MEL 311: Machine Element Design

Harish Hirani
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Pre-requisites
MEL 211

Kinematics & Dynamics of Machines

AML 140

Mechanics of Solids

MEP 201

Mechanical Engineering Drawing

MEP 202

Design Innovation & Manufacturing

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Identification of need

Problem formulation

Mechanism/Synthesis

Analysis

Kinematics & Dynamics of Machines

Mechanics of Solids
Mechanical Engineering Drawing
Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Verification/Validation

Presentation

Purchase a safe lathe machine

Low risk of injury to operator
Low risk of operator mistake
Low risk of damage to workpiece/tool
Automatic cut-out on overload

Problem formulation

Problem: Design a reliable and simple test rig to test shaft

connections subjected to impulse loads.
Reliable operation

Good reproducibility
Low wear
Low susceptibility to
external noise
Tolerance for overloading
Easy handling
Quick exchange of test
connections
Good visibility of
measuring system

Simple

Minimum no. of components

Simple design of
components
Low complexity
Design for standards

Safety

Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Can we increase speed of Jute Flyer ??

Flyer Spinning Machine

Current
speed 4000
rpm
Target speed
6000 rpm
7/24/2009

Bobbin
7

Design Innovation & Manufacturing

Can we increase speed of Jute Flyer ??

Flyer Spinning Machine
Increase rotational speed
Constraints:

Stress < ??
Deflection < ???

Mechanics of Solids

7/24/2009

Increase operating speed

wharve assembly

Bearing life must be at

least 3 years
The wharves must be
lighter than the current
wharves
Temperature rise must be
within 5C.
Cost of new wharve
assembly 1.5 times cost
of existing assembly

7/24/2009

Identification of need

Problem formulation

Mechanism/Synthesis

Analysis

Verification

Presentation

Design is an
iterative process
Analysis requires
mathematical model
of system/component.

Machine Element
Design: System
Elements
Power transmission
System Gears,
Bearings, Shaft,
Seals.

Text books:
1. Mechanical Engineering Design.
Shigley and Mischke..

Machine Elements

2. Machine Design: An Integrated

Approach.. R. L. Norton

1. Design of shafts
2. Design of couplings
3. Design of belt and chains
4. Design of springs
5. Design of Clutches & Brakes
6. Design of Screws
7. Design of bolted joints

25-30 Hours
Minor II
Major

8. Gear (spur, helical, bevel and worm) design

9. Bearing Selection of Rolling contact bearing
10. Design of journal bearings
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12

Basics required to design Machine Elements

1. Solid Mechanics
2. Factors of safety
3. Standards and Design Equations
4. Selection of Materials and Processes
5. Standard numbering system (i.e BIS
designations of materials).
12-15 Hours
6. Applications of failures theories
Minor I
7. Introduction to design for fatigue
Major
8. Surface strength
9. Introduction to CAD. Computer Assistance
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13

Input

Computer aided..
Design of gears.
Design of hydrodynamic
bearings.

Name

Output

2.094

omega

.02

radius

1000

speed
load

.005

visco

.01

length
clearance

.75

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104.72

93.6

.00002

ecc

14

Load capacity versus eccentricity ratio

2750
2500
2250
2000

Load, N

1750
1500
1250
1000
750
500
250
0
.5

.55

.6

.65

.7

.75

.8

.85

.9

.95

Eccentricity ratio

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15

Effect of clearance on load

700
600

Load

500

1
Load 2
Cr

400
300
200
100
0
1

10

0.001 R * Factor

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16

PARAMETRIC STUDY: Hydrodynamic Bearing

U = omega * radius
omega = 2 *pi()/60 * speed

clearance = 0.001 * radius

Input

.02
1000
.005
.01
.757/24/2009

Name

Output

U
omega
radius
speed
load
visco
length
clearance
ecc

2.094
104.72

93.6

.00002
17

Iterative study to desirable results

load = U * visco * (length ^ 3) /(clearance ^2) * pi()/4 *

ecc/((1-ecc^2)^2) *sqrt((16/(pi()^2)-1)*(ecc^2) + 1)

What is TK Solver?
Package for solving numerical equations:
linear or nonlinear,
single or multiple equations - up to 32,000.
No need to enter the equations in any special order-- TK
Solver is based on a declarative (as opposed to
procedural) programming language..

No need to isolate the unknowns on one side of the

equations

a ^ 2 + b^ 2 = c^ 2

Input (a,b) or (b,c) or (c,a)

Output c or a or b

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18

Enter Equations
This sheet shows the relationship between variables in
the models. This is where model is controlled from.

Variable sheet shows the input or

output value, with units if relevant,
and the status of each variable
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19

BUILT IN FUNCTIONS
COS(), ACOS(), SIN(), ASIN(), TAN(), ATAN()
COSD(), ACOSD(),SIND(),ASIND(),TAND(),ATAND()
EXP(), LN() {base e}, LOG() {base 10}
ATAN2(y,x), ATAN2D(y,x) {4-Quadrant arc tangent of y/x }
COSH(), ACOSH(), SINH(), ASINH(), TANH(), ATANH()
ROOT(X,N) nth root of x; SQRT(x) , ABS(x),
INTEGER(x) or INT(x)

integer part of x

MODULUS (x1,x2) or MOD(x1,x2)

remainder of x1/x2

SIGNUM(X) or SGN(X)

-1 if x < 0, 0 if x=0, 1 if x > 0

ROUND(x)

nearest integer to x

CEILING(x)

smallest integer >= x

FLOOR(x)

largest integer <= x

TKs built-in functions are NOT case-sensitive; SIN(x)=sin(x)=Sin(x)

7/24/2009

User-defined function names ARE case-sensitive.

20

List Function Sheet

Expresses functional relationship between the corresponding
elements of two lists

Comment:
returns the weight density of a mat
Domain List: matl
Mapping:
Table
Range List:
density
Element Domain
Range
1
'alum
2.76805
2
'steel
7.75054
3
'copper
8.580955

Material Selection using TKSolver

Machine Design: An
Integrated Approach..
by Robert L. Norton

7/24/2009

22

Evaluation Scheme
Minor I
Minor II
Major
Laboratory
Tutorial

7/24/2009

15%
15%
30%
25%
15%

23

Introduction to machine elements design..

Machine: Structure + Mechanisms

Combination of rigid
bodies which do not have
any relative motion among
themselves
Automobile chassis
Machine tool bed
Machine columns

Slider crank mechanism

Cam and follower mech.
Gear train

Shafts, couplings, springs, bearings, belt and gear

drives, fasteners, and joints are basic elements
of machines..

Scientific procedure to design

machine elements
Ultimate goal is to size and shape the
element so that elements perform
expected function without failure.
1.
2.
3.
4.

Predict mode & conditions of failure.

Force/Moment/Torque analysis.
Stress and deflection analysis.
Selection of appropriate material.
Thorough understanding of material prop

Iterations
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Q
U
A
N
T
I
F
I
C
A
T
I
O
N

Wear,
Vibration,
essential misalignme
nt,
environmen
t
25

Acrylic bearing

Journal bearing test rig

Fluid pressure
(kPa)

Brass bearing
2000
1500
1000
500
0
0

30

60

90

120

150

180

Max pressure =
1800 kPa

Angle (Degree)

Estimating stress

Acrylic bearing
Fluid pressure
(kPa)

Selecting material
1500
1000

Max pressure =
1300 kPa

500
0
0

30

60

90

120

Angle (Degree)

150

180

Evaluation of Materials in Vacuum Cleaners

Wooden

Steel
Polymeric

Cleaner & year

Dominant
material

Power Weight Cost*

(W)
(kg)

Hand powered,
1905

Wood, canvas,
leather ,Mild steel

50

10

$ 380

Motor driven,
1950

Mild Steel

300

$150

Cylindrical shape,
1985

Moulded ABS,
polypropylene

800

$ 95

Costs have been adjusted in 1998 values, allowing for inflation [Ref. M. Ashby]

Strength, Youngs modulus,

Shear modulus, Fatigue
strength, resilience, toughness

Material Properties

Generally determined through destructive

testing of samples under controlled loading
conditions.

l l0
=
,
Apply load & measure deflection
l0

Tensile test

l > l0

Plotting of stress & strain

=log(l/l0)
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P
=
A0
29

Young' s modulus

E=

Stress-strain Diagram for

Metals

Ductile E compressio
Brittle E compressio
7/24/2009

= E tensile
> E tensile

elastic > proportional

yield > elastic
30

Ultimate strength: Largest stress that

a material can sustain before fracture
True stress Engineering stress

Ductility: Material elongation > 5%.

A significant plastic region on the stressstrain curve
Necking down or reduction in area.
Even materials.

Brittleness: Absence of noticeable

deformation before fracture.
NOTE: Same material can be either ductile or brittle depending
the way it is manufactured (casting), worked, and heat treated
(quenched, tempered). Temperature plays important role.

Material
Nodular cast iron
Malleable cast iron
Low carbon steel
Medium carbon steel
High carbon steel
Ferrite SS
Austenite SS
Martensitic SS

E (GPa)
165
172
207
207
207
200
193
200

Sy (MPa) Su (MPa)
265
220
295
350
380
345
207
275

415
345
395
520
615
552
552
483

Ductility (% EL)
18
10
37
30
25
20
60
30

Remark: Choice of material cannot be made

independently of the choice of process by which
material is to be formed or treated. Cost of desired
material will change with the process involved in it.

Material
Ferrite SS
Austenite SS
Martensitic SS

E (GPa)
200
193
200

Sy (MPa) Su (MPa)
345
207
275

552
552
483

Ductility (% EL)
20
60
30

Ex: A flat SS plate is rolled into a cylinder with inner radius of

100mm and a wall thickness of 60 mm. Determine which of the
three SS cannot be formed cold to the cylinder?

l0 = 2 (ri + 0.5 t ) = 2 (100 + 30 ) = 816.8mm

l fr = 2 (ro ) = 2 (160 ) = 1005

l fr l0
(100 ) = 23.1%
% EL =
l0
ANS: Ferrite SS
cannot be formed
to the cylinder.

Torsion Test
Stress strain relation for pure torsion is defined
by
Radius of specimen
G r
l0

=
G =

Angular twist in radians

E
G 0 .5 E
2 (1 + )

Material

Material

Aluminum
Copper
Iron

0.34
0.35
0.28

Steel
Magnesium
Titanium

0.28
0.33
0.34

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34

Tensile & torsion tests apply loads slowly and only once to specimen. Static

Fatigue strength
Time varying loads
Wohlers strengthlife (S-N) diagram

7/24/2009
NOTE:
Strength at 106 cycles tend to be about 50-60% of static strength

35

Impact resistance
If the load is suddenly applied, the energy
absorption capacity (strain energy)

U = d
0

Resilience: Strain energy present in the

material at the elastic limit.
Toughness: Strain energy present in the
material at the fracture point.

