Contents

48571 Electrical Machines

DC Machines

Prof. J.G. Zhu

School of Electrical, Mechanical and Mechatronic Systems
Faculty of Engineering and Information Technology
University of Technology, Sydney










Introduction
Principle Elemental DC Machines
Structure
Name Plate
Magnetic Fields
EMF and Torque
Steady State Equivalent Circuit
DC Generator Performance
Establishment of terminal voltage
External characteristics and voltage regulation
Efficiency

 DC Motor Performance
Torque/speed curve
Efficiency
Speed control

Principle

Introduction
 The DC machine is an electromechanical device that converts

mechanical energy into DC electrical energy (generator) or the

other way around as in the case of a motor.
 The DC machine is the first type of electrical machine
employed for practical applications. DC generators are
commonly used for battery charging, electrolysis, synchronous
machine excitation and welding, etc.
 DC motors have excellent drive performance for wide speed
range with convenient, smooth, and accurate speed control, and
high starting, braking, and over load capability, and therefore,
are suitable for electrical drive systems with requirements for
wide speed range and high precision and dynamic performance,
such as steel rolling, electrical propulsion, crane, textile and
cold machining, etc.
 With the fast development of power electronics and control, DC
generators are being replaced by rectifiers, and motors by AC
motor drive systems, but still there are a number of applications.

Elementary DC machine
 The fundamental principle is based on the Faradays law, and

the electromagnetic force/torque produced by current carrying

conductors in a magnetic field.
 Diagram

on the
right shows the
structure of an
elementary
DC
machine,
which
consists of a pair
of electromagnets
on the stator, and a
rotor also known
as armature with
slots to hold coils.

Principle

Principle

Elementary DC generator

Elementary DC generator

 Consider a coil placed in a uniform magnetic field inclined at an

 In order to generate a DC emf, a device known as commutator

angle . The magnetic flux linkage of the coil varies with its
angular position by
(t ) = NAB sin = N sin

where N is the number of turns, A the cross sectional area, B the

flux density, and =AB the flux linking the coil.
 When the coil is rotated at an angular

speed r, an electromotive force (emf)

is induced. By Faradays law, this emf
can be expressed as
e(t ) =

d (t )
= r N cos( r t + 0 )
dt

r =

d
dt

where

Eav =
=

[ N cos( t + )]d t

1

3 2
2

r Nsin (r t + 0 ) 3 2 =
2

r N

 When there are a great number of coils

embedded in the slots around the rotor or

armature surface, a stable DC emf can be
obtained.

and (t ) = r t + 0

Principle

DC Machine Structure

Elementary DC motor

Large DC machine

 When the elementary DC generator is operated inversely, i.e.

supplied by a DC current, a unidirectional torque can be

produced with the help of the commutator.
 If the DC current is ia, the average

torque can be calculated by dividing the

electromagnetic power by the speed, i.e.
Tav =

(rectifier by mechanical means) can be used. The average value

of the DC emf can be calculated as

Eav ia

Commutator
Brushes

Stator Poles

Inter Poles
Armature Slots
and Winding
Shaft

Bearing

Nia

Stator Case

DC Machine Structure

DC Machine Structure

Small DC machine

Permanent Magnet DC machine

DC Machine Structure

DC Machine Structure

Cross sectional illustration

Stator
 The DC machine housing supports

the stator, brushes, and bearings.

stator contains main poles
excited by DC current to produce the
magnetic fields. These poles are
mounted on an iron core that provides
a closed magnetic circuit.
 On the surface of main poles, there
are slots to hold the compensation
windings, which are connect in series
with the armature winding to reduce
the effect of armature reaction.
 In the middle between main poles or
the neutral zone, commutating/inter
poles, which are connected in series
with the armature winding, are placed
to reduce sparks on the commutator.
 The

DC Machine Structure

DC Machine Structure

Rotor or armature

Commutator and brushes

 The rotor has a ring-shaped

laminated iron core with slots.

 Coils with multiple turns are
placed in the slots. The distance
between the coil sides is about
180o electrical.
 The coils are connected in series
through the commutator segments.

