Palestrica of the third millennium Civilization and Sport

Vol. 15, no. 1, January-March 2014, 6771

Motivation and its implications in sports performance (Note I)

Motivaia i implicaiile acesteia n sportul de performan (Nota I)
Ionela Alina Cucui, Gheorghe Gabriel Cucui
Valahia University of Trgovite
Abstract
In addressing this theme, I started from the premise that motivation is a prerequisite to practicing sport and especially, for
obtaining sport performance, driven by both internal motivational factors and external ones. These factors depend on the basic
needs of human beings, but also external, social and educational factors.
In professional sports, motivation is a key factor in achieving athletic performance, without which athletes are unable to
support the training effort to perfect their psychomotor abilities. Stimulating motivation remains an art that only the coach has
the skill and ability to achieve.
Key words: motivation, training, performance.
Rezumat
n abordarea problematicii circumscris temei am plecat de la premisa c motivaia reprezint o condiie de baz a practicrii
sportului i mai ales, a obinerii de performane sportive, determinat att de factorii motivaionali interni, ct i de cei externi.
Aceti factori depind de modul n care sunt trite trebuinele de baz ale fiinei umane, dar i de modul n care au acionat factorii externi, sociali i pedagogici.
n sportul de performan motivaia reprezint un factor determinant n realizarea performanelor sportive, fr de care
sportivii nu ar reui s fac fa efortului din antrenamentul sportiv, n vederea perfecionrii capacitilor psihomotrice. Stimularea motivaiei rmne o art care ine de miestria i harul antrenorului.
Cuvinte cheie: motivaie, antrenament, performan.

Introduction

as a function of the relationship between effort and the

perceived level of performance - on the one hand - and
the expectation of reward (its size ) - on the other hand
(Hellriegel et al., 1992).
Athletic performance is motor performance achieved
in an institutionalized social comparison context,
which implies inequality in the distribution of rewards
(Teodorescu, 2006).
The studied literature considers that human
performance can be explained as a multiplicative factor
of motivation and abilities/skills, P = f ( MXA) (Bologa
& Gherghian, 1994 cited by Haralambie & Mihilescu,
2010).
Coaches and sports performance specialists seek various
ways and means to increase the efficiency of athletes in
competitions. Most of them have turned their attention
to the development of exercise capacity. However, in the
context of the current performance level, of the altitude
and instability of performance, it is imperative to find
other solutions. In this respect, we consider beneficial the
intervention of specialists on the psyche of the athlete, who
must be optimally motivated to cope with sports training
and high level competitions.
Following documentation, we found that the

The problem of the psychological preparation of athletes

as part of training is of great interest, especially now when
sports results are extremely high. Psychological preparation
can acquire new meanings and perspectives and can be a
challenge for the optimization of athletic performance.
According to Epuran (2008), the psychological preparation
of the athlete involves all the strategies and techniques used
in training and education to increase the mental ability and
personality development of athletes, corresponding to the
requirements of an event/sport, in order to achieve superior
effects and results in training and competition (Epuran
2008 cited by Mihilescu & Cucui 2013).
In addressing this theme, we started from the premise
that motivation is the process that governs the choices made
by each individual athlete to achieve sports performance.
Motivation is expressed by a particular state of psychic
tension based on the correlation between perception and
thought. The foundation of motivation is represented by
all needs and interests of athletic performance. Motivation
determines focus and will, and energetically supports
the efforts of training and participation in competitions
(Mihilescu et al., 2011).
Some authors say that motivation should be seen

Received: 2014, February 10; Accepted for publication: 2014, March 15;
Address for correspondence: Valahia University of Trgovite, Regele Carol I Blvd., No. 2, 130024, Trgovite, Dmbovia, Romania
E-mail: haralambiealina2008@yahoo.com
Copyright 2010 by Iuliu Haieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy Publishing

