this issue extensively and suggested solutions to deal with the problem of translating Islamic
The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. non-equivalence in translating from Arabic into English
53
These terms are related to certain aspects of Arab values, culture and religion. They cannot be translated using their English equivalents, provided these equivalents exist in English.
The word [Al Irdh] in Arabic is semantically complex. It refers
to a host of other concepts related to a males honor in protecting female members of his family, possessions, and other people he is responsible for. This concept has no equivalent in the
English culture, and therefore, can only be translated by using
a more neutral and less expressive term, e.g., dignity and
explaining its associative emotions and judgments.
Part of the difculty in translating such terms lies in the fact
that these words require an awareness of the Arabic culture
with all its social values and traditions. In addition, these
words represent concepts which do not exist in English. The
dictionary equivalents given for these terms are either long
explanations of the concepts or less expressive terms. It is recommended to translate these words by using the paraphrase
strategy where the words are explained based on modifying
the super-ordinate words and unpacking their meanings using
unrelated words. For example, sabee is the super-ordinate
word which refers to the seventh day of a newborn babys
celebration. It is translated by describing the occasion and
the customs that accompany it. Similarly, mahram is translated by modifying the super-ordinate someone as a male
chaperon, and adding some explanation to unpack the connotative meaning of this term in the Islamic culture.
Local cuisines present similar challenges to Equivalence. Of
specic interest is the Arabic phrase [fool and tames]. It refers
to a very popular dish that has a local avor in Saudi Arabia.
This term can be translated by giving its English equivalent as
beans and bread. However, this will neither capture the local
avor of this dish nor illustrate its peculiar features such as
when it is eaten, its low cost, the type of people who commonly
eat it, the presumed effect it has on slowing mental processes, etc.
Arabic term
Al Irdh
Al Sharaf
Al Sabee
English equivalent
Good repute-dignity
Honor
Babys seventh-day
celebration
Al Dukhlah
Wedding night
Al Dhurrah
Co-wife; wife other than
the rst wife of a
polygamous marriage
Al Adeel
Brother-in-law
Al Silfah
Sister-in-law
Al Azaa
Funeral
Al Mahram
Unmarriageable;
guardian male chaperon
Al Thayyib
Previously married
woman
Al Bikr
Virgin
Aanis
Spinster
Beit Al Taah Obedience house;
husbands house
Fool & Tamees Beans and bread
In this section, a group of Arabic words which are not lexicalized in English are discussed. A list of such terms is given in the
following table.
Commentary
Use paraphrase strategy
where the words are
explained based on
modifying the superordinate words and
unpacking their
meanings using
unrelated words
To
To
To
To
Commentary
54
A.D. Kashgary
Arabic term
English equivalent
Saram
Harvesting dates
Commentary
Commentary
temperature
Cold- cool- warm- hotlukewarm
The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. non-equivalence in translating from Arabic into English
which refers to a stage between childhood and teenage (1012
years old) and baby boomers which refers to persons who
were born between the years 1940 and 1960. Arabic, however,
still uses the old linguistic classication and has not added new
equivalent words for the English tween and baby boomer.
5.5. English lacks specic term (hyponym)
In this section we will address Arabic words which have several
hyponyms for which English lacks equivalents. A sample list of
such terms is given in the following table.
Arabic has many specic words (hyponyms) for words related
to the Arabic culture for which English has no equivalents.
For example, Arabic has many hyponyms to refer to the
times of the day. Most of these words are based on the
prayer times for which English has no equivalents, e.g.,
[alfadzer] [aluher] [a?sar] [almaGrib] and [aliSa]. Another
interesting example is the Arabic word [tamr] which has the
English equivalent dates. This word has many hyponyms
Commentary
[alxalala]
[albisrah]
[alruteb]
[attamer]
In translating these
Stages in the
development of dates (no hyponyms into English, the
equivalents)
general word is used
supplemented by adding a
description to convey the
precise meaning.
[alhijen]
[alibel]
[alba?ir]
[al?ina]
[alasu:d]
[alqau:d]
[alnaqah]
[aldzamal}
Dierent characteristics
for Camels (no
equivalents)
[alfadzer]
[asabah]
[a uher]
[alsar]
[almaGrib]
[aliSa]
[allail]
[alsahar]
[alGasaq]
[hattn]
[wbil]
[Tal]
[dimah]
[alanu:d]
[alxulub]
[allhf]
[Gaim]
[muzn]
[seb?]
[laio ]
[usamah]
[erGam]
[Gaanfer]
Arabic
term
English equivalent
[uqab]
[Shi:n]
[bz]
[baSiq]
55
Commentary
56
A.D. Kashgary
Commentary
Hubb
Qalaq
Eshtiaq
Walah
Lawah
Wajd
Walaa
Hiyam
Eshq
Gharam
Sababah
Sabwah
Hawa
Love
Anxiety
Longing
Enthrallment/adoration
Agony
Passion, ecstasy of love
Passionate love, craving
Passionate love
Passion, ardor of love
Infatuation
Fervent longing
Youthful passion
Love
The paradox of translating the untranslatable: Equivalence vs. non-equivalence in translating from Arabic into English
References
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Bell, Roger, 1991. Translation and Translating: Theory and Practice.
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Catford, John C., 1965. A Linguistic Theory of Translation: an Essay
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Culler, J., 1976. Saussure. Collins, Glagow.
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