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36

Resilience
el

(energy per unit volume)

el

U R = d = E d
0

=E
UR
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2 el

Ex: In mining operation the iron

ore is dumped into a funnel for
further transport by train.
Choose either steel (E=207
GPa, Sy=380 MPa) or rubber

(E=4 GPa, Sy=30 MPa) for the

2
Sy

design of funnel.

1
=
2 E

0.3488, 0.1125

37

Toughness

(energy per unit volume)

U T = d
0

Since analytical expression for stress and strain curve is seldom

available for actual intergration, an approximation of toughness
1
UT
= S y + Sut f
2

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38

Product must meet all government regulations

& societal concerns.
Substituting a new
material needs
appropriate design
change
Induction Motor casing
Grey cast iron.
Increasing cost &
decreasing availability
Safety regulations
imposed by government.

Material Selection: Expectations

Economic & weightless materials
High strength
Low temperature sensitivity
High wear & corrosion resistance
Environmental friendly
Controllable friction, stiffness,
damping
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40

There are more than 100, 000 materials???

How many materials can be

accommodate ???

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41

Classes of Engineering Materials

Steels
Cast irons
Al-alloys

Members of class have

common features:

Metals
Cu-alloys
Ni-alloys
Ti-alloys

Similar chemical composition

Similar properties
Alumina
Si-Carbide
Similar processing units

PE, PP, PC
PA (Nylon)

Polymers,
elastomers

Ceramics,
glasses

GFRP
CFRP

Soda-glass
Pyrex

Composites

Butyl rubber
Neoprene

KFRP
Plywood

Polymer foams
Metal foams

Foams
Ceramic foams
Glass foams

Woods

Natural
materials
Natural fibres:
Hemp, Flax,
Cotton

METALS
Relatively High Moduli (E, G, K) & Mechanical STRONG &
STIFF.
High ductility allows them to be formed by deformation
process; accommodate stress concentration by deforming
and redistributing load more evenly.
Preferable in cyclic/ Fatigue Load Conditions

Least resistance to corrosion

Good Conductors of Electricity & Heat

CERAMICS, GLASSES
Glasses typically have no clear crystal structure
High moduli
Hard and wear resistant
Low thermal conductivity
Insulate against Passage of Electricity
Typically 15 times stronger in compression than in tension
Resist corrosion (low chemical reactivity)
Brittle and low tolerance for stress concentrations (like
holes or cracks) or for high contact stresses (at clamping
points).

Strength depends
strongly on mode of
loading.
In tension, Fracture
strength

CERAMICS

In compression
Crashing strength
Crashing S.= 10-15
Fracture S.

POLYMERS, ELASTOMERS
Electrical Insulating
Little stronger (~20%) in compression than in tension
EASY TO SHAPE: complicated parts performing several
functions can be mould in a single operation. Generally no
finishing is required.
Corrosion resistance & low friction coefficient.
Polymers are roughly 5 Times Less Dense than Metal, which
make Strength/Weight Ratio (specific strength) equal to Metals
Moduli (~2% of metals).
Large elastic deflections allow snap-fit, making assembly fast & cheap.
7/24/2009

46

Strength is
identified as the
stress at which
strain is
approximately
1%.

Thermoplastic
POLYMERS
At Glass transition temperature, upon cooling a polymer
transforms from a super-cooled liquid to a solid
Temperature sensitive properties ( to be used < 200 C)
Polymer which is tough & flexible at 20C, may be brittle at 4C, yet
creep rapidly at 100C.

COMPOSITES:
Designed for Combination of Best
Characteristics (light, strong, stiff,
etc.) of Each Component Material
Graphite- Reinforced Epoxy
Acquires Strength from Graphite
Fibers while Epoxy Protects
Graphite from Oxidation & provides
Toughness

High Price- Relatively Difficult to Form & Join

Upper temperature limit decided by polymer matrix (generally < 250C)

Little (~30%) weaker in compression than tension because

fiber buckle

Illustration of Mechanical properties

Too heavy (need lower )

Not tough enough (need bigger Kic)

Not strong enough (need bigger y )

Not stiff enough (need bigger E)

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Stiff, Strong, Tough, Light49

Relationships: property bar-charts

WC

Steel

Youngs modulus, GPa

Copper
CFRP
Alumina
Aluminum
Zinc
Lead

GFRP
PEEK
PP

Glass

Fibreboard

PTFE

Metals

E = S / ro

Polymers

Ceramics

Remark:
Property can be
displayed as a
rank list or bar
chart.
Each bar
represents the
range of E that
material exhibits
in its various
forms.

Composites

ATOMIC SIZE

Covalent bond is stiff (S= 20 200 N/m)

Metallic & Ionic (15-100 N/m)

Polymers having Van der Waals bonds (0.5 to 2 N/m). r0~ 3*10-10m)

1-5

Rank list

; 1-10

1-100

Material

kg/m3 Rank , MPa Rank

Nodular cast
iron
Steel 4140

7150

250

7850

590

Al 539

2700

75

Al-Sic
composite
Ti-6-4

2880

230

4400

530

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51

Material Selection
Best material needs to have maximum
overall score (rank)
OS = weight factor 1 * Rank of Material
property 1+ weight factor 2 * Rank of
Material property 2+ weight factor 3 *
Rank of Material property 3+
Weight factor 1+weight factor 2+ = 1.0

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52

Material Selection: Deciding weighting factors

Attribute

Dummy

Total

normalized

0.333

0.2

0.133

0.066

0.266

Total

15

Fatigue strength, Corrosion resistance,

Wettability, Conformability, Embeddability,
7/24/2009
Compatibility, Hardness, Cost, etc.

53

Ex: Components of ring spinning textile machine go

through unlubricated sliding at low load but high
relative speed (20,000 rpm).
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)

Increase hardness,
Reduce surface roughness,
Minimize cost,
Improve adhesion to substrate, and
Minimize dimensional change on surface treatment/coating
Hardness

Roughness

Cost

Adhesion

Dimension

Dummy

Weighting
factor

Hardness

0.267

Roughness

0.133

Cost

0.067

Adhesion

0.333

Dimension

0.2

Design
property

7/24/2009

54

Four methods to fulfill the required functions:

(1) Plasma sprayed Al2O3 (polished),
(2) Carburizing,
(3) Nitriding,
(4) Boronizing
Hardness

Roughness

Cost

Adhesion

Dimension

Weighting factor

0.267

0.133

0.067

0.333

0.2

P S Al2O3

5.27

Carburizing

6.87

Nitriding

7.2

Boronizing

7.87

Surface
improvement
method

Weighted
total

Hardness

Roughness

Cost

Adhesion

Dimension

Weighting factor

0.267

0.133

0.067

0.333

0.2

P S Al2O3

78 HRC

3 microns

100 MPa

5.27

Carburizing

52 HRC

1 microns

300 MPa

6.87

Nitriding

50 HRC

0.5 microns

300 MPa

7.2

Boronizing

72 HRC

1 microns

320 MPa

7.87

Surface
improvement
method

Weighted
total

Subjective ranking and weighting

impairs the material selection process.

Material property- charts: Modulus - Density

1000

Modulus E is
plotted against
density on
logarithmic scale.

Ceramics
Youngs modulus E, (GPa)

100
Composites

Data for one class

are enclosed in a
property envelop.

Woods

10

Metals
1
Foams

Polymers

0.1
Elastomers

0.01
0.1

10
1
Density (Mg/m3)

100

Some of
Ceramics have
lower densities
than metals
because they
contain light O,
N, C atoms..

Optimised selection using charts

E1/ 3

1/2

100

Log(E ) = 2 Log( ) 2 Log(M)

Contours of constant
M are lines of slope 2
on an E- chart

E1 / 2

=C

=C
E

Ceramics

E = /M

= C

1000
Youngs modulus E, (GPa)

Index M =

10
1

Composites
Woods
Metals

1
2

Polymers

0.1

0.01
0.1

Elastomers
Foams
10
1
3
Density (Mg/m )

100

7/24/2009

59

7/24/2009

60

PERFORMANCE INDEX
Best material for a light stiff rod, under tension is one that have
greatest value of specific stiffness
(E/) Larger Better For Light & Stiff Tie-rod
Light & Strong

Y/

Best material for a spring, regardless of its shape or the way it is

loaded, are those with the greatest value of (Y)2 /E
Best thermal shock resistant material needs largest value of Y/E
Combination of material properties which optimize some aspects
of performance, is called MATERIAL INDEX

PERFORMANCE INDICES
GROUPING OF MAT. PROPERTIES REPRESENT SOME
ASPECTS OF PERFORMANCE
Design requirements

Function
Cost,
energy
storage

Constraints
Objectives
Free variables

To support load,
transmit power,
store energy

What does the component do ?

What essential conditions must be met ?
What is to be maximised or minimised ?
Which design variables are free ?

FUNCTION
TIE

WHAT DOES COMPONENT DO?

OBJECTIVE
MIN. COST

BEAM

MIN. WEIGHT
SHAFT

MAX. ENERGY
STORAGE
MIN. IMPACT

COLUMN

Contain pressure

SAFETY

WHAT IS TO BE MAX./MIN.?

CONSTRAINTS

WHAT NEGOTIABLE
BUT DESIRABLE.?

STIFFNESS
SPECIFIED
STRENGTH
SPECIFIED
FAILURE
LIMIT

INDEX
M=E0.5/

GEOMETRY

Transmit heat
7/24/2009

63

Example 1: strong, light tie-rod

Strong tie of length L and minimum mass
Hollow or solid

F
Area A

F
L

Tie-rod is common mechanical component.

Tie-rod must carry tensile force, F, without failure.
L is usually fixed by design.
While strong, need lightweight.

Function

Tie-rod: Rod subjected to tensile force.

Objective

Minimise mass m:
m = AL

Constraints

(1)

Length L is specified
Must not fail under load F

F / A y
Free variables

m = mass
A = area
L = length
= density
y= yield strength

(2)

Material choice
Section area A; eliminate in (1) using (2):

m = FL
y

Chose materials with smallest

Example 2: stiff, light beam

F
Function

Beam (solid square section).

