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Functions, relations and graphs

Example 2

Sketch y = x

8
.
x2

In graph sketching, one must find x and y-intercepts, show

asymptotic behaviour and, determine location of stationary
points.
Graphs of functions defined by
b
f ( x) = ax m + n for m, n = 1,2
x
Use the method of addition of ordinates to sketch this type of
functions.
1
1
Example 1 Sketch y = x + .
2
x
x-intercept: Let y = 0 , x

8
= 0 , x3 = 8 , x = 2 .
x2

Asymptotic behaviour:
As x 0 , y . As x 0 + , y .
x = 0 is an asymptote of the function.
As x , y x (from below).
As x + , y x (from below).
y = x is an asymptote of the function.
Stationary points:
4

y = x

16
8 dy
,
= 1 + 3 = 0 , x = 3 2 4 = 2 3 .
2
dx
x
x
4

At x = 2 3 = 2.52 ,
4

y = 2 3

Clearly the function has no axis intercepts. It shows

asymptotic behaviour:
As x 0 , y . As x 0 + , y + .
x = 0 is an asymptote (vertical) of the function.
1
As x , y x (from below).
2
1
As x + , y x (from above).
2
1
y = x is an asymptote (oblique) of the function.
2
Use calculus to find the coordinates of the stationary points:
1
1 dy 1 1
y = x+ ,
=
= 0, x = 2 .
2
x dx 2 x 2
1
1
At x = 2 , y = 2 +
= 2 . At x = 2 ,
2
2
1
1
y=
2 +
= 2.
2
2

8
2

= 2 3 2 3 = 3.78 .

23

The stationary point is ( 2.52,3.78) .

Example 3 Sketch y =

1 2 2
x + .
2
x

( )

) (

The stationary points are 2 , 2 ,

2, 2 .

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Functions, relations and graphs

x-intercept: Let y = 0 ,

1 2 2
x + = 0 , x 3 = 4 , x = 1.59 .
2
x

Asymptotic behaviour:
As x 0 , y . As x 0 + , y + .
x = 0 is an asymptote of the function.
1
As x , y x 2 (from below).
2
1 2
As x + , y x (from above).
2
1 2
Note: y = x is not labeled as an asymptote. Asymptotes
2
are straight lines.

Graphs of functions defined by f ( x) =

The sketching method of f ( x) =

1
ax 2 + bx + c

1
depends on the
ax + bx + c
2

linear factors of ax 2 + bx + c .

ax 2 + bx + c can be factorised, i.e. the discriminant

b 2 4ac > 0 .
1
.
f ( x) =
a( x p)( x q)
There are two vertical asymptotes, x = p and x = q.
Case 1

Example 1
Stationary points:
1

2 dy
1
2
y = x2 + ,
= x 2 = 0, x = 3 2 = 23 .
2
x dx
x
2

1
1
2

1 3
2
2
+ 1 = 2 3 + 2 3 = 2.38 .
2
23
The stationary point is (1.26,2.38) .

At x = 2 3 = 1.26 , y =

Example 4 Sketch y =

x-intercept: Let y = 0 ,

x2
4
+ 2 .
4
x

x2
4
+ 2 = 0 , x 4 = 16 , x = 2 .
4 x

Asymptotic behaviour:
As x 0 , y + . As x 0 + , y + .
x = 0 is an asymptote of the function.
x2
As x , y
(from above).
4
x2
As x + , y
(from above).
4
The function has no stationary points.

1
.
2x 2 x 1
Check: b 2 4ac > 0 . Factorise the denominator:
1
1
.
f ( x) = 2
=
1
2x x 1

2 x + ( x 1)
2

Asymptotic behaviour:
1
As x (from the left), y + .
2
1
As x (from the right), y .
2
1
x = is an asymptote (vertical).
2
As x 1 (from the left), y .
As x 1 (from the right), y + .
x = 1 is an asymptote (vertical).
As x , y 0 (from above).
As x + , y 0 (from above).
y = 0 is an asymptote (horizontal).
Sketch the graph of the function f ( x) =

y-intercept: Let x = 0 , y = f (0) = 1 .