 The commutator consists of insulated

copper segments mounted on an

insulated tube. The ends of each coil
are connected to two commutator
segments.
 Brushes of positive and negative
polarities are pressed to the
commutator to permit current flow.
 These brushes are placed in the
neutral zone, where the magnetic
field and hence the induce emf are
close to zero, to reduce arcing.
 The commutator and brushes switch
the current from one rotor coil to the
adjacent coil.

Rotation

Ir_dc/2

Brush

Shaft
|
2

7
6
5

Insulation
Rotor
Winding

Ir_dc

Armature windings

Armature windings
 Lap winding: a = p,
p where

p is the number of poles.

DC Machine Structure

armature windings can be classified as (a) Lap winding and (b)

Wave winding.
winding
 These two different connections result in different numbers of
the parallel paths of the armature winding between the positive
and negative brushes, a.

Pole
winding

1
8

DC Machine Structure
 According to the pattern how the coils are connected, the

Ir_dc/2

Ir_dc

Copper
segment

DC Machine Structure

DC Machine Name Plate

Armature windings

Rated quantities
 Rated Power Prated (W or kW) The output power under the

 Wave winding: a = 2







rated operating conditions. For a generator, it is the electrical

power output at the terminals, whereas for a motor, the
mechanical power output at the shaft.
Rated voltage Vrated (V) The voltage at the electrical terminals
when the machine is operated under the rated conditions.
Rated current Irated (A) The current at the electrical terminals
when the machine is run with rated voltage and output power.
Rated speed rrated (rev/min) The rotor speed when the
machine is operated with rated voltage and output power.
Rated excitation current Ifrated (A) The field winding current
when the machine is run with rated voltage, current and speed.
Rated efficiency rated (%) The percentage ratio between the
output and input power when the machine is in rated conditions.

Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Fields

Stator, rotor and combined field distribution

Armature field in airgap

 Stator field

 Armature field

 Resultant field

 The stator and armature fields in a DC machine are

perpendicular to each other, because of the effect of

commutator.
 The resultant field is distorted by the armature field with the
neutral zone shifts towards the rotating direction in the case
of a generator, or away from the rotating direction in a motor.
motor

 Cut and unroll of a 2 pole DCM

 Armature mmf

Magnetic Fields

Magnetic Fields

Resultant airgap field and armature reaction

Armature field compensation and commutation

 Stator airgap field and mmf

 Resultant field

 The armature reaction can cause serious commutation difficulty

heavy sparks.
 Three methods to improve commutation: (a) Interpoles,

(b) Compensation coils, and (c) Shift brushes.

 Armature reaction:
reaction
Shift the neutral zone for an
angle
Reduce the total flux
because of the magnetic
saturation

EMF & Torque

EMF & Torque

 Assume a real DC machine has p poles, Ca conductors in the

 The induced emf and electromagnetic torque of a single coil in

armature, and a parallel paths between the positive and negative

brushes. The total number of coils, which has N turns each, is
Ca/(2N), and the number of coils in each path is Ca/(2Na).
 Previously, it was calculated that the induced emf and
electromagnetic torque in an elementary single coil two pole
DC machine are
Eav =

r N

and

Tav =

Eav ia

Nia

the real DC machine of p poles are

(t ) =

p
(r t + m 0 )
2

and

d p
= r
dt 2

E i

r N

Ca
C p
pCa
Ecoil = a
r N =
r
2 Na
2 Na
2a
C
C p
pCa
T = a Tcoil = a Nia =
I a
2N
2N
2a

Ea =

 The real machine however has p poles. Once the coil rotates for

a complete cycle of NSN poles, or 2 electrical radians,

mechanically it only rotates for 4/p mechanical radians, or
=(p/2)m, and r=dm/dt, where m is the angular position in
mechanical radians. Therefore, we obtain

Tcoil = av a = Nia
and
r

 The total armature emf and electromagnetic torque can then be

calculated by multiplying the emf and torque of a single coil by
the number of coils in a parallel path and the total number of
coils respectively as
Ecoil =

and
or

Ea = K a r

where I a = aia , and

constant.

pC a
Ka =
2a

and

T = K a I a

is known as the emf or torque

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Symbol

Excitation connections

 The DC machine symbol shown below on the right hand side

 There are four types of connections: (a) Separate excitation, (b)

resembles its cross section on the left hand side. The field
winding produces a flux when excited by a DC current, and
across the brushes, an emf is produced when the armature or
rotor rotates.