Objective

Minimise mass, m, where:

b
b

m = A L = b2 L
Constraint

Stiffness of the beam S:

CEI

S=

L3
I is the second moment of area:

b4
I=
12

Free variables

m = mass
A = area
L = length
= density
b = edge length
S = stiffness
I = second moment of area
E = Youngs Modulus

Material choice.
Edge length b. Combining the equations gives:
1/ 2

12 S L5

m=
C

1/ 2
E

Chose materials with smallest 1/ 2
E

7/24/2009

Outcome of
screening step is to
shortlist of
candidates which
satisfy the
quantifiable
information 67

7/24/2009

68

Example 3: stiff, light panel

Function
Objective
Constraint

Panel with given width w and length L

Minimise mass, m, where

m = AL = w t L

CEI

L3
I is the second moment of area:
w t3
I=
12

w
L

Stiffness of the panel S:

S=

m = mass
w = width
L = length
= density
t = thickness
S = stiffness
I = second moment of area
E = Youngs Modulus

Free variables Material choice.

Panel thickness t. Combining the equations gives:
1/ 3

12 S w 2

m=

L2 1/ 3
E

Chose materials with smallest
1/ 3
E

Function, Objective, and Constraint

Index

Tie, minimum weight, stiffness

E/

Beam, minimum weight, stiffness

E1/2 /

Beam, minimum weight, strength

2/3/

Beam, minimum cost, stiffness

E1/2/Cm

Beam, minimum cost, strength

2/3/Cm

Column, minimum cost, buckling load

E1/2/Cm

Spring, minimum weight for given energy storage YS2/E

Minimizing cost instead of weight is achieved by replacing
density by Cm , where Cm=cost/mass

MATERIALS for SPRINGS

? AXIAL SPRINGS, LEAF,
HELICAL, SPIRAL,
TORSION
? PRIMARY FUNCTION:
STORING/RELEASING
ENERGY
? OBJECTIVE: MAXIMIZE ENERGY STORAGE
WV

Yield strength for metals and polymers, compressive

crushing strength for ceramics, tear strength of
elastomers and tensile strength for composites.

7/24/2009

72

MATERIAL

M = 2 f E....MJ m3

Comment

Ceramics

10-100

Brittle in tension; good only

in compression

Spring steel

15-25

Traditional choice: easily

formed and heat treated.

Ti alloys

15-20

Expensive, corrosion
resistant

CFRP

15-20

Comparable in performance
with steel, expensive

GFRP

10-12

--

Nylon

1.5-2.5

Cheap & easily shaped

Rubber

20-50

Better than spring steel

If there is limit on , rubber ????

7/24/2009

74

f2
M =
E

MATERIAL

M =

Ceramics

10-100, 5-40

Brittle in tension; good only in

compression

Spring
steel

15-25, 2-3

Traditional choice: easily formed and

heat treated.

Ti alloys

15-20, 2-3

Expensive, corrosion resistant

CFRP

15-20, 4-8

Comparable in performance with

steel, expensive

GFRP

10-12, 3-5

--

Nylon

1.5-2.5, 1.5-2 Cheap & easily shaped

Rubber

20-50, 20-50

Comment

Better than spring steel

Check minimum required strength.

? ELASTIC ENERGY/COST

M =

f2
C m E

10-100

Spring steel

15-25

Rubber

20-50

GPa

Ceramics

7/24/2009

76

7/24/2009

77

7/24/2009

78

Selection based on

2
Selection based on
E

Selection based on

7/24/2009

2
E Cm

79

Using Minimum criterion on E (> 6.89 GPa)

7/24/2009

80

7/24/2009

81

Chromium steel
7/24/2009

82

7/24/2009

83

AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute 1019 (?)

Hardness
Surface property. Resistance to
indentation. Resistance to wear.
401 HB, 425 HV and 43 HRC.
Sut 3.45 HB 0.2 HB MPa (used for
low- or medium carbon steel)
Large or thick part
Case hardening.
Coating..
Question: Steel member has 250 HB hardness. Estimate ultimate strength.

7/24/2009

85

Sut 3.45 HB 0.2 HB

346.75

308.75

383.25

341.25

405.15

360.75

422.4

377.00

7/24/2009

AISI: American Iron and Steel Institute 1019 (?)

86

Steel Numbering Systems

Question: What is
composition of AISI 4340.

AISI numbers define alloying

elements and carbon contents of
steel.

7/24/2009

87

Carbon steel 2

E/

Carbon steel 3

Carbon steel 4

Carbon steel 5

> 1 GPa

YS > 50% of UTS

Low carbon percentage. But high %

Relatively low E & G

Stainless Steels
Type

Uses

430
S43000

For rust resistance on decorative an

nonfunctional parts

416
S41600

Hardened to 30 HRC and use for jigs,

fixtures and base plates

420
S42000

Harden to 50-52 HRC for tools that do not

require high wear resistance (e.g. injectionmolding cavities, nozzles, holding blocks,
etc)

440C
S44004

Harden to 58-60 HRC for cutting devices,

punches and dies

Stainless steel 2

Relatively low / and E/

Molybdenum steel

Nickel chromium
Molybdenum steel

Strength > 2 GPa

Free Body Diagrams

Segmenting a
complicated
problem into manageable

Equations of static equilibrium

F = 0
M = 0
0.25

0.75

P = 1000 N

4000 N

1000 N

3000 N
7/24/2009

97

Question: Draw a free body diagram of each component of brake shown

in following figure.

STRESS

Critical section

P
t ,c , s =
A
My
b =
I
Ty
=
J
(a) Normal, tensile (b) normal, compressive; (c) shear;
(d) bending; (e) torsion; (f) combined
Elementary equations. No discontinuity in cross-section. Holes, shoulders,
keyways, etc.

a. Before assembly

High concentration
of elements are
required to
estimate stress
level.

b. After assembly

Finite element model to calculate

stresses

Stress Concentration
Axial Load on Plate with Hole

avg

P
=
(b d ) h

Plate with cross-sectional plane

Stress concentration factor

max
Kt =
avg
Half of plate with stress distribution.
7/24/2009

102

Geometric discontinuities are

called stress raiser. Stress
concentration is a highly
localized effect.

EX: A 50mm wide and

5mm high rectangular
plate has a 5mm
diameter central hole.
Allowable stress is 300
MPa. Find the max.
tensile force that can
be applied.
Ans: d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7
A = (50-5)5
P = 25 kN

Stress concentration factor for rectangular

plate with central hole.

EX: Assume
H=45mm,
h=25mm, and
fillet radius
r=5mm. Find
stress
concentration
factor.
Ans: ~1.8

Stress concentration factor under axial load for

rectangular plate with fillet

Stress concentration factor under axial load for

rectangular plate with groove

Stress concentration factor under

axial load for round bar with fillet

Gap between lines

decrease with
increase in r/d ratio.

Stress concentration factor for round bar with groove

Ex: Assuming 80 MPa as allowable strength of

plate material, determine the plate thickness
Maximum stress
near fillet
5000 300
=
b
30 b

fillet = 1.8

Maximum stress
near hole

Kt=1.8

Kt=2.1

5000 700
=
b
(30 15)b

hole = 2.1

Allowable
7/24/2009

allowable = 80

b=8.75 mm

109

EX: Assume
H=45mm,
h=25mm, and
fillet radius
r=5mm. Find
stress
concentration
factor.
Ans: ~1.5

Stress concentration factor under bending for

rectangular plate with fillet

Concentration factor for

thick plate with central
hole is higher compared
to thin plate with same
size hole.

Stress concentration factor under bending for rectangular plate

with central hole

Stress concentration factor under bending

for rectangular plate with groove

Decrease in Kt for
r/h > 0.25 is
negligible.

Stress concentration factor under bending for round

bar with fillet

Stress concentration factor under bending for round

bar with groove

Ex:

Assuming 100MPa as allowable

stress, determine the shaft dia, d.
Due to symmetry,
reaction force at
each bearing =
1250 N.
Stress
concentration will
occur at the fillet.
Kt=1.6
max = 1.6 avg =
7/24/2009

51.2 (1250 350 )

(d )

avg =
= 100

32 M 32 (1250 350 )
=
3
d
(d )3

Diameter d=41.5 mm
115

Stress concentration
under torsion
loading is relatively
low.

Stress concentration factor under torsion for

round bar with fillet

Stress concentration factor under torsion for round bar with groove

Notch Sensitivity

q=

K f 1
Kt 1

Refer slide 43, Metals can accommodate

stress concentration by deforming &
redistributing load more evenly.
Some materials are not fully sensitive to
the presence of geometrical irregularities
(notch) and hence for those materials a
reduced value of Kt can be used. Notch sensitivity

parameter q = 0
means stress
concentration
(Kf ) factor = 1;
and q=1 means
Kf = Kt.

7/24/2009

118

Material selection for a plate having central

hole and is subjected to Tensile force
EX: A 50mm wide (b) and h mm high rectangular plate has a
5mm diameter central hole. Length of plate is equivalent to
100mm. Select a lightest but strong material which bear tensile
force P = 25 kN.
Ans: Mass = (50-5) h 100 ; A = (50-5) h

P
25000
1500
= Kt
= 2.7
=
(b d ) h
(50 5) h h
1500
or, M = 4500

or, M = 6750

M
log10
= log10

6750

d/b = 0.1; Kt=2.7;

1500
=
= 1.89e3 h = 0.8 mm
h

Mass reduction ????

Commonly available. Economic.

Stress concentration ???

7/24/2009

121

Question: Draw a free body diagram of each component of assembly

shown in following figure.

L2

L1
P

Contact Stresses
Two rolling surfaces under
compressive load experience
contact stresses.
Ball and roller bearings
Cams with roller follower
Spur or helical gear tooth contact
Pinion

Gear
7/24/2009

123

Contact Stresses
Compressive load
elastic
deformation of surfaces
over a region surrounding
the initial point of contact.
Stresses are highly
dependent on geometry of
the surfaces in contact as
well as loading and material
properties.
7/24/2009

Stress concentration
near contact region
is very high. Stress
concentration factor
????
124

R1
R1
R2

R2

Roller against cylindrical

of zero width.
Theoretical contact patch is
point of zero dimension.

line

b << d1
b << d 2

Contact stresses
Zero areas
Infinite stress.
Material will
elastically deform
and contact
geometry will
change.
Deformation b will
be small compared
to dimensions of
two bodies.

7/24/2009

High stress
concentration

126

Contact stresses ..
Two special geometry cases are of
practical interest and are also simpler
to analyze are: sphere-on-sphere &
cylinder-on-cylinder.
By varying radii of curvature
of one mating surface,
sphere-plane, sphere-incup, cylinder-on-plane, and
cylinder-in-trough can be
modeled.
Radii of curvature of one
element infinite to obtain
a plane.
Negative radii of
curvature define a
concave cup or concave
trough surface.