The function has no x-intercepts.
1
Stationary points: y = 2
,
2x x 1
dy
4x 1
1
8
=
= 0 , x = ; y = .
2
2
4
9
dx
2x x 1

1 8
Stationary point is , .
4 9

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Functions, relations and graphs

Alternatively, sketch the graph of y = 2 x 2 x 1 first and

1
then the reciprocal y = 2
.
2x x 1

Alternatively, sketch the graph of y = 2 x 2 4 x + 2 first and

1
then the reciprocal y = 2
.
2x 4x + 2

ax 2 + bx + c cannot be factorised, i.e. the

discriminant b 2 4ac < 0 .
Case 3

Case 2 ax 2 + bx + c has the discriminant b 2 4ac = 0 . It

has two linear factors and they are the same.
1
f ( x) =
, and it is the transformation (dilation and
a( x d ) 2
1
translation) of f ( x) = 2 .
x

1
.
2x 4x + 2
Check: b 2 4ac = 0 . Factorise the denominator:
1
.
y=
2( x 1)2
As x 1 (from the left), y + .
As x 1 (from the right), y + .
x = 1 is an asymptote (vertical).
As x , y 0 (from above).
As x + , y 0 (from above).
y = 0 is an asymptote (horizontal).
1
y-intercept: Let x = 0 , y = .
2
The function has no x-intercepts and stationary points.
Example 1 Sketch y =

In this case, the quadratic is never zero and therefore, f (x) has
no vertical asymptotes.
The best way to sketch f (x) is to sketch the quadratic first
and then its reciprocal.

1
.
x + 2x + 3
Check: b 2 4ac < 0 . No linear factors.

Example 1 Sketch f ( x) =

Graphs of ellipses

The general equation of an ellipse in Cartesian form with the

x2

y2

= 1 , where a are the xa2 b2

intercepts and b are the y-intercepts.
centre at the origin is

If the ellipse is translated so that its centre is at (h, k), the

( x h) 2

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( y k)2

= 1 , where
a
b2
[ a + h, a + h] is the domain and [b + k , b + k ] the range of
the relation.

general equation becomes

Functions, relations and graphs

Graphs of hyperbolas

The general equation of a hyperbola with its centre at the

x2

Example 1 Sketch the graphs of

2

y
( y 2)
=1
b) ( x + 1) 2 +
= 1.
9
9
Show the x, y intercepts, the domains and ranges.

a)

a)

x2 +

x-intercepts: x = 1 ; y-intercepts: y = 3

y2
2

= 1 or

x2

y2

= 1 , where a are the

a
b
a
b2
x-intercepts for the first equation and b are the y-intercepts
for the second. Both relations have two oblique asymptotes
b
given by y = x .
a
The domain for the first is R\(a, a) and the range is R.
The domain for the second is R and the range is R\ (b, b).
origin is

If the hyperbola is translated so that its centre is at (h, k), the

general equation becomes
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2
( x h) 2 ( y k ) 2

=
1
or

= 1 .
a2
b2
a2
b2
The two oblique asymptotes for both relations are
b
y k = ( x h) .
a
The domain for the first is R\ (a+h, a+h) and the range is R.
The domain for the second is R and the range is
R\ (b+k, b+k).

Domain: [1,1] ; range: [3,3] .

b)

x-intercepts: Let y = 0 , (x + 1) +

x +1 =

4
5
2
= 1 , ( x + 1) = ,
9
9

5
5
, x = 1
.
3
3

y-intercepts: Let x = 0 , 1 +

( y 2 )2
9

=1, y = 2 .

Centre: ( 1,2 ) .

Domain: [ 2,0] ; range: [ 1,5] .

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Functions, relations and graphs

Example 1 Sketch the graphs of a)

b)

x2 y 2

= 1 and
9
4

( x + 2) 2 y 2

= 1 .
9
4

Graphs of cosec x, sec x and cot x

y = cos ec(x )

State the x and y intercepts, domains and ranges, and equations

of the asymptotes.
x-intercepts: x = 3 ; no y-intercepts.
2
Equations of asymptotes: y = x .
3

a)

Asymptotes: x = n , where n = 0,1,2,...

Domain: R \ {x : x = n , n = 0,1,2,...} ;
range: ( ,1] [1, ) .
Period: 2 .
y = sec(x )

Domain: R \ ( 3,3) ; range: R.

b)

y-intercepts: Let x = 0 ,

4 y2
2 13

= 1 , y =
; no x9 4
3

intercepts.
Equations of asymptotes: y =

2
(x + 2 ) .
3

1 3 5
Asymptotes: x = n , where n = , , ...
2 2 2
1 3 5

Domain: R \ x : x = n , n = , , ... ;
2 2 2

range: ( ,1] [1, ) .