Series excitation, (c) Shunt excitation, and (d) Compound

excitation.

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Separately excited DC generator

Separately excited DC generator

 Corresponding to the steady state equivalent circuit of a

 Complete

separately excited DC generator shown below, the circuit and

torque equations are:

dynamic
equivalent
circuit of a
separately
excited DC
generator
 Model

Va = Ea Ra I a

vt = va = ea Ra ia La
v f = Rf if + Lf

di f
dt

Tshaft Tloss T = J

d r
dt

dia
dt

Vf = Rf I f

and T = Tshaft Tloss

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Separately excited DC motor

Separately excited DC motor

 Corresponding to the steady state equivalent circuit of a

 Complete dynamic equivalent circuit of a

separately excited DC motor shown below, the circuit and

torque equations are:

separately excited DC motor

 Model
dia
dt

vt = va = ea + Ra ia + La
v f = Rf if + Lf

Vf = Rf I f

Va = Ea + Ra I a

T = Tload + Tloss

and

di f
dt

T Tloss Tshaft = J

d r
dt

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Shunt DC machines

Series DC machines
Ia

Ra

Rs

Is

It

Vs
Ea

Va

Vt

T+Tloss
r

Tshaft

For shunt DC motor

Va = Ea + Ra I a

Vt = V f = Va

and T = Tload + Tloss

Vf = Rf I f
It = I a + I f

For shunt DC generator

For series DC motor

For series DC generator

Va = Ea Ra I a

Vf = Rf I f

Va = Ea + Ra I a

Vs = Rs I s

Va = Ea Ra I a

Vs = Rs I s

Vt = V f = Va

Ia = It + I f

Vt = Vs + Va

It = I a = I s

Vt = Va Vs

It = I a = I s

and T = Tshaft Tloss

and T = Tload + Tloss

and T = Tshaft Tloss

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

Compound DC machines

Parameter determination
 The DC machine steady state equivalent circuit parameters to be

For compound DC motor

Va = Ea + Ra I a

Vf = Rf I f

For compound DC generator

Va = Ea Ra I a

Vf = Rf I f

Vs = Rs I s

Vt = Vs + Va = V f

Vs = Rs I s

Vt = Va Vs = V f

It = I s + I f

Is = Ia

It = I s I f

Is = Ia

and

T = Tload + Tloss

determined are the field winding resistance, armature circuit resistance

(winding resistance plus brush-commutator contact resistance), and
emf or torque constant.
 The resistances can be measured by V/A method. It should be noted
that the shunt field winding has a large resistance while the armature
circuit and series field winding have small resistances. Therefore, the
Ammeter should be connect in series with the shunt field winding first
and then in parallel with the Voltmeter, where for the latter test, the
Voltmeter should be connected in parallel with the armature circuit or
series field winding and then in series with the Ammeter.

and T = Tshaft Tloss

Steady State Equivalent Circuit

DC Generator Performance

Parameter determination

Shunt generator self excitation

 The emf or torque constant can

be determined by the no load

test in the following steps:
Set up and connect the DC

machine as a separately excited

generator with the armature
open circuited;
Drive it at the rated speed;
Adjust If from zero to the rated
value, and measure the terminal
voltage or emf;
Ka = Ea/r
 Ea(If) is known as the

magnetisation curve
 When magnetic saturation is

considered, Ka is not a
constant.

 The conditions for voltage

build-up:
There must be residual

magnetism If not, use a

battery to given an initial excitation;
The connection of the field circuit to the armature circuit must be correct
such that the excitation field aids the residual magnetism If not, swap
the terminals;
The Re + Rf line must be lower than the airgap line such that the rated
voltage can be established.