R1

R1

R2

R2

Finite positive value of R1 & R2

Infinite values of R1, but finite positive value of R2.
Positive value of R1, but negative value of R2.
7/24/2009

128

Spherical contact
p = pmax

r 2
1
b
b 2

Total applied load on contact patch is F = p rd dr

0 0

Total applied load on contact patch is F = 2 pmax

0

or
on assuming b 2 r 2 = t 2
or
or

r 2
1 r dr
b

2 pmax b
2
2
F=
b r r dr
b
0
2 pmax 0
F=
t ( t dt )
b
b
2 pmax b 3
F=
3
b
2
F = b 2 pmax
3

K t = 1.5

Cylindrical Contact
p = pmax

x 2 y 2
1
b a

R1

Pressure variation along Y-axis is

negligible,
p = pmax

x 2
1
b

R2
Y

Z
7/24/2009

X
130

Cylindrical Contact
x 2
1 dx
b

Total applied load on contact patch is F = 2 L pmax

0

F = 2 pmax b cos 2 d

let x = b sin

F=

or

b L pmax

Stress concentration factor = 4/

Fspherical contact

2
= b 2 pmax
3

Fcylindrical contact =

b L pmax

How to determine b ???

How to determine b
Assume pmax = y and find value of b.
1.5 Fspherical contact
b=
pmax

2 Fcylindrical contact
b=
L pmax

Criterion b << d1 needs to be checked.

7/24/2009

132

For axi-symmetric point load

Timoshenko & Goodier suggested:
= x2 + y2 + z2
G=

E
2 (1 + )

F z 2 (1 )
z =
+

4 G 3

1 =

F
4

E
2(1 + )

(1 )
0 +
x2 + y2

(1 ) F
=
2

2 E r

Ref: S. Timoshenko and J.N.Goodier, Theory of elasticity, 2nd

Edition, McGraw Hill.
7/24/2009

133

Deflection of sphere 1
b 2

1 12
1 (r , ) =
2 E1 0

pmax 1 (r / b )
rd dr
r
2

b
pmax 1 (r / b )
1 12
r dr
or 1 =
2
r
2 E1 0
2

or 1 =

(1 ) p
2
1

E1

max

1 (r / b ) dr
2

on assuming r = b sin
or

1 =

b 1
1 =
2 E1

2
1

(1 ) p

)p

2
1

E1

max

max

cos (b cos d )
0

(cos 2 + 1) d
0

or

b 1 12
sin 2
2
+
pmax
1 =
2 E1
2
0

or

b 1 12

pmax
1 =
2 E1
2

2 2
F = b pmax
3

b 1 12
pmax
1 =
2 E1
2
3 1 12
F
1 =
8 b E1

2 2
F = b pmax
3
O

1 = OB OC
or, 1 = R1 OA2 AC 2
or, 1 = R1 R12 b 2
2

or, 1 = R1 1 1
R1

1 b 2

or, 1 = R1 1 1 + negligible terms

2 R1

2
2
1

3
b
1
b
=
0
.
75
R
F
or, 1 = R1
1
2
E1
2 R1

C
B

Example
A ball thrust bearing with 7 balls is loaded with 700N
across its races through the balls. Diameter of
spherical balls is 10mm. Assume load is equally
shared by all balls. Determine the size of contact
patch on the race. Assume Poissons ratio = 0.28
and E=207 GPa.
Ans: b=118 microns. Size=2*b
1 12
b = 0.75 R1
F
E1
3

7/24/2009

136

Static stress distribution

in spherical contact

z3
z = pmax 1 +

2
2 1.5

b +z

z
x = y = 0.5 pmax (1 + 2 ) + 2(1 + )
2
2

b
z
+

= 0.5 pmax 0.5 (1 2 ) + (1 + )

2
2

b
z
+

z

2 2
b +z

z
1.5
2 2

b +z

Prob 2: What will happen if Poissons ratio of

one body is increased to 0.32 and Youngs
modulus is reduced to 180 GPa.

Example: A ball thrust

bearing with 7 balls is
loaded with 700N across its
races through the balls.
Diameter of spherical balls
is 10mm. Assume load is
equally shared by all balls,
Determine the stresses
developed in balls. Assume
Poissons ratio = 0.28 and
E=207 GPa.
Ans: pmax=3.34 GPa.
Maximum stress at z=0,
3.34 GPa
Prob 1: What will happen if
poissons ratio of one body
is reduced to 0.22.

7/24/2009

NOTE: All the stresses diminish to < 10% of pmax within z = 5*b.

137

Variation of
stresses with Z.

z3
z = pmax 1 + 2 2 1.5
b + z

z
x = y = 0.5 pmax (1 + 2 ) + 2(1 + ) 2 2

b +z

z
= 0.5 pmax 0.5 (1 2 ) + (1 + ) 2 2

b +z

z

2 2
b +z

z
1.5

2 2

b +z

Four equations. Eight variables.

We need four inputs.
Assume b = 100 m, =0.28,
pmax = 2 GPa and z = 0.

Parametric variation

7/24/2009

140

7/24/2009

141

7/24/2009

142

Graphs help to find whether function is

monotonic or uni-modal.
7/24/2009

143

Two spherical contacting surface

Deflection of sphere 1

similarly

b 1 12

pmax
1 =
2 E1
2

Total deflection

b 1 22
2 =
pmax
4
E2
=

pmax

) (

1 12
1 22
+
b

E
E2
1

b2
b2
Total deflection can be presented in terms of geometric radii, =
+
2 R1 2 R2
or
or

) (

1 12
1 22
b
+

E
E
2
1

1 12

pmax
1 22
b=
+

4 1
E2
1 E1
2R + 2R
2
1

b2
b2
+
= pmax
2 R1 2 R2 4

7/24/2009

) (

2 2
F = b pmax
3

144

or

or

b=

1.5 F

b 2 (1 12 )

4 1
1
2R + 2R
2
1

E1

(
1 )
+
2
2

E2

) (

1 12
3
F
1 22
b =
+

41
E2
1 E1
R + R
2
1
3

z3
z = pmax 1 + 2 2 1.5
b + z

Question: Two carbon steel balls (AISI 1030

tempered at 650C), each 25 mm in diameter, are
pressed together by a force F = 100N. Find the
maximum value of compressive stress. Poissons
ratio = 0.285, Youngs modulus = 208 GPa.
Answer: 1.85 GPa.
7/24/2009

145

Question: Two balls, each 25 mm in diameter, are

pressed together by a force F = 100N. Find the
maximum value of compressive stress. For one
material (AISI 1030 tempered at 650C ), Poissons
ratio = 0.285 and Youngs modulus = 208 GPa. Other
ball is made of synthetic rubber (Poissons ratio = 0.48
and Youngs modulus = 2.0 MPa)

Maximum stress is <

1.5 MPa, but b ~
45% of ball radius.

Question: One carbon steel balls

(AISI 1030 tempered at 650C),
having diameter = 25, is pressed
against a AISI 1030 steel flat
surface by a force of F = 100N.
Find the maximum value of
compressive stress. Poissons
ratio = 0.285, Youngs modulus
= 208 GPa.

Conclusion: Increase
radius of one of surface,
reduces the value of
maximum compressive
stress.

Cylindrical Contact
p = pmax
F=

x
1
b

b L pmax

1 12 1 22

b=
+
E2
L 1 R + 1 R E1
1
2

4F

x max = z

max

= pmax

y max = 2 pmax
max = 0.304 pmax

Example: An overhead crane wheel

runs slowly on a steel rail. Find the
size of the contact patch, and
stresses? What is the depth of max
shear stress?
Given: Diameter of wheel and length
are 150 mm and 20mm respectively.
Assume radial load is 10000N.
Assume Poissons ratio = 0.28 and
E=207 GPa.

z@ max = 0.786 b

7/24/2009

148

Stress distribution in Cylindrical

Contact
z =

pmax
1 + z 2 / b2

1+ 2 z2 2

z
b
2
x = pmax
2
2
b
1+ z / b

z
y = 2 pmax 1 + z 2 / b 2 2
b

Problem: A 200-mm diameter cast iron (=0.26, E = 80 GPa) wheel, 55

mm wide, rolls on a flat steel (=0.29, E = 210 GPa) surface carrying a load
of 10.0 kN. Find the maximum value of all stresses. Evaluate all three
compressive stresses (in x-, y- and z- directions) at z = 0.2 mm below the
wheel rim surface.
7/24/2009

149

Answer
1 12 1 22
= 6.09e 4 m

b=
+
E
E

2
L 1 R + 1 R 1
2
1
2F
pmax =
= 190 MPa
bL
4F

x max = z

max

= pmax

y max = 2 pmax = 99 MPa

max = 0.304 pmax = 57.76 MPa

7/24/2009

150

Problem
The figure shows a hip prosthesis
containing a femur (ball shaped
having diameter 50 mm) and cup
(having diameter 54 mm). The femur
is coated with 500 microns thick
titanium (=0.35, E=90 GPa) material
and cup is made of plastic (PEEK:
=0.378, E=3.7 GPa) . Assume
normal load transferred from femur to
cup is 300 N. Find the maximum
values of stresses.
7/24/2009

151

Failure of Machine Element

There are only two ways in which an element
fails:
Obsolescence
Loss of function

Ageing, wrong choice of materials

Element losses its utility due to:

Change in important dimension due to wear.
Change in dimension due to yielding (distortion)
Breakage (fracture).
Jamming (friction)
7/24/2009

Brittle material, fatigue

152

Yielding (distortion)
Wear

Fracture

Jamming

Failure Theories

Often failure mechanisms are complicated

involving effect of tension, compression, shear,
7/24/2009 and torsion.
154
bending

Failure Theories for yielding & fracture

First step towards successful design is
obviating every possible failure.
Failures are often associated with multiaxial stress states.
On the basis of comparative study between
theoretical and experimental work, few
theories to predict failure have emerged.
Each theory has its own strengths and
shortcomings and is best suited for a
particular class of material and kind of
loading (static/dynamic).
7/24/2009

155

Failure of Ductile Materials under

Static Loading
Distortion energy (von Mises) theory
and the maximum shear stress theory
agree closely with experimental data.
Distortion energy theory is based on
the concept of relative sliding of
materials atoms within their lattice
structure, caused by shear stress and
accompanied by shape distortion of
the element.
7/24/2009

156

Von-Mises (Distortion energy) Theory

1
Strain energy/volume U =
2
1
U = ( 1 1 + 2 2 + 3 3 )
2

1
( 1 2 3 )
E
1
2 = ( 2 1 3 )
E
1
3 = ( 3 2 1 )
E

1 =

7/24/2009

To avoid complexity, the principal

Stresses and principal strain
That act on planes of zero
Shear stress have been considered.

