hsn.uk.

net

Advanced Higher

Mathematics

UNITS 1, 2 AND 3

Course Summary

HSN28000
This document was produced specially for the HSN.uk.net website, and we require that any
copies or derivative works attribute the work to Higher Still Notes.
For more details about the copyright on these notes, please see
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.5/scotland/

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Contents
Binomial Theorem and Partial Fractions
1 Binomial Theorem
2 Partial Fractions

1
1

Matrices

1 Gaussian Elimination
2 Matrix Algebra
3 Transformations of the Plane

2
2
4

Sequences and Series

1
2
3
4
5

5
5
5
5
5
5

Arithmetic Sequences
Geometric Sequences
Arithmetic Series
Geometric Series
Maclaurin Series

Iterative Schemes

1 Recurrence Relations

Complex Numbers
1
2
3
4
5
6

8
8
8
9
9
10
10

Introduction
Algebraic Operations
Polar Form
Geometric Interpretations
Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
De Moivres Theorem

Methods of Proof

11

Functions

12

1 Critical and Stationary Points

2 Derivative Tests
3 Curve Sketching

12
12
13

Vectors

14

1
2
3
4
5

14
14
15
15
16

Direction Ratios and Cosines

Scalar and Vector Product
Equations of Lines
Equations of Planes
Intersections

Differentiation

18

1 Rules
2 Standard Derivatives
3 Inverse Differentiation

hsn.uk.net

18
18
18
- ii -

HSN21000

4 Implicit Differentiation
5 Parametric Differentiation

19
19

Integration
1
2
3
4
5
6

20
20
20
21
21
21
21

Standard Integrals
Integration by Substitution
Areas
Volumes of Solids of Revolution
Partial fractions and Integration
Integration by Parts

Differential Equations
1
2
3
4

22

Separable Differential Equations

First Order Linear Differential Equations
Second Order Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations
Second Order Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

- iii -

22
22
22
23

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Binomial Theorem and Partial

Fractions
1

Binomial Theorem
n

n
n!
Cr = =
r r ! (n r )!

For n ` , the Binomial Theorem states:

(x + y)

n
n
n
n
n
= 0 x n + 1 x n 1 y + 2 x n 2 y 2 + 3 x n 3 y 3 + L + n y n .

The rth term of ( x + y ) is given by:

n

n x n r y r .
r

Partial Fractions
f (x)
A
B
=
+
( x a )( x + b ) ( x a ) ( x + b )
f (x)
A
B
=
+
2
( x a ) ( x a ) ( x a )2

f (x)
A
B
C
=
+
+
( x a )( x b )( x c ) ( x a ) ( x b ) ( x c )
f (x)
A
B
C
+
+
2 =
2
( x a )( x b ) ( x a ) ( x b ) ( x b )
f (x)
A
B
C
=
+
+
( x a )3 ( x a ) ( x a ) 2 ( x a )3

f (x)
A
Bx + C
=
+ 2
2
( x a ) ( x + bx + c ) ( x a ) ( x + bx + c )

If the numerator is of a higher (or equal) degree than the denominator, then
algebraic long division should be used first to obtain a proper rational
function.

hsn.uk.net

Page 1

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Matrices
1

Gaussian Elimination
Elementary row operations are used to turn the matrix into upper-triangular
form.

Geometric interpretation
y If

one rows results are all zeros then the three planes do not intersect at a
point but they intersect in a line.

one row has zeros in the x, y and z places but a non-zero number on the
right of the line then there is no solution and the planes do not intersect.

y If

Ill-conditioning
This occurs when a small difference in the coefficients of the equations
causes a large change in the solution.

Matrix Algebra
Addition and Subtraction
Matrices can only be added or subtracted if they have the same order. Add
or subtract entry-wise.

Multiplication by a Scalar
Multiply each element by the scalar.

Matrix Multiplication
Multiply row 1 in first matrix by column 1 in the second matrix, then
multiply row 1 in first matrix by column 2 in second matrix etc.
EXAMPLE

4 1
2 3 1 0 2 = ( 2 4 ) + ( 3 0 ) + ( 1 1) ( 2 1) + ( 3 2 ) + ( 1 3 )
1 2 0
(1 1) + ( 2 2 ) + ( 0 3 )

1 3 (1 4 ) + ( 2 0 ) + ( 0 1)

7 5
= 4 5 .

hsn.uk.net

Page 2

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Determinants
a b
The determinant of a 2 2 matrix A =
is det A = ad bc .
c d
a
The determinant of a 3 3 matrix A = d
g

det A = a

e
h

f
d
+b g
i

b
e
h

c
f
i

d
f
+
c
i
g

is

e
h

= a ( ei fh ) + b ( di fg ) + c ( dh eg ) .

Inverses
For an inverse of a matrix to exist the matrix must satisfy two conditions:
y the

matrix must be square;

y the determinant of the matrix must be non-zero.
1 d
a b
The inverse of a 2 2 matrix A =
is A 1 =

det A c
c d

b
a .

The inverse of a 3 3 matrix is found by starting with the augmented

matrix ( A

A 1 ) .