67

Ionela Alina Cucui & Gheorghe Gabriel Cucui

behavior.
One of the most popular theories is Maslows theory
(1943), which is based on the idea that human needs act at
multiple different levels, from lower levels to higher levels.
This model theory states that people tend to
progressively meet their needs, first on a lower level, and
subsequently on a higher level. There are authors (Guest,
1984, cited by Bogathy, 2004) who argue that Maslows
theory is not fully justified to be supported and that it
would be disadvantaged by the rigidity of its conception.
Another theory is Herzbergs bifactorial theory, which
is based on the premise that human life is conducted on two
different levels: physical and psychological. According
to this theory, motivation occurs under the influence of
motivating factors and hygiene factors. The factors that
determine satisfaction are motivators (motivating factors),
while factors that cause dissatisfaction are called hygiene
factors. Motivating factors refer to the essence of activity,
and hygiene factors relate to the environment in which an
individual performs (Duic, 2008).
During the course of time, a number of specialists have
exposed their opinions on motivation theories, opinions
that supported existing ones and were in turn completed.
Of these, we mention the expectancy theory and the goal
theory.
The expectancy theory developed by Vroom (1964)
assumes that motivation is the process that governs
individual choices among various possibilities. The main
idea of the theory is that peoples choices are influenced by
the expected results of their choice.
The relevance of this theory in high performance sport
comes from the fact that effort during sports training is
rarely an end in itself; beyond the objectives of a training
session, the effort is aimed at reaching other goals. The
training of athletes would be a first level goal allowing to
reach the second level goals that depend on the athletes
needs, for the achievement of the proposed objectives in
the competitions to come.
The theory is based on three variables: valence,
expectancy and instrumentality, considered to form the
infrastructural level of motivation (Mamali, 1981).
Valence is the strength of an individuals desire to achieve
second level goals, and expectancy is defined as the
perceived likelihood of what can be achieved in the future
in terms of satisfaction of needs and desires. Choosing a
first level goal depends on the supposed relationship with
the results expected from the second level.
Instrumentality is the association of first level and second
level goals and expresses the extent to which that need is
really met (second level goal). Valence is a predominantly
affective dimension, expectancy is predominantly
cognitive, and instrumentality is predominantly actional;
these dimensions may include these features themselves.
According to them, it can be said that athletes adjust their
own behavior depending on their expectations and to the
probable link perceived between the goals.
The relevance of this theory at an organizational level
is illustrated by Houses theory (1971), according to which
in order to induce a particular behavior, the manager/coach
must act on one of the three variables (House, 1971, cited
by Ciucurel, 2008).

studied issues are still little addressed, although mental

preparation in general and motivation in particular is a
lever for achieving athletic performance. Studies have
been developed regarding the screening of motivation of
young athletes participating in competitions in relation
to sex, age or the type of sport, the identification of the
main reasons for sports practice depending on the athletes
performance level, the detection of the motivational task
and its intensity, as well as negativity and self-confidence
during the pre-competition period, the identification of
the reason why some sports are practiced in universities,
the motivation of physical exercise among the adolescent
and elderly population (Amici et al., 2009; Campbell &
Lioyd, 2006; Nepopaloov & Aleksandridi 2004; Coelho
& Vasconcelos-Raposo, 2006; Rose et al., 2006; Pihu et
al., 2006; Liang MY & Chun MC, 2004; Welde & Svebak,
2008 cited by Haralambie & Mihailescu, 2010).

The concept of motivation

The concept of motivation emerged only in the 20th
century. The complexity of the concept of motivation as
a psychological phenomenon prompted the interest of
researchers in psychology (Mitchell, 1982; Hellriegel et
al., 1992; Amici et al., 2009; Maslow, 2007).
According to Mitchell (1982), motivation is all
psychological processes that generate the initiation,
direction and persistence of voluntary actions aiming to
achieve objectives (Mitchell, 1982 cited by Fril, 2004).
Motivation is defined in scientific psychology as an
internally exposed external causality (Golu, 2005),
a system of impulses, incentives, internal pulsions,
activations, tensions or motives of actions and behavior
(Popescu-Neveanu, 1978). Popescu (2009) considers that
motivation is the subjective premise for the formation of
an attitude, which is based on the needs that cause the
individual to exhibit a certain behavior.
Motivation is a state that energizes behavior and gives
it direction (Atkinson & Hilgard, 2005). Motivation is
self-directed; motivation actions have a purpose; motivated
behavior is variable; there is an expectation of success in
terms of motivated behaviors; there is a positive or negative
incentive, a consuming value of action (Dempsey &
Zimbardo cited by Pnioar & Pnioar, 2005).