2
2
2

+
+

1
1
2
3
U=

2 E 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 )
U = Ud +Uh

157

Finding Distortion Energy

2
2
2

+
+
1
h
h
h
U =
1 + +
U=
h 2 E 2 ( h h + h h + h h )

2 E 2 ( 1 2 + 3 2 + 1 3 )
2

3
U = Ud +Uh
U h = h [1 2 ]
2E
+2 +3
h = 1
3

2
1

2
2

2
3

1 + 2
Ud =
1 + 22 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3
3E

7/24/2009

]
158

von-Mises Theory
1 + 2
Ud =
Sy
3E
1 + 2 1 +

Ud =
Sy =

3E

2
1

Sy =

3E

2
1

+ 22 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

+ 22 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

If we consider factor of safety

Sy
N

7/24/2009

2
1

+ 22 + 32 1 2 3 2 1 3

]
159

Maximum Shear Stress Theory

(Tresca Theory)
Evaluate maximum
shear stress
Compare with
shear strength of
material (Sys)
If we consider
factor of safety (N)
then compare with
(Sys/N)
7/24/2009

max =

1 3
2

How to find
principal stresses
and estimate
factor of safety.
160

Principal Stresses

7/24/2009

161

Principal Stresses
F = 0

A = ( x cos )( A cos ) + ( y sin )( A sin ) + ( xy sin )( A cos ) + ( yx cos )( A sin )

= ( x cos 2 ) + ( y sin 2 ) + ( xy sin cos ) + ( yx sin cos )

x y

sin 2
2

= ( xy cos 2 )

cos 2 + 1 1 cos 2
+ y
+ ( xy sin 2 )
2
2

x y

(
)
0
cos
2
sin
2
=

xy
x + y x y

2
+

=
cos 2 + ( xy sin 2 )
2 2

2 xy
tan 2 =
x y

= x

7/24/2009

162

Principal Stresses
x + y x y

+
=
cos 2 + ( xy sin 2 )
2 2

x + y

=
2

x y

2
2
)
(
)
2

+
x
y
xy

+
x
y
x
y

1 , 2 =

tan 2 =

2 xy

+ ( xy )

Similarly we can find 3. In practice 1 , 2 , and 3 are

arranged in descending order of magnitude.

Factor of Safety
FOS is a ratio of two quantities that
have same units:
Strength/stress
Critical load/applied load
Load to fail part/expected service load
Maximum cycles/applied cycles
Maximum safe speed/operating speed.
NOTE: FOS is deterministic. Often data are statistical and
there is a need to use Probabilistic approach.
7/24/2009

164

Variation in Material Strength (MPa)

Material
Range
(AISI, rolled)
1080
865 - 975

Mean

St. Deviation

920

18.33

1095

865 - 1070

967.5

34.17

1030

495 - 610

522.5

19.17

1040

565 - 690

627.5

20.83

1050

650 - 800

725.0

25.00

1060

725 - 900

812.5

29.17

7/24/2009

165

Probability density function

Ex: Measured ultimate
tensile strength data of
nine specimen are: 433
MPa, 444, 454, 457, 470,
476, 481, 493, and 510
MPa. Find the values of
mean, std. dev., and
coefficient of variation.
Assuming normal
distribution find the
probability density
function.

s = 468.67 MPa
s = 24.34 MPa
Coeff. of variation = CS =
1
f (S ) =
e
24.34 2
+

f (S ) dS = 1

s
= 0.05194
s

1 S 468.67

2 24.34

4.59,4.34,4.5796,4.50, 4.582,4.58474.5948

EX. NOMINAL SHAFT DIA.

NUMBER OF SPECIMEN

4.5mm
34
4.58mm
0.0097

d
d

1 di d

1
2
f (d ) =
e
d 2

7/24/2009

2
2
d i ( d i ) / N
d =
N 1

6
4.5294
0.0987

Conclusion:
Variation in stress
level occurs due to
variation in
geometric
dimensions.
167

Ex: Consider a structural member( s = 40 , s )

subjected to a static load that develops a stress
( = 30 , ). Find the reliability of member.
NOTE: Reliability is probability that machine element will
perform intended function satisfactorily.

Deterministic FOS = 40/30. 100% reliability.

Q = 40 30 = 10
Q = 6 2 + 82 = 10
Q =10,Q =10
7/24/2009

= 30 s = 40
= 8 s = 6
168

ALGEBRAIC
FUNCTIONS

Q=C
Q = Cx
Q=C+x

MEAN

C
Cx
C + x

STD. DEVIATION

0
C x

Q = x y

x y

x2 + y2

Q = xy

x y

y2 x 2 + x2 y 2

Q=x y
Q =1 x

x y

y2 x 2 + x2 y 2 y2

7/24/2009

1 x

x x2
169

Margin Q = S

Q =10,Q =10

= 30 s = 40
= 8 s = 6

Probabilit y of failure Pf = P (Q < 0 )

Reliabilit y R = 1 Pf

f (Q ) =
7/24/2009

Q 2

1 Q Q

2 Q

Let normal variable

Q Q
Z =

170

Z =

Q Q

Q
1
2

R=

1
Z2
2

z0 1 z 2
e 2 dZ

1
F=

2
dZ

Z0

Q
where Z 0 =
Q

at Q = 0

Q = 10
Q = 10

0 10
Z0 =
= 1
10

Z-Table provides
probability of failure

In the present case

Probability of failure
is 0.1587 &
reliability is .8413.

7/24/2009

172

7/24/2009

173

Comparison
FOS equivalent to 1.33 is insufficient
for the present design, therefore
there is a need to increase this factor.
Selecting stronger material (mean
value of strength = 50 units!!!!)

7/24/2009

174

Ex : Strength and Stress of a tensile bar are :

S y = (270, 32 ) MPa

Reliability of design R

R = 1-0.0075 ????

&

= (184,15) MPa

2.43
= 1

1 z2 2
e
dz
2

Ref: Probabilistic Mechanical

Design, Edward B. Haugen, 1980.

Prob: A steel bar is subjected to compressive load. Statistics of load are (6500,
420) N. Statistics of area are (0.64, 0.06) m2. Estimate the statistics of
stress.
Ans: (10156, 1156.4) Pa.
7/24/2009

175

Ex: A round 1018 steel rod having yield strength (540, 40) MPa
is subjected to tensile load (220, 18) kN. Determine the
diameter of rod reliability of 0.999 (z = -3.09).

Given s = 540 MPa ; s = 40 MPa

220000
18000
=
MPa ; =
MPa
2
2
/4d
/4d
Z =

Q Q

;R=

1
2

1
Z2
2

880000
Q = 540
d2

dZ

Z0

Q
where Z 0 =
Q

72000

Q = 40 +
2
d

72000
880000
= 540
3.09 40 +
2
2

d
d

7/24/2009

d = 26 mm
176

Example: Stress developed in a machine element is given by:

= P / 4kd 3

)(

4 L12 + 3L22

Given P = (1500, 50) N, Strength = (129, 3) MPa, L1=(150, 3)

mm, L2=(100, 2) mm. Assume std. dev. of d is 1.5% mean
value of d. k = 0.003811.
Determine distribution of d if the maximum probability
of machine-element-failure is 0.001
2

2
xi
Standard deviation of a complex function is expressed by : = in=1
xi
2
2
2
2

2
2
2
2
L2
L1 +
=
P +
d +
P
d
L
L

2
1

1/ 2

Statistically independent

2
2
2
22724 2

2
e
13635
4
170430
85216
2
2
2
(0.003) +
0.015 d +
(50 ) +
=
(0.002 )
3
4
3
3
d

d
d
d

1
= 3 [1.291e12 + 41830 + 261420 + 29047]1/ 2

1136200

d3

1/ 2

= ( P / 4k d3 ) 4 L21 + 3 L22
=

34087000

d3

Z = 3.09 =

0 129e6 34087000 d3

1136200
2

3e6 +
3

1136.2
11031
(3000) + 3 = 41748 3
d
d
d = 0.06686 m

d = 0.001 m
Calculating FOS = Strength/stress
=129/114=1.13

FOS

Question: Estimate all the stress at point A of L shape rod

(diameter = 6 mm), which is made of steel (yield strength =

300 MPa). Assume plate is rigidly mounted (deflection of plate
is negligible). Estimate the safety of plate.

Plate

L shape rod
7/24/2009

179

Question: Determine the diameter of L shape rod, which is

made of steel (yield strength = 300 10 MPa). Assume plate is

rigidly mounted (deflection of plate is negligible), standard
deviation of load components is 5% of mean values, standard
deviation in dimensions is 0.1% of mean values, and expected
reliability of rod is 99%.

Plate

7/24/2009

L shape rod

180

Failure Theories for Brittle material

under Static loading
Brittle material fracture rather than yield.
Fracture in tension is due to normal tensile
stress.
Shear strength of brittle material can be greater
than their tensile strength, falling between their
compressive and tensile values.

Conclusion: Different failure modes are due to

the difference in relative shear and tensile
strengths between the ductile and brittle
materials.

7/24/2009

181

Maximum Normal Stress Theory

Sut
1
N
Maximum tensile
stress

Ultimate tensile
strength. Often referred
as tensile strength.

Factor of
safety

Suc
3
N
7/24/2009

182

Compressive & Tensile Strength

Material

Compressive

Tensile

Alumina
Aluminium Nitride
Boron Carbide
Boron Nitride
Silicon
Silicon Nitride
High Si Cast iron
Tool
steel
7/24/2009

1.667
2.183
5.158
0.397
3.2
7.93
0.58
1.68

128
218
515
40
165
476
90
1920

(GPa)

(MPa)

183

Coulomb Mohr theory

Tensile

Tensile

Compressive
0

Compressive

Coulomb Mohr Theory

Sut
1
if 1 > 2 > 3 > 0
N
Suc
3
if 0 > 1 > 2 > 3
N

Sut Suc N
7/24/2009

if 1 > 0 > 3
185

Ex: A round cantilever bar made of brittle material

experience torsion applied to the free end. Assume that
the compressive strength is twice the tensile strength.
Express failure stress in terms of strength.

Given : Bar is subjected to torsional stress ( i ).