Period: 2 .
y = cot(x )

Domain: R; range: R \ ( 2,2 ) .

Reciprocal trigonometric functions

The cosecant function of x, cosec x, is defined as the

reciprocal of the sine function, sin x, i.e.
1
cos ecx =
.
sin x
The other reciprocal functions are defined as
1
1
and cot x =
.
sec x =
cos x
tan x

Asymptotes: x = n , where n = 0,1,2,...

Domain: R \ {x : x = n , n = 0,1,2,...} ; range: R .
Period: .

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Functions, relations and graphs

Transformations of cosec x, sec x and cot x

Identities

The transformations-dilation, reflection and translation are

applicable to all functions. Always carry out translation last.

An identity is an equality which is always true as long as it is

defined.
sin x
tan x =
cos x
cos x
cot x =
sin x
sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1

Example 1 Sketch y = sec(2 x) + 1 .

The graph of y = sec(x ) is reflected in the x-axis, dilated
1
horizontally by a factor of , and translated upwards by a
2
unit.

cos 2 x = 1 sin 2 x
sin 2 x = 1 cos 2 x
sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x
cos ec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x
Example 1 Use sin 2 x + cos 2 x = 1 to prove
sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x and cos ec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x .

1
cos 2 x + sin 2 x
,
=
2
cos x
cos 2 x
1
cos 2 x sin 2 x
, sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x .
=
+
cos 2 x cos 2 x cos 2 x

1 = cos 2 x + sin 2 x ,
1 3 5
Asymptotes: x = n , where n = , , ...
4 4 4
1 3 5

Domain: R \ x : x = n , n = , , ... ;
4 4 4

range: ( ,0] [2, ) .

Period: .

Example 2 Sketch y = cot x and x .

2

Rewrite: y = cot x = cot x .

2
2

The graph of y = cot( x ) is reflected in the y-axis, and then

.
2
The graph is restricted to x .

translated to the right by

1
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
,
=
2
sin x
sin 2 x
1
sin 2 x cos 2 x
, cos ec 2 x = 1 + cot 2 x .
=
+
2
2
2
sin x sin x sin x

1 = sin 2 x + cos 2 x ,

Example 2 Prove

1
= sec x(sec x + tan x ) .
1 sin x

1 1
sin x
1 1 + sin x
+

cos x cos x cos x cos x cos x

1 + sin x 1 + sin x
1 + sin x
=
=
=
cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x (1 sin x )(1 + sin x )
1
=
= LHS .
1 sin x
RHS =

Compound angle formulas

sin ( A B ) = sin A cos B cos A sin B

cos( A B ) = cos A cos B m sin A sin B
tan A tan B
tan ( A B ) =
1 m tan A tan B
Double angle formulas

and x = .
2
2

Asymptotes: x =

Domain: [ , ] \ , ; range: R.
2 2
Period: .

sin 2 A = 2 sin A cos A

cos 2 A = cos 2 A sin 2 A

cos 2 A = 2 cos 2 A 1
cos 2 A = 1 2 sin 2 A
2 tan A
tan 2 A =
1 tan 2 A

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Functions, relations and graphs

sin( x + y )
.
cos x cos y
sin x sin y sin x cos y + cos x sin y
LHS =
+
=
cos x cos y
cos x cos y
sin( x + y )
=
= RHS
cos x cos y

Example 1 Prove tan x + tan y =

Example 5 Find the exact value of cos

cos
=

Example 2 Use the compound angle formulas for sin ( A B )

12

= cos = cos cos + sin sin
12
3
4
3
4
3 4

1 1
3 1
1+ 3

=
2
2
2
2
2 2

2 1+ 3
.
4

and cos( A B ) to prove that for tan ( A B ) .

Example 6 Find the exact values of sin

sin ( A B ) sin A cos B cos A sin B
=
cos( A B ) cos A cos B m sin A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B
sin A cos B cos A sin B

cos A cos B
=
= cos A cos B cos A cos B
cos A cos B m sin A sin B cos A cos B sin A sin B
m
cos A cos B
cos A cos B cos A cos B
sin A sin B

cos
A cos B = tan A tan B .
=
sin A sin B 1 m tan A tan B
1m
cos A cos B
tan ( A B ) =

Example 3
Prove (sin x + sin y )(sin x sin y ) = sin (x + y )sin (x y ) .