DC Generator Performance

DC Generator Performance

External characteristic

External characteristic

 The relationship between the terminal voltage and current, Vt vs. It, of

a DC generator excited by the rated field current and driven at the

rated speed is defined as the external characteristic.
 It can be determined experimentally by measuring the terminal
voltage at different load currents when the generator is operated at the
defined condition.
 It can also be calculated by the equivalent circuit model. For example,
for a separately excited generator, it can be calculated by
Vt = Va = Ea Ra I a

Theoretical

when r = rrated
and I f = I frated
 The discrepancy
between the
experimental and
theoretical results is
due to the armature
reaction.

DC Generator Performance

DC Generator Performance

Voltage regulation

Efficiency

 The voltage regulation of a DC generator is defined as the percentage

variation of the terminal voltage from no load to full load, i.e.

VR =

Vt , NL Vt , FL
Vt ,rated

Ea Vt ,rated
Vt ,rated

 For a separately excited DC generator, for example, the voltage

regulation can be calculated as

VR =

Ra I a ,rated
Vt ,rated

Ra
RL ,rated

 For a shunt DC generator, the voltage

regulation can be calculated as

VR =

Ra I a ,rated
Vt ,rated

Ra (I t ,rated + I f )
Vt ,rated

1
1
= Ra
+
R

R
f + Re
L ,rated

 The efficiency of a DC generator is defined as the percent ratio

between the output power and input power, and can be expressed as
=

Pout
Vt I t
=
Pin V f I f + I a2 Ra + Vs I s + Vt I t + Tlossr

 For the separately excited DC generator, for example, one has

Vt I t
Va I a
Va I a
=
=
=
V f I f + Tshaftr V f I f + (T + Tloss )r V f I f + I a2 Ra + Va I a + Tlossr

where Tloss is the retarding torque

corresponding to the total of core
and mechanical power losses,
which is approximately equal to
the no load power.

DC Motor Performance

DC Motor Performance

Efficiency

Torque/Speed curves

 The efficiency of a DC motor is defined as the percent ratio between

the output power and input power, and can be expressed as

(T Tloss )r
P
Toutr
= out =
=
Pin

Va I a + V f I f

Va I a + V f I f

where Tloss is the retarding torque corresponding to the total of core

and mechanical power losses, which is approximately equal to the no
load power, and Tout = TL.

 The external characteristic of a DC

motor is the torque/speed curve.

 For a separately excited DC motor,

one has

or

Ea
V Ra I a
= a
Ka
Ka
Va
Ra
r =
T

K a (K a )2

r =

 Because of the armature reaction, at

heavy load the speed increases.

DC Motor Performance

DC Motor Performance

Torque/Speed curves

Torque/Speed curves

 For a shunt DC motor, the torque/speed

curve can be expressed same as the

separately excited motor, i.e.
r =

Vt
Ra
T

K a (K a )2

 The operating point of series DC motors are

generally designed in the linear region, i.e.

= KsIs, where Is = Ia, and thus

T = K a I a = K a K s I a2

or I a =

T
Ka Ks

Therefore, we have
r =

or

Ea
V ( Ra + Rs ) I a Vt ( Ra + Rs ) I a
= t
=
Ka
Ka
Ka Ks Ia

r =

Vt
R + Rs
a
Ka Ks
K a K sT

 The torque/speed curve of a typical

series DC motor is plotted on the right

hand side. Because the torque of a series
DC motor is proportional to the square
of armature current, for the same value
of armature current, the series motor can
produce much higher torque, and as the
load torque increase, the speed drops
very fast. Therefore, the series DC
motors are suitable for electrical vehicle
drive. It should be noted that series DC
motors must not be operated at no load.
 As the armature current changes its
direction, the magnetic field alters its
direction accordingly, and hence series
motors can also be operated by AC
current universal motors.
motors

T=

r =

Ra + Rs
KaKs

K a K sVt 2

(Ra + Rs )2

DC Motor Performance

DC Motor Performance

Torque/Speed curves

Speed control

 In a compound DC motor, the series excitation is employed to

 There are two methods to control

compensate the field weakening effect of

armature reaction such that the total flux
remains constant. The torque/speed curve
can be derived as
r =
=

the speed of a separately excited

DC motor:
motor (a) Varying armature
terminal voltage, and (b) Flux
weakening.