1 = i

and 3 = i

as 1 > 0 > 3
or
7/24/2009

i
S ut

S ut Suc N

(
i )

2 Sut

1
N

2 Sut
i
3 N
186

Inaccuracies of
Manufacturing
methods

Tolerances

Machine elements are manufactured /

fabricated with some tolerance on
their basic (normal size, i.e. 20mm)
dimensions.

+0.04

20

0.00

7/24/2009

Tolerance: permissible variation in the

dimensions of a component.
Tolerance: Unilateral or bilateral.
0.00
+0.04

20

0.04

20

0.02

20

d = 20 ; d = 0.01

0.03
187

Fits
Careful decision on tolerance is important
for assembling two components.
Relationship resulting from the difference
between sizes of components before assembly is
called a Fit.
Clearance fit: positive gap between hole and
shaft. Relative movement is possible.
Interference fit: Negative gap. Relative
movement is restricted.
Transition fit: border case. Either a clearance or
interference fit, depending upon actual values of
dimensions of mating components.
7/24/2009

188

+0.013
0.000

Prob : A bearing (20

assembled. Calculate :

) and a crank - pin (20

0.040
0.061

) are

Known as 20H6-e7

Maximum and minimum diameters of the crank-pin and

bearing.
Maximum and minimum clearance between crank-pin and
bearing.

19.939

19.96

20.00 20.013

Prob : A valve (20

Calculate :

+0.048
+ 0.035

) is inserted in a housing (20

+0.021
0.000

).

Known as 20H7-s6

Maximum and minimum diameters of the valve seat and

housing-hole.
Maximum and minimum interference between the seat and its
housing.

20.00 20.021 20.035 20.048

7/24/2009

190

B.I.S. (Bureau of Indian Standards) System

of Tolerances
As per B.I.S. tolerance is specified by
two parts (i.e. H6, e7). :
Fundamental deviation: Location of
tolerance zone w. r. t. Zero line.
Represented by an alphabet (capital or small).
Capital letters describe tolerances on hole, while
small letters describe tolerance on shaft.

Magnitude: by a number, often called grade.

There are eighteen grades of tolerance with
designations IT1, IT2,, IT 18.
IT is acronym of International Tolerance.

7/24/2009

191

H6-e7

j
g
H7-s6

e
c
a

Letter Symbols for Tolerances

7/24/2009

193

7/24/2009

194

Basic series k

0-3

14

18

3-6

12

19

23

6-10

10

15

23

28

10-14

12

18

28

33

14-18

12

18

28

33

18-24

15

22

35

41

24-30

15

22

35

48

30-40

17

26

43

60

40-50

17

26

43

70

50-65

20

32

53

87

65-80

20

32

59

102

80-100

23

37

71

124

100-120

23

37

79

144

120-140

27

43

92

170

140-160

27

43

100

190

160-180

27

43

108

210

180-200

31

50

122

236

200-225

31

50

130

258

Nominal Sizes (mm)

over

10

18

30

50

80

120

180

250

inc.

10

18

30

50

80

120

180

250

315

0.8

1.2

1.5

1.5

2.5

3.5

4.5

1.2

1.5

1.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

2.5

10

12

10

12

14

16

11

13

15

18

20

23

11

13

16

19

22

25

29

32

10

12

15

18

21

25

30

35

40

46

52

14

18

22

27

33

39

46

54

63

72

81

25

30

36

43

52

62

74

87

100

115

130

10

40

48

58

70

84

100

120

140

160

185

210

11

60

75

90

110

130

160

190

220

250

290

320

12

100

120

150

180

210

250

300

350

400

460

520

13

140

180

220

270

330

390

460

540

630

720

810

300

360

430

520

620

740

870

1000

1150

IT
Grade

14

7/24/2009

250

196

1300

IT Grade
Lapping
Honing
Super finishing
Cylindrical grinding
Diamond turning
Plan grinding
Broaching
Reaming
Boring, Turning
Sawing
Milling
Planning, Shaping
Extruding
Cold Rolling, Drawing
Drilling
Die Casting
Forging
Sand Casting
Hot rolling, Flame cutting

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

Examples
Hole 110H11
Minimum = 110mm + 0mm = 110.000mm ...
Maximum = 110mm + (0+0.220) = 110.220mm
Resulting limits 110.000/110.220
Tolerance of hub, tlh=220m
Shaft 110e9...
Maximum = 110mm 0.072=109.928mm...
Minimum = 110mm - (0.072 +0.087) = 109.841mm
Resulting limits 109.841/ 109.928
Tolerance of shaft, tls=87m
7/24/2009

198

Examples 34H11/c11
Hole 34H11
Minimum = 34mm + 0mm = 34.000mm ...
Maximum = 34mm + (0+0.160) = 34.160mm
Resulting limits 34.000/34.160
Tolerance of hub, tlh=160m
Shaft 34c11...
Maximum = 34mm 0.120=33.880mm...
Minimum = 34mm - (0.120 +0.160) = 33.720mm
Resulting limits 33.880/ 33.720
Tolerance of shaft, tls=160 m
7/24/2009

199

Examples:
Clearance Fit: In hydrodynamic bearings a critical
design parameter is radial clearance between
shaft and bearing. Typical value is 0.1% of shaft
radius. Tolerances cause additional or smaller
clearance. Too small a clearance could cause
failure; too large a clearance would reduce load
capacity.
Interference Fit: Rolling-element bearings are
generally designed to be installed on a shaft with
an interference fit. Slightly higher interference
would require significant force to press bearing
on shaft, thus imposing significant stresses on
both the shaft and the bearing.
7/24/2009

200


Effect of clearance on load
700
600

Load

500

1
Load 2
Cr

400
300
200
100
0
1

7/24/2009

0.001 R * Factor

10

201

Interference
Fit
Wringing

Light

Medium

Heavy

Utilized to
minimize the
need for keyways.

=0.00 mm

=0.00025d mm

=0.0005d mm

=0.001d mm
For 20mm shaft dia,
interference = 20 microns

Require light pressure.

Suitable for stationary parts
Suitable for low speed and
light duty joints
Considerable pressure is
required to assemble
/disassemble joints.
Semi-permanent joint

Press Fit

Baseline

Pressure pf is caused by
interference between
shaft & hub. Pressure
increases radius of hole
and decreases radius of
shaft.
pf

rf

rs

rs

rh

rh
rf

rf

rf

pf
7/24/2009

203

Circumferential strain =

Radial strain r =

r +

(r + r )d r d = r = ( r )
r d

r
dr r
( )

r
= r = r
dr
r
E

d
Force balance = ( r + d r )(r + dr ) d dz r rd dz 2 sin
dr dz = 0
2
7/24/2009

204

( r + d r )(r + dr ) d dz r rd dz 2 sin d dr dz = 0
2

d r
rearranging r
d dz + r d dz d dz = 0
dr
d r
or = r + r
dr

d r

r
r + r
r
dr

=
r
E
d r

r
r r
dr
=
E
r

( r )

r
E
r ( r )
=
E
r

d 2 r
r
+
r 1
d r
r dr 2
= r + r
r +
r
E
dr
d r
E d r

dr
dr

d r d 2 (r r )
2
+
=0
2
dr
dr

d r
d 2 r
3
+r
=0
2
dr
dr

d r d 2 (r r )
2
+
=0
2
dr
dr
2

r
2
r r + C1 + C2 = 0
2
C1 C2
r + + 2 = 0
2 r

d (r r )
2 r +
+ C1 = 0
dr

d r2 r
+ C1 r = 0
dr

Two conditions are required to express radial

stress in terms of radius.

r = pi at r = ri
r = po at r = ro

C1 C2
+ 2 = pi
2 ri
C1 C2
+ 2 = po
2 ro

rf

pi ri 2 po ro2 + (ri ro r ) ( po pi )
Radial stress r =
ro2 ri 2
2

pi ri 2 po ro2 (ri ro r ) ( po pi )
Circumferential stress =
ro2 ri 2
2

CASE I: Internally Pressurized (Hub)Circumferential stress =

Radial stress r =

p f r f2 1 + (ro r )

ro2

p f r f2 1 (ro r )2

r f2

Circumferential strain =

rf

,max =

p f r f2 + ro2

ro2 r f2

r ,max = p f

ro2 r f2

rh

(
h r )
=
E

,max

rh
p f rf2 + ro2

=
+ h =
2
2
r
E ro rf
f

CASE II: Externally Pressurized (shaft)Circumferential stress =

)2

1+ r r
p f r f2 2 i 2
r f ri

,max =

(
)

r
r
1
Radial stress r = p f r f2 2 i 2
r f ri

2
2
r f ri

p f r f2

r ,max = p f

rf

Circumferential strain =

rs
rf

( s r )
E

,max

r
p f ri2 + r f2
= s

s
rf
Es r f2 ri2

Total interference r = rh rs
2
2
ro2 + r f2
r
r
+
h
s
i
f
or r = r f p f
+
+

2
2
2
2
Eh Es r f ri
Es
Eh ro r f

Ex: A wheel hub is press fitted on a 105 mm diameter solid shaft. The
hub and shaft material is AISI 1080 steel (E = 207 GPa). The hubs
outer diameter is 160mm. The radial interference between shaft and
hub is 65 microns. Determine the pressure exercised on the interface of
shaft and wheel hub.

r f p f ro2 + r f2
ri2 + r f2
If hub and shaft are made of same materials : r =
2 2 + 2 2
E ro r f
r f ri
r f p f 2 ro2
If shaft is solid : r =
2 2
E ro r f
ANS: pf =73 MPa

) (

Through interference fit torque can be transmitted,

which can be estimated with a simple friction analysis
at the interface.

F f = N = ( p f A)
Ff = ( p f d f L)
Torque T =

pf d2 L

= coefficient of
friction

Abrasion

Adhesion

C.A.Coulomb 1781
1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction
2)Contact at discrete points.
3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)No adhesion
5)f func(v)
7/24/2009

211

PLOUGHING Effect
Assume n conical asperities of hard
metal in contact with flat soft metal,
vertically project area of contact:

A = n 0.5 * r

W = n(0.5 * r ) H
2

=
7/24/2009

F = (nrh) H

cot
212

For = 45
For = 60
For = 80

= 0.6366
= 0.3676
= 0.1123

Slope of real surfaces are nearly

always less than 10 (i.e. > 80),
therefore < 0.1.

ADHESION Theory

Two surfaces are pressed together under load W.