Theories of motivation
Motivation should not be considered and interpreted
only as an end in itself, but as a means for obtaining
high performance. Performance is a higher level of goal
achievement. In this context, the relationship between
motivation and performance has not only a theoretical but
also a practical importance.
The athlete conduct is explained based on psychological
factors by means of motivation theories.
Motivation theories are advanced in scientific
psychology in different forms, influenced by human
behavior: the theory of instinct, impulse, theories focused
on physiological needs with a new socio-biological
dimension, the theory focused on psychological needs,
purpose focused theories, or process theories that explain
rather the process following which motivation appears;
theories that support the role of social factors in influencing

68

Motivation and its implications in sports performance

Therefore, according to this theory adapted to sport, it
can be said that the coach is the one who must come up with
a strategy to support the athlete to correct his deficiencies
in terms of valence, expectancy and instrumentality, as
follows:
- if expectancy is deficient, the coach must encourage
the athlete and help him think positively, stimulating him
with material or spiritual rewards, even when the athletes
results are disappointing or less than expected. Of course,
the approach of this strategy largely depends on the coachs
view;
- if instrumentality is reduced, the coach needs to
establish links between second level and first level goals.
This type of strategy has an equal chance of being adopted
by the majority of the coaches.
- in the case of a weak valence, the coach proposes
second level goals that are desirable for the individual and
acceptable for the sports club or FRA.
Lockes goal theory (1990) shows that goals also
guide behavior and influence performance. People who set
themselves a specific goal have better performance than
those without a fixed goal or with a vague goal. Managerial
implications show that this theory is seen more as a
motivation strategy than as a formal theory of motivation.
This strategy involves the identification of goals that
ensure a high level of performance; the setting of goals at a
competitive but realistic level; the need for feed-back, etc.
The relevance of this theory in sport performance is
reflected by the development of the annual training plan;
the coach together with the athlete plan the training and
performance objectives, establishing the training strategy
to obtain maximum performance in the major goal
competition.
In terms of explaining the behavior of individuals on
the basis of psychological factors, psychology proposes
the achievement motivation theory developed by Murray
(1938), which expresses a secondary psychogenic need that
makes an individual execute something difficult, dominate,
manipulate things, people, overcome obstacles, achieve a
high level and excel (Murray, 1938 cited by Teodorescu,
2006).
According to theorists, achievement motivation is
based on three theories (Weinberg & Gould, 1995):
a) the need for achievement theory, which considers
that achievement motivation is influenced by personality
factors, situational factors, trends, emotional reactions, and
achievement behavior as a result of the interaction of the
four mentioned factors.
b) the attribution theory refers to the cognitive
process by which individuals perceive and explain their
own behavior (self-attribution) or the behavior of others
(hetero-attribution) in everyday life.
The relevance of this theory in high performance sport
highlights the possibility of explaining success and the
factors contributing to performance. The following may
contribute to a certain performance of an athlete: internal
factors (the athletes talent or skills), external factors
(chance, the coachs skill), internal causes (special effort
or injury sequelae), external causes (convenient opponents
or poor organizational conditions), factors that can be
controlled (tactical plan or the athletes disinterest), and

factors that cannot be controlled (training of opponents or

absence of the need for optimal training).
c) the goal attainment theory
The prerequisite of this theory is the need to understand
the meaning that success or failure has for an individual.
The optimal way to find the answer to this question is to
examine how the athlete achieves the proposed goal and
how he is influenced by the perception of his own abilities
or skills (Teodorescu, 2006).