Ea
V (Ra + Rs )I a
= t
K a ( f + s )
K a ( f + s )

r =

Vt
R + Rs
a
T
K a (K a )

Va
Ra
T

K a (K a )2

 When the armature voltage varies, the

If

Ia

Ra

Rs

Is

It

Vs
Vf

Rf

Ea

T
r

TL+Tloss

Va

Vt

no load speed varies accordingly, but

the gradient is kept constant. Therefore,
the torque/speed curves are in parallel.
Note that Va must < Va,rated.
 When Vf is reduced while Va = Va,rated,
both the no load speed and gradient
increase. For a normal load torque, the
operating speed increases.

DC Motor Performance

DC Motor Performance

Speed control

Speed control

 There are also two methods to control the

speed of a shunt DC motor:

motor (a) Varying
armature circuit resistance, and (b) Flux
weakening, while the terminal voltage is
kept constant.
r =

Va
R + Rea
a
T
K a (K a )2

 When the armature resistance increases, the

no load speed does not vary, but the gradient

increases. Therefore, for a given load, the
speed reduces.
 When the field circuit resistance increases,
both the no load speed and gradient increase.
For a normal load torque, the operating
speed increases.

 There are also two method to control the

speed of a series DC motor:

motor (a) Varying the
terminal voltage, and (b) Varying the
armature circuit resistance.
r =

Vt
R + Rs + Rea
a
Ka Ks
K a K sT

T=

T=

P1

K a K sVt 22

(Ra + Rs )2
K a K sVt12

Vt1 > Vt2

(Ra + Rs )2

 When reducing the terminal voltage below

the rated value, the intersection of the

torque/speed curve and the T axis moves
towards the origin and the operating speed is
reduced.
 When the armature circuit resistance is
increased while the terminal voltage is kept
constant, the lower bound of the
torque/speed curve moves down, and the
operating speed is reduced.

TL

R + Rs
r = a
Ka Ks

TL
T=

P
P1

K a K sVt 2

(Ra + Rs + Rea )2

T=

K a K sVt 2

(Ra + Rs )2

T
R + Rs
r = a
Ka Ks

r =

Ra + Rs + Rea
KaKs

DC Motor Performance

DC Motor Performance

Speed control

Speed control systems

 Since the series excitation is

used to compensate the field

weakening effect of the
armature reaction, the
torque/speed curves of a
compound DC motor are
the same as those of a shunt
motor, and therefore the speed
control methods are the same as
those for a shunt DC motor.
 The speed control methods are
often employed to limit the
starting current of DC motors.
The diagram on the right hand side
illustrates the three step starting of a
shunt DC motor to limit the armature
current below I2=T2/(Ka).

 Multi stage starting (DCM_MultiStage_Starting.mdl).

 One quadrant chopper 5HP DC motor drive system

(power_dcdrive.mdl, power_dcdrive_disc.mdl, dc5_example.mdl).

 Two quadrant three phase rectifier 200HP DC motor drive system

(dc3_example.mdl)
 Note that Ka = LafIf, where Laf is the mutual inductance between

field and armature windings (a parameter used in the Simulink DC

machine model).
 More examples can be found in Matlab/Simulink help Contents and
Demo.

P
Rea = 0
Rea = R1
Rea = R1+R2

ro

Rea = R1+R2+R3

T1

T2

DC Motor Performance

Reading

Speed control systems

 Example: One quadrant chopper 5HP DC motor drive system

(power_dcdrive.mdl).

 Textbook:
Chapter 4. Introduction to Rotating Machines
Chapter 7. DC Machines
Exercises: Textbook Section 7.12, Problems 7.1 7.27

 Lecture notes at UTSOnline

 Specified speed r = 120 rad/s; TL = 5 Nm;

In the PI controller, Ia is capped at 30 A to

avoid overheating.

 If = Vf/Rf = 1 A, and in steady state, Ia =

(TL+Tloss)/(Ka) = (5+0.02x120)/1.23 = 6.016

(A), and Va= Kar + RaIa = 1.23x120 +
0.5x6.016 = 150.608 (V)