They deformed until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support
load W.
A = W/H.
To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of
junctions with force F
F=As

Shear stress of softer of contacting materials

W = Areal H

F = Areal s

s
H

For most of materials H = 3y & s = y /1.7

Expected value of =.2
Metals on it self
Gold
2
Silver
1
Copper
1
Chromium
0.4
Lead
1.5
7/24/2009

On steel (0.13%C)
Silver
0.5
Copper
0.8
Indium
2.0
Lead
1.2
215

Junction Growth

Constant

F A ????

Limiting Junction Growth

Presence of weak interfacial films.
Assume shear stress, i.

Fmax = i Amax
Fmax
i Amax
=

2
W
( y2 4 i2 ) Amax

i
2 ( y2 i2 )

Average shear
strength

7/24/2009

218

7/24/2009

219

7/24/2009

220

Rankine published Causes of unexpected breakage of railway axles in

1843, postulating that materials experience brittleness under fluctuating
stresses.

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue failure looks brittle even in
ductile metals. Parts often fail at
stresses well below the ultimate
strength of mat.
High factor of safety.
Aloha Airlines flight 243, a Boeing
737-200, lost about 1/3 of its cabin top
while in flight at 8.5 km. This failure,
which happened in 1988, was caused
by corrosion assisted fatigue.
7/24/2009

221

 Machine elements subject to time

varying repeated loading
m =

max + min

2
min
a = max
2
Ex: A particular fiber on
surface of shaft subjected to
bending loads undergoes both
tension & compression for
each revolution of shaft. If
shaft is part of electric motor
rotating at 1440 rpm, the fiber
is stressed in tension &
compression 1440 times each
minute.

Stresses repeat a large

number of times, hence
failure is named as Fatigue
failure.

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue is a concern whenever
cyclic/fluctuating loading is present.
Loading may be axial (tensile
or compressive), flexural (bending)
or torsional.
Appearance similar to brittle
fracture
Damage accumulating
phenomenon (progressive fracture).
7/24/2009

223

Beach marks highlight advances

of a fatigue crack (s)

Crack initiation
Crack growth
Fracture

7/24/2009

224

 Crack initiation, propagation, and fracture.

Fast
Fracture

Crack growth

CI: Crack initiation

CG: Crack growth
FF: Final fracture

Crack initiation

CG FF

Normal Element
Relative time

CI

CG FF

Faulty (stress raisers, material defects) Element

7/24/2009

226

Normal element

Faulty element

Life 32,000 Hours

Life 100 hours

Removed before final

fracture

Unexpected final
fracture

7/24/2009

227

 Low nominal stress results in a high ratio of fatigue zone to FF zone

High nominal stress is indicated by low ratio of fatigue zone to FF
7/24/2009

228

Fatigue Regimes
Low cycle fatigue ( 103 cycles)
Latches on automobile glove compartment
Studs on truck wheels

Sl = 0.9 Sut

bending ; Sl = 0.75 Sut axial

Since static design often uses Yield strength (< Sut) in

defining allowable stresses, therefore static
approaches are acceptable for designing low cycle
component.

High cycle fatigue (> 103 cycles)

Car door hinges
7/24/2009

Aircraft body panels

229

Dimensions in inches

Fatigue Strength
Measured by testing idealized (R. R. Moore)
standard specimen on rotating beam machine.
Highly polished surface.
If specimen breaks into two equal halves, test is
indicative of mat. Fatigue strength. Otherwise, it is
indicative that material or surface flaw has skewed
results.
Test specimen is subjected to completely reversed
bending stress cycling at 66% Sut and cycles to
fatigue are counted.
Procedure is repeated on other identical specimens
subjected to progressively decreasing stress
amplitude.
7/24/2009

230

Strength - Cycles

German engineer

S-N (Wohler) diagram

Plot of fatigue strength (S) vs
logarithm of number of cycles (N)
Indicate whether material has endurance
limit (possibility of infinite life) or not.

7/24/2009

231

Endurance Limit ( Se )
For Steel
Se = 0.5 Sut bending
Se = 0.45Sut Axial
Se = 0.29 Sut Torsion
NOTE: It is always good
engineering practice to
conduct a testing
program on materials to
be employed in design.

7/24/2009

Magnesium alloys (108 cycles) S e = 0.35 Sut

Copper alloys (108 cycles)

S e = 0.38 Sut

Nickel alloys (108 cycles)

S e = 0.42 Sut

Titanium alloys (107 cycles)

S e = 0.55 Sut

Aluminum alloys (5 *108 cycles) S e = 0.45 Sut

232

Fatigue strength S f can be expressed by

Fatigue strength

log S f = k1 log N + k 2

Number of cycles to failure, N

Example: The ultimate tensile strength of an axially

loaded steel member is 1080 MPa. Find out fatigue
strength as a function of number of cycles
(103<N<106).
Slide 229
3

Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle

( )

( )

3
3

log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 log(0.75 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2

6

Fatigue strength S f at 10 cycle

( )

( )

6
6

log Sl = k1 log 10 + k 2 log(0.45 Sut ) = k1 log 10 + k 2

Slide 232
K1=-0.07395
7/24/2009

k2=3.13

(stress in MPa)
234

Design factors

Endurance limit modification factors

Endurance limit is measured under
best circumstances, which cannot be
guaranteed for design applications.
Components endurance limit must be
modified or reduced from materials
best-case endurance limit.
Stress concentration factor, surface finish
factor, size factor, reliability factor,
temperature factor, etc.
7/24/2009

235

Reliability Factor
Reliability factor
obtained from Table can
be considered only as a
guide (academic)
because actual
distribution varies
from one material to
other. For practical
applications, originally
determined data are
required.
7/24/2009

Probability of
survival, %
50
90
95
99
99.9
99.99
99.999
99.9999

Reliability
factor, kr
1.0
0.897
0.868
0.814
0.753
0.702
0.659
0.620

236

Surface Finish
Factor

7/24/2009

237

Surface Finish Factor

Finishing
method

K finish = a(Sut in MPa )

Constant a Exponent b

Ground

1.58

-0.085

Machined or cold drawn

4.51

-0.265

Hot rolled

57.7

-0.718

Forged

272

-0.995

Ex: A steel has Sut = 520 MPa. Estimate Kfinish for a machined surface.
ANS: 0.86
7/24/2009

238

Temperature Factor
Temperature Ktemp

Temperature Ktemp

20C

1.00

300C

0.975

50C

1.01

350C

0.943

100C

1.02

400C

0.900

150C

1.025

450C

0.843

200C

1.02

500C

0.768

250C

1.0

550C

0.672

NOTE: Initially increase in temperature causes the redistribution

of stress-strain profiles at notches or stress concentration
features, hence increases the fatigue strength.
7/24/2009

239

Stress Concentration Factor

SCF is slightly lesser than SCF under
static loading.
Many mat. Relieve stress near a crack tip
through plastic flow.

To avoid complexity in the present

course assume, SCF under fatigue
loading = SCF under static loading.

7/24/2009

240

Size factor, Ksize

K size

1.24 d 0.107
=
0.157
1
.
51
d

2.79 d 51 mm
51 < d 254 mm

Applicable only
for cylindrical
components.

NOTE: A 7.5mm diameter beam specimen is used for

testing fatigue strength. Larger the machine part, greater
is the probability that a flaw exit somewhere in larger
volume. Fatigue failure tendency
Necessary to define effective diameter based on
equivalent circular cross section for components having
non-circular cross-section.
7/24/2009

241

Effective dimension is
obtained by equating the
volume of material
stressed at and above
95% of maximum stress
to the same volume in the
rotating beam specimen.
Lengths will cancel out,
so only areas are
considered.
For a rotating round
section, the 95% stress
area is the area in a ring
having outside diameter
d and inside diameter of
0.95, so

A0.95 =

[
d
4

Effective diameter for nonrotating cross sections

(0.95d )2 = 0.0766 d 2

Example: A hot rolled steel plate (Sut=400 MPa) at room

temperature is subjected to completely reversed axial load of 30
kN. Assume size factor and expected reliability as 0.85 and 95%
respectively. Determine the thickness of plate for infinite life.
STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of mat.

Se = 0.45Sut
Se = 0.45 400
Se = 180 MPa

For Steel
Se = 0.5 Sut bending
Se = 0.45Sut Axial
Se = 0.29 Sut Torsion

30 kN

50

30 kN
7/24/2009

243

STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of

plate.

Probability of
survival, %
50
90
95

Find modification (i.e reliability,

finish, temp., stress
concentration and size) factors.

Surface Finish Factor

Finishing method
Hot rolled

0.868

Reliability
factor, kr
1.0
0.897
0.868

K finish = a(Sut in MPa )

Constant a
57.7

Exponent b
-0.718

0.78

Corrected S'e includingreliability and finishfactors

Se = 180 0.868 0.78 MPa
Se = 121.9 MPa

Temperature Factor

Temperature Ktemp

20C

1.00

Corrected S'e includingreliability , finish,temperature

andsizefactors
Se = 121.9 1 0.85 MPa
Se = 103.6 MPa

Stress concentration factor

2.5

1/2.5 =0.4

Corrected S'e includingreliability , finish,temperature, sizeand

stressconcentration factors
Se = 103.6 0.4 MPa
Se = 41.5 MPa

30 kN

Thickness
> 18.1 mm
5

50

30 kN

Example: A rod of steel (Sut=600 MPa) at room temperature

is subjected to reversed axial load of 100 kN. The rod is
machined on lathe and expected reliability is 95%. There is no
stress concentration. Determine the diameter of rod for an
infinite life.
STEP 1: Estimate endurance limit of
mat.
0.45*600 = 270 MPa.
STEP 2: Estimate endurance limit of
plate.
Find modification (i.e
reliability, finish, temp., stress
concentration and size)
factors.
0.868, 0.77, 1, 1, 1.24 d-0.107

ANS: Diameter > 30 mm

Example: A rotating bar made of steel (Sut=600 MPa) is

subjected to a completely reversed bending stress. The
corrected endurance limit of component is 300 MPa. Calculate
the fatigue strength of bar for a life of 80,000 rotations.

Fatigue strength S f can be expressed by

log S f = k1 log N + k 2

( )
log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k
log(300 ) = k1 log 106 + k 2
1

log S f = ( 0.0851) log N + 2.9877

S f = 372 MPa

NOTE:
We can
state that
at stress
value =
372 MPa,
life of bar
is 80,000
rotations.