Structure of motivation
The structure of motivation is composed of all the
motives that stimulate human behavior. It is necessary
to know that a persons motivation for an action does
not lie in the presence of a certain motive, but in the
hierarchization of all the motives, which results in the
actual form and structure of motivation. The motivation
area includes phenomena such as: needs, impulses,
intentions, tendencies, interests, ideals, expectations,
aspirations, values. These phenomena lead to the
emergence of reason.
Motive is the cause, the reason of an action, an
impulse that drives action; it is mobile, a momentum, an
impulse, a goal, an objective (***, 2005). Actions are
always based on a motive, it is the motive that launches
action and triggers the performance of actions in direct
relation to the motivated program. Motive is force, a
need, a specific desire that energizes and directs behavior
towards a purpose (Morris, 1990, quoted by Pnioar &
Pnioar, 2005).
The motives of sports activity are extremely varied,
being sometimes found in one and the same person, who
has in this way a richer motivation for sports activity.
Motives are dynamic, they change, so that the same activity
acquires very different motivations over time.
Motive is an internal factor that triggers, supports and
directs an activity and has two functions: activation or
energy mobilization, and behavior channeling.
Motivation (an internal factor) is conditioned by its
object; the external factor has a triggering effect only
in relation to specific needs, desires, aspirations. It is
considered that external factors are interwoven with
internal factors causing the self-regulation, adaptation of
individuals, so that they act spontaneously and on their
own based on their motives ( Mihilescu et al., 2012).
High performance sport requires effort and sacrifices
which often seem incomprehensible (activities at the
limit of biological and psychological tolerance, repeated
stressful situations, temporary deprivation of natural
needs, etc.). All this leads to a simple question: What does
high performance sport offer to compensate for so many
shortcomings?
The motives underlying the determination of an athletes
activity are different (Bouet, 1969, cited by Epuran et al.,
2000) (Table I).
Motivation for high performance sport can be triggered
by various motives depending on the individual, on his/her
aspirations, personality, level of development, training,
and there can be various motives, but they cannot be
reduced to any of the factors that determine and influence
them.

69

Ionela Alina Cucui & Gheorghe Gabriel Cucui

Table I
Various motives for sports activity
Motor needs
Self-assertion
Seeking compensation
Social trends

Interest in competition

Desire to win
Aspiration to become a
champion
Aggression and
combativeness
Taste of risk
Attraction to adventure
Love for nature

motivation is one of the factors that contribute to individual

athletic performance; along with motivation, performance
is heavily influenced by the level of skills, abilities,
biomotor qualities, by the understanding of objectives and
the opportunity to achieve remarkable results.
Motivation determines focus and will, and energetically
supports the efforts of training and participation in competitions. Motivation is based on the beliefs, ideals and
pursuit of high performance.
As part of motivation, beliefs determine the steady and
firm adherence to the requirements and sacrifices of high
performance sport, they generate rational self-discipline
and contribute to the ideal of sporting excellence. The
sporting ideal determines the understanding of sports
performance in relation to its social values. The performance
ideal influences lifestyle based on increasingly higher
internalized values. The performance ideal and the pursuit
of maximum performance are cultivated in preadolescence
and adolescence, and will dominate the personality of
the mature athlete, thus ensuring a continuous and strong
motivational source.
Motivation is the result, the consequence of the
interaction between the individual, the task to be fulfilled,
and the organizational environment. It is the extent to
which persistent effort is directed towards the achievement
of a goal (Johns, 1996, cited by Preda, 2006).
In high performance sport, motivation plays a decisive
role because it underlies the continuity of sports training
and its performance at a close to optimal level. This
must be seen from the point of view of athletes, of their
professional entourage (trainers, physician, psychologist,
manager, etc.), as well as of their social entourage (family,
friends, etc.).
The approach from the perspective of the individual
claims that the motivating force is inherent to the individual
and depends on personal characteristics such as needs,
impulses, instincts, personality traits. In the situational
perspective (individual + environment), behavior
depends on factors exterior to the individual, i.e. the work
environment, nature of work, leadership of superiors, etc.
Motivation refers to the fact that behavioral acts do
not occur without a cause, at their origin there is always
a number of internal causes that drive action and support
it energetically; motivation explains why a behavioral act
can have different meanings for different subjects.