RHS = (sin x cos y + cos x sin y )(sin x cos y cos x sin y )

= sin 2 x cos 2 y cos 2 x sin 2 y

) (

For sin

, consider cos

and tan

= cos 2 ,
8

2 2
= 1 2 sin 2 , sin 2 =
.
4
2
8
8

Hence sin

For tan

2 2

, since 0 < < .
2
8 2

, consider tan

2 tan

= tan 2 ,
4
8

8 , tan 2 + 2 tan 1 = 0 .

8
1 tan 2
8
Use the quadratic formula to find
1 =

2+ 4+4
= 2 1.
2

= sin 2 x 1 sin 2 y 1 sin 2 x sin 2 y

tan

= sin 2 x sin 2 y
= (sin x + sin y )(sin x sin y ) = LHS

Example 7 Prove cos 3 = 4 cos3 3 cos .

LHS = cos 3 = cos(2 + ) = cos 2 cos sin 2 sin

(
= (2 cos
= (2 cos

1
5
Example 4 If sin x = and sec y = , where
3
4

x, y 0, , evaluate sin (x y ) .
2

)
1)cos 2 sin cos
1)cos 2(1 cos )cos

= 2 cos 2 1 cos (2 sin cos )sin

2

= 2 cos 3 cos 2 cos + 2 cos 3

Note: x and y are in the first quadrant, cos x and sin y have
positive values.
2

1
1
, cos x = 1 sin 2 x = 1 =
3
3
5
4
sec y = , cos y = , and
4
5
sin x =

8 2 2
.
=
9
3

3
4
sin y = 1 cos 2 y = 1 = .
5
5
sin (x y ) = sin x cos y cos x sin y =
=

2 23 2
.
15

= 4 cos 3 3 cos = RHS

Example 8 Solve 2 + cos 2 = 3 cos where [0,2 ] .
2 + cos 2 = 3 cos , 2 + 2 cos 2 1 = 3 cos ,

2 cos 2 3 cos + 1 = 0 ,

(2 cos 1)(cos 1) = 0 ,
1
5
, = ,
,
2
3 3
or cos = 1 , = 0,2 .
cos =

1 4 2 2 3

3 5
3
5

The solution set is 0, ,

,2 .
3 3

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Functions, relations and graphs

Restricted trigonometric functions

Sin x

The function f : , R, f ( x) = sin x is represented
2 2
simply as Sin x. Its range is [-1, 1]. It is a one-to-one function
and therefore its inverse is also a function. The inverse
function is denoted as Sin 1 x . The domain of Sin 1 x is [-1, 1]

and the range is , .
2 2

Transformations of inverse trigonometric functions

Example 1 Sketch y = 2Sin 1 ( x + 1) . State the domain and

range.
Start with the graph of y = Sin 1 x . Reflect in the x-axis, dilate
vertically by a factor of 2, then translate to the left by a unit.

Cos x

The function f : [0, ] R, f ( x) = cos x is represented by

Cos x . Its range is [-1,1].
It is also a one-to-one function and therefore its inverse is a
function. The inverse function is denoted as Cos 1 x with
domain [-1, 1] and range [0, ] .
Domain: [2,0] ; range: [ , ] .
Example 2 Sketch y =

Cos 1 ( 2 x) . State the domain

2
4

and range.
Start with the graph of y = Cos 1 x , dilate vertically by a
1
factor of
and horizontally by the same factor, then translate
2
downwards by

Tan x

The function f : , R, f ( x) = tan x is represented
2 2
by Tan x . Its range is R. It is a one-to-one function and its
inverse is also a function. The inverse function is denoted as

Tan 1 x with domain R and range , .
2 2
1 1
Domain: , ; range:
2 2
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4 , 4 .

Functions, relations and graphs

Example 3 Sketch y = Tan 1 (2 x + 1) + . State the domain

and range.
1

Rewrite y = Tan 1 (2 x + 1) + as y = Tan 1 2 x + + .

2

1
Start with the graph of y = Tan x , reflect in the x-axis, dilate
1
1
horizontally by a factor of , then translate to the left by
2
2
and upwards by .

3
Domain: R; range: ,
2 2

Example 4 Sketch y = Sin 1 1 . State the domain

2 2
and range.
x

1

Rewrite y = Sin 1 1 as y = Sin 1 (x 2) .
2 2
2
2
Start with the graph of y = Sin 1 x , reflect in the y-axis, dilate
horizontally by a factor of 2, then translate to the right by 2
units, and downwards by

Domain: [0,4] ; range: [ ,0] .

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Functions, relations and graphs