Question: Ultimate tensile

strength of a bolt, subjected
to axial tensile loading, is
1080 MPa. A 20% decrease
in its stress would increase
its life by 50000 cycles.
Determine the bolt-life.
log(S f ) log(0.8 * S f ) = k1 * [log(N ) log(N + 50000 )]
Sf
N

= k1 * log
log

0.8 * S
N + 50000
f

N
log(0.8)

= log

k1
N
50000
+

Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Suppose a machine part is subjected to:
Fully reversed stress 1 for n1 cycles.
Fully reversed stress 2 for n2 cycles.
Fully reversed stress 3 for n3 cycles.

ni
=1

Ni
where n i = cycles at stress i
N i = cycles to fail at stress i
7/24/2009

250

Cumulative Fatigue Damage

Palmgren-Miner cycle ratio summation
rule.. Miners rule

1
N

ni
1
N = N
i

ni
N 1

=
N
N
i
7/24/2009

where N = Total life in cycles

if 1 , 2 ,... are proportions of the
total fatigue

life (N)

1
N = N
i
251

Example: A component is made of steel having ultimate

strength of 600 MPa and endurance limit of 300 MPa.
Component is subjected to completely reversed bending stresses
of:
350 MPa for 75% of time;

N1 = 163333

400 MPa for 15% of time;

N 2 = 34010

500 MPa for 10% of time;

N 3 = 2471

Determine the life of the component.

( )
log(0.9 * 600 ) = k log(10 ) + k

log(300 ) = k1 log 106 + k 2

1

log S f = ( 0.0851) log N + 2.9877

ANS: 20214 cycles

.75
.15
.10
1
+
+
=
163333 34010 2471 N

Question: A component is made of AISI 1008 cold drawn

steel. Assume there is no stress concentration, size factor =
0.87, and expected reliability is 99%. The component at
temperature of 100C is subjected to completely reversed
bending stress of:
140 MPa for 60% life
180 MPa for 25% life
200 MPa for 15% life

Determine the life of component.

ANS: Sut=340MPa.
Determine Ktemp=1.02
Kfinish=0.9624 and Kr=0.814.

Corrected endurance strength for 103 cycles

= 212.7 MPa
Corrected endurance strength for 106 cycles
= 118.2 MPa

Refer slide no. 233 to express Fatigue strength S f

log S f = k1 log N + k 2
3

Using calculated strengths for 10 and 10

k1 = 0.0851 & k 2 = 2.583

Using fatigue strength equation:

N1 cycles to fail component at stress 140 MPa = 136200
N2 cycles to fail component at stress 180 MPa = 7104
N3 cycles to fail component at stress 200 MPa = 2059
Using Palmgren Miner rule (refer slide 246)
Life of component, N = 8893 cycles

Fatigue strength depends on

Type of loading
Size of component
Surface finish
Stress concentration
Temperature
Required reliability
NOTE: Factor of safety depends on the
mean and alternating applied stresses and
fatigue
and yield/ultimate strengths
7/24/2009
255

Axial loading
Difficult to apply axial loads without
some eccentricity
bending & axial.
Whole critical region is subject to the
same maximum stress level.
Therefore, it would be expected that the
fatigue strength for axial loading would
be less than rotating bending.

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256

Fluctuating Stresses

Fatigue failure criteria

for fluctuating stresses
???
7/24/2009

257

Fatigue failure criteria for

fluctuating stresses
When alternating stress
=0, load is purely static.
Criterion of failure will
be Syt or Sut.
When mean stress=0,
stress is completely
reversing. Criterion of
failure will be endurance
limit.
When component is
subjected to mean as
well alternating stress,
different criterions are
available to construct
borderline dividing safe
zone and failure zone.

+ m = 1
S e Sut

a
Se

m
S yt

=1

7/24/2009
Remark:
Gerber parabola fits failure points of test data. Soderberg line
is conservative.

258

Goodman line Failure criterion

Widely used, because
It is completely inside failure

points of test data, therefore it

is safe.

Syt

Equation of straight line is

simple compared to equation of
parabola.

Se A

m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a
tan =
=r
m
7/24/2009

a =
m =

r Sut S e
r Sut + S e

a
r

C
m

Syt Sut
259

m
Sut

m
Sy

Se
Sy

=1
=1

m =

Sut S y S e

)
Syt

Sut S e

a = Sy m

Sut

a
Se

=1

a
tan =
=r
m

a =
m =

C
Syt Sut

Moment range M a = 0.5 * [15 (5)]

r Sut S e
r Sut + S e

M a = 10 N.m

M m = 5 N.m

Area OABC
represents
region of safety.

Se A

tan = a
m

Example: A cantilever beam is made

of steel having Sut=600 MPa, Syt =350 a
MPa and Se =130 MPa. The moment
acting on beam varies from 5 N.m to
15 N.m. Determine the diameter of the
O
beam.

Modified
Goodman line

Moment mean M m = 0.5 * [15 + (5)]

tan =

10
r=2
5

a = 117.3 MPa
d = 9.54 mm

For diameter d 9.54,

a < 130 MPa & m < 350 MPa

Design is safe

Ex: A cylindrical bar is subjected to 0 to 70 kN

tensile load. Assume UTS = 690 MPa, YS = 580
MPa, and EL = 234 MPa. Assume stress
concentration factor as 1.85. Find diameter of bar.
m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a
tan =
=r
m

a =
m =

r Sut S e
r Sut + S e

a
r

Load range Fa = 0.5 * [70 0]kN

Fa = 35 kN

Force mean Fm = 0.5 * [70 + 0]

Fm = 35 kN
tan =

7/24/2009

35
r =1
35
262

Ex: A cylindrical bar (dia = 40 mm) is subjected to 0

to 70 kN tensile load. Assume UTS = 690 MPa, YS =
580 MPa, and EL = 234 MPa. Assume stress
concentration factor as 1.85. Find FOS.

m
Sut

a
Se

=1

a
tan =
=r
m

a =
m =

r Sut S e
r Sut + S e

a
r

Load range Fa = 0.5 * [70 0]kN

Fa = 35 kN

Force mean Fm = 0.5 * [70 + 0]

Fm = 35 kN
tan =

7/24/2009

35
r =1
35
263

Griffith 1921

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics

(LEFM) Method
Assumption: Cracks exist in parts even before
service begins. Energy release rate is energy required rate
Focus: Predict crack growth and remove parts
from service before crack reaches its critical length.

7/24/2009

264

Modes of Crack Displacement

Figure Three modes of crack displacement. (a) Mode I,

opening; (b) mode II, sliding; (c) mode III, tearing.
Mode I is the most common &
important mode.
7/24/2009

Stress intensity factor depends

on geometry, crack size, type of
loading & stress level. 265

Design for Finite/Infinite Life

Fatigue / Wear
Attempt to keep
local stresses -crack initiation
stage never comes.
Pre-existing voids
or inclusions.
Tensile stress
opens crack
(growth), while
compressive closes
(sharpen) it.
7/24/2009

266

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

7/24/2009

267

Linear Elastic Fracture

Mechanics Method..

A 2a
d

2b

7/24/2009

268

Linear Elastic Fracture

Mechanics Method..

7/24/2009

269

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics Method..

Life Prediction
Paris equation (for region II)
da
n
= A(K )
dN
Nc

ac

Ni

ai

dN =

A & n are mat. constants

da
n
A(K )
a

da
1 c
Nc Ni =
A ai n a n / 2

Nc Ni =

Nc Ni =

ac

da
a a n / 2
i
a

ac
n
+1
2
ai

( n / 2 + 1)

K c = ( max min ) ac
Fracture toughness
Austenitic cast iron, flakes
Austenitic cast iron, nodular
High silicon cast iron
Carbon steel, AISI 1080
Low Alloy steel, AISI 3140
Cast Austenitic SS
Tin based babbit
Alumina
Silicon carbide
7/24/2009

21 MPa.m^0.5
22 MPa.m^0.5
9 MPa.m^0.5
49 MPa.m^0.5
77 MPa.m^0.5
132 MPa.m^0.5
15 MPa.m^0.5
3.3 MPa.m^0.5
2.3 MPa.m^0.5
272

Ex: Aluminum alloy square plate (width= 25mm),

having internal crack of size 0.125 mm at center, is
subjected to repeatedly tensile stress of 130 MPa.
Crack growth rate is 2.54 microns/cycle at stress
intensity range = 22 MPa(m)0.5. Crack growth rate
at stress intensity range = 3.3 MPa(m)0.5 is 25.4
nm/cycle. How many cycles are required to
increase the crack size to 7.5mm?

Given

2b = 25 mm
2h = 25 mm
2a = 0.125 mm

da
n
= A(K )
dN

A & n are mat. constants

2.54e-6/2.54e-8 = (22/3.3)^n
Or n = log10(100)/log10(22/3.3)
7/24/2009
n=2.4275.

273

Nc Ni =

ac
n
+1
2
ai

( n / 2 + 1)

ANS: 24500 cycles.

7/24/2009

274

Question:

A rectangular cross-section bar (width

6mm, depth = 12 mm) is subject to a repeated
moment 0 M135 N.m. Ultimate tensile strength,
yield strength, fracture toughness, constant A and c
are equal to 1.28 GPa, 1.17 GPa, 81 MPa.m^0.5,
114e-15, and 3.0 respectively. Assume =1 and
initial crack size is 0.1 mm. Estimate the residual life
of bar in cycles.

M
=
= 937.5 MPa
I/y

Nc Ni =

ac
n
+1
2
ai

( n / 2 + 1)

The maximum tensile stress is below the yield

strength, therefore bar will not fail under static
moment. We need to find the size of critical crack size
using value of stress range and fracture toughness.

K c = ( max min ) ac
7/24/2009

ac = 0.0024 m

275

Death of machine inevitable.

Design
considering
yielding &
fracture

Reference: Professor E. Rabinowicz, M.I.T

7/24/2009

276

Adhesive (frictional)
wear
Mechanical interaction at real area of
contact

7/24/2009

277

Laws of Adhesive Wear

Wear Volume proportional to
sliding distance (L)

True for wide range

of conditions
Wear Volume proportional to
the load (N)

Dramatic increase
beyond critical load
Wear Volume inversely
proportional to hardness of
softer material

k1 NL
V=
3H

Transition from mild wear to severe

depends on relative speed,
atmosphere, and temperature.

Approach followed by M. F. Ashby

V k1 N
= =
= ka p
L 3H
= ka p = ka

= ka

p
pmax

p
pmax

pmax

CH

p
k a H
= C
pmax
7/24/2009

279

7/24/2009

280

Ex: Ship bearings

are traditionally
made of bronze. The
wear resistance of
bronze is good, and
allowable maximum
pressure is high. But
due to its chemical
activity with sea
water galvanic
corrosion occurs and
wear occurs. Material
chart shows that
filled PTFE is better
than Bronze
material.
7/24/2009

281