Need to spend energy

Need to exercise
Aspects of self-assertion
Favorable conditions for self-assertion
Complementary and balancing
For overcoming
For substitutions
Need for affiliation
Desire for integration
Need for success
Need to compare with others
Need to oppose another
Desire for the unexpected
Pleasure of feeling the tension of competition
Desire of possession
Desire for self-assertion
Patriotism
Exigency
Self-assertion
Material interests
Influence of others
Adversity
Combativeness
Game of life
Need to experience dangerous situations
Desire to show courage
Desire for the unexpected
Desire to solve crisis situations
Fight against nature
Contemplation of nature

Motivation and its importance in achieving athletic

performance
Motivation for sport takes different aspects because
sport itself is differentiated by levels of performance,
but also because sport is practiced by people of different
ages. The importance of motivation in obtaining athletic
performance is largely determined by the stage of training
of the athlete, the athletes involvement in the activity, the
importance of the competition, and the athletes physical,
technical and mental abilities.
Performance motivation underlies any effective activity
and is the most important factor for the mobilization of
human capacity, which is why it can be considered the
most required adjustment factor in sport.
So, performance motivation and necessity are an
effective component of praxis, of behavior directed towards
performance. Achievement motivation is involved. Thus,
performance motivation is recognized as a process, as
a dynamic function regulating both sports activity and
human behavior, plus environmental factors perceived as
stimuli. To highlight the important role of performance
motivation in relation to performance conduct, a correlation
with positive attitudes towards work and effort, including
the effort of sports training and competitions, should be
established.
Any behavior is inextricably linked to motivation
and any attitude expressed by a particular behavior has
motivational support. Motivated behavior has a great power
of expression, so that any obstacle or difficult problems
arising in the way of sports performance are removed and
resolved.
Sports performance can be influenced by the intensity
of motivation, as it is known that optimally motivated
athletes generally tend to achieve better performance. So,

Conclusions
1. Motivation is what drives action and behavior
reflects the actions taken to achieve goals, so, motivations
determine individual behavior.
2. Motivation is a prerequisite of sports practice and
especially, of sports performance, determined both by
internal and external motivational factors. These factors
depend on how the basic needs of human beings are
experienced, but also on the action of external, social and
educational factors.
3. In high performance sport, motivation is a key factor
for achieving athletic performance, without which athletes
would not be determined to cope with the sports training
effort in order to improve their psychomotor abilities.
Stimulating motivation remains an art that depends on the

70

Motivation and its implications in sports performance

skill and gift of the coach.
4. Sports performance can be influenced by the intensity
of motivation, as it is known that optimally motivated
athletes generally tend to achieve better performance. So,
motivation is one of the factors that contribute to individual
athletic performance; along with motivation, performance
is strongly influenced by the athletes skills, abilities,
biomotor qualities, by the understanding of objectives and
the opportunity to achieve remarkable results.

Locke EA,Latham GP. A Theory of Goal Setting & Task

Performance, Prentice Hall, 1990.
Liang MY, Chun MC. The diferences of motivation and a
attitude toward exercise among different levels of athletic
participation. Pre-Olympic Congress. Sport science through
the ages. Thessaloniki, Hellas, 2004.
Maslow A. A theory of human motivation, Psychological Review,
1943;50(4):370-396.
Maslow A. Motivaie i personalitate. Ed. Trei, Bucureti, 2007.
Mamali C. Balan motivaional i coevoluie. Ed. tiinific i
Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1981, 161.
Mihilescu L, Haralambie A, Mihilescu N, Mihilescu L.
Determining the motivations featurea formative stages
athletics. Gymnasium. J Phys Educ & Sports, 2011;
12(1):142-147.
Mihilescu L, Haralambie A, Mihilescu L, Mihilescu N. The
quantification of the motivational level of the performance
athletes, 3rd World Conference on Psychology, Counseling
and Guidance, WCPCG-2012. 2012; 29-33, 84 of ProcediaSocial and Behavioral Sciences on Science Direct.
Mihilescu L, Cucui A. Contributions to the identification of
personality traits in athletes. The International Conference
Psyhology and the realities of the contemporary world third
edition, 18-20 october 2013, Bucharest, Romania
Mitchell T. Motivation: New Direction for Theory. Research and
Practice. Academy of Management Review, 1982;7(1):80-88
Murray HA. Explorations in Personality. New York: Oxford
University Press, 1938.
Nepopaloov V, Aleksandridi D. Motivational sphere of personality
of athletes practicing. Pre-Olimpic Congress. Sport science
through the ages. Thessaloniki. Hellas. Aristotle University
Campus, 2004, II, 8.
Pnioar I, Pnioar A. Motivarea eficient. Ed. Polirom, Iai,
2005, 23.
Popescu G. Psihologia creativitii. Ed. Fundaiei Romnia de
Mine, Bucureti, 2009, 37.
Popescu-Neveanu P. Dicionar de psihologie. Ed. Albatros,
Bucureti, 1978, 464.
Preda M. Comportament organizaional. Teorii, exerciii i studii
de caz. Ed. Polirom, Iai, 2006, 107.
Pihu M, Hein V, Koka A. The processes by which perceived
teacher behavior in phisical education promotes leisure time
phisical activity behavior a trans-contextual model. 11-th
annual Congress of the European College OF Sport Science,
Lausanne, 2006,160.
Rose E, Stewart A, Cox K, Puddey I. The relationship between
athletic self-perceptions, exercise motivation, autonomy,
social connect-edness, and phisical activity in older adults.
11-th annual Congress of the European College OF Sport
Science, Lausanne, 2006, 30.
Teodorescu S. Teoria antrenamentului i competiiei. Ed. ANEFS,
Bucureti, 2006, 7, 137-138, 142.
Vroom V. Work and Motivation. New York, NY: Wiley, 1964.
Welde B, Svebak S. The significance of motivational styles
and resistance training in elite junior cross-country ski
performance.13-th Annual Congress of the European College
of Sport Science. Estoril-Portugal, 2008, 664.
Weinberg SR, Gould D. Foundations of Sport and Exercise
Psychology. Champaign, Illinois, Human Kinetics, 1995.
***. Dex, Ed. Universul Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 2005, 571.

Conflicts of interests
There is no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This article is theoretical grounding; an original article will
be published in the future.
References
Amici S, De Pero R, Piacentini M, Capranica L. Motivation for
sport in young italian competitive athletes. Oslo, Norway,
2009, 24-27, 209-210.
Atkinson R, & Hilgard E. Introducere n psihologie, ediia a XIV.
Ed. Tehnic, Bucureti, 2005, 507.
Bogathy Z. Manual de psihologia muncii i organizaional. Ed.
Polirom, Iai, 2004, 93.
Bologa M, Gherghian D. Posibiliti de cuantificare a motivaiei
n activitatea sportiv. Vol. Simpozionul tiinific Naional
Pregtirea sportivilor de nalt performan Bucureti,
Conferina Consiliului tiinei Sportului, 1994,119-125.
Campbell R, Lioyd S. Factors underlying participation motivation
of youth hockey players within a club setting. A comparative
study, 11-th annual Congress of the European College OF
Sport Science. Lausanne, 2006,166.
Ciucurel M. Psihologie organizaional aplicat. Suport de curs.
Ed. Universitii din Piteti, 2008, 68.
Coelho E, Vasconcelos-Raposo J. Motivational orientations and
intensity of negativity and self-confidence in elite portuguese
athletes of individual sports. 13-th Annual Congress of the
European College of Sport Science. Estoril-Portugal, 2006,
428.
Duic A. Management. Ed. Bibliotheca, Trgovite, 2008, 147.
Epuran M, Holdevici I, Tonia F. Psihologia sportului de
performan: Teorie i practic. Ed. FEST, Bucureti, 2008.
Fril C. Comportament organizaional. Ed. Fundaiei pentru
Studii Europene, Cluj-Napoca, 2004, 139.
Golu M. Bazele psihologiei generale. Ed. Universitar, Bucureti,
2005, 572.
Haralambie A. Posibiliti de optimizare a nivelului motivaional
al atlelori de performan. Tez de doctorat. Universitatea
din Piteti, 2010
Haralambie A, Mihilescu L. Research concerning the
motivations quantification for performance athletes. Citius
Altius Fortius, J Phys Educ Sport, the University of Piteti,
2010; 27(2):79-85.
Hellriegel D, Slocum JW, Woodman RW. Organizational
Behaviour, 6th ed. West Publishing Comapny, New York, 1992.

71