I ) and then using elementary row operations to turn it into

Transpose of a Matrix
The transpose of a matrix is found by interchanging the rows and columns.
EXAMPLE

2 3
2 1
If A = 1 4 then A T = 3 4 .

hsn.uk.net

Page 3

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Transformations of the Plane

Rotation
Rotation through angle in the anticlockwise direction about the origin is
cos sin
represented by
.
sin cos
EXAMPLE

Rotation by

cos 2
is given by
sin 2

sin 2 0 1
.
=
cos 2 1 0

Reflection
Reflection in the line which makes an angle of with the x-axis is given by
cos 2 sin 2
sin 2 cos 2 .

EXAMPLE

Reflection in the line y = x is given by

(
(

cos 2
4

sin 2
4

)
)

sin 2 4 0 1
=
.
cos 2 4 1 0

Scaling

Scaling is given by 0

0
.

This has the effect of multiplying the x-coordinate by and the

y-coordinate by .

hsn.uk.net

Page 4

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Sequences and Series

1

Arithmetic Sequences
An arithmetic sequence has the form

a, a + d , a + 2d , a + 3d ,K
where a is the first term and d is the common difference.
The nth term is given by a + ( n 1) d .

Geometric Sequences
A geometric sequence has the form
a, ar , ar 2 , ar 3 ,K

where a is the first term and r is the common ratio.

The nth term is given by ar n 1 .

Arithmetic Series
The sum to n terms is given by Sn = n2 ( 2 a + ( n 1) d ) .

Geometric Series
The sum to n terms is given by Sn =

a (1 r n )

1 r

Provided 1 < r < 1, the sum to infinity is given by S =

a
.
1 r

Maclaurin Series
The method is to repeatedly differentiate the function and to substitute
x = 0 into each answer.
The Maclaurin series is then given by

r =0

(r )

xr
x
x2
( 0 ) = f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) + f ( 0 ) + f
1!
2!
r!

hsn.uk.net

Page 5

(3)

x3
x4
(4)
(0) + f (0) + L
3!
4!

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Standard Maclaurin Series

y

xr
x2 x3 x4
+
+
+L
e = =1+ x +
2! 3! 4!
r =0 r !

x2 x3 x4
ln (1 + x ) = x + + L
2
3
4

cos x = 1

x2 x4 x6
+
+L
2! 4! 6!

sin x = x

x3 x5 x7
+
+L
3! 5! 7!

These can be used to find other Maclaurin series.

EXAMPLE

x2

( x 2 )2 ( x 2 )3 ( x 2 )4
= 1 + (x ) +
+
+
+L
2!
3!
4!
x 4 x6 x8
2
=1+ x + + + +L
2! 3! 4!
2

hsn.uk.net

Page 6

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Iterative Schemes
1

Recurrence Relations
A recurrence relation un +1 = aun + b converges to a limit if 1 < a < 1 .
The limit is given by l =

b
.
1 a

Fixed point
For a recurrence relation un +1 = aun + b the corresponding equation is
x = ax + b . The solution of the equation is the same as the limit and is
called the fixed point.

Calculating roots
To calculate a root using an iterative scheme you must decide whether the
scheme converges or diverges.
Convergence is decided by differentiating and substituting in the
approximate root.
If the answer is between 1 and 1, the scheme will converge. The closer the
value is to zero the quicker the scheme will converge.

hsn.uk.net

Page 7

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Complex Numbers
1

Introduction
Definition
A complex number hsa the form z = a + bi where a and b are real numbers
and i = 1 .
a is called the real part ( Re z = a ) and b is the imaginary part ( Im z = b ).

Argand diagram
A complex number z = a + bi can be plotted on an Argand diagram. This is
like a Cartesian coordinate diagram but with real (Re) and imaginary (Im)
axes.
Im

z = a + bi

Re

Algebraic Operations
Adding and Subtracting
Adding (or subtracting) complex numbers is done by adding (or
subtracting) the real parts and the imaginary parts.

Multiplying
Multiplying two complex numbers is achieved by expanding brackets.
Multiplying by i
Multiplying a complex number by i will rotate it 90 anticlockwise about
the origin on an Argand diagram.

Complex Conjugate
The complex conjugate of z is denoted z . If z = a + bi then z = a bi .
Geometrically this has the effect of reflecting z in the Re-axis.

hsn.uk.net

Page 8

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Division of complex numbers

Division of two complex numbers can be done using the following process.
1. Find the complex conjugate of the denominator.
2. Multiply top and bottom by the conjugate of the denominator.
3. Express answer in the form a + bi .
EXAMPLE

2
2 (1 i )
2 2i 2 2i
=
=
=
= 1 i.
1 + i (1 + i )(1 i ) 1 i 2
2

Polar Form
The polar form of a complex number z = a + bi is expressed as

z = r ( cos + i sin )
where the modulus r = a 2 + b 2 and the argument is the angle between
the positive Re-axis and the line from the origin to z.

Principle value of the argument

The principle value of the argument is the value which lies between
and .

Geometric Interpretations
y
y

z = r represents a circle with centre ( 0,0 ) and radius r.

z a = r represents a circle with centre a (in the complex plane) and
radius r.

z a > r represents the points outside the circle stated above.

z a < r represents the points inside the circle stated above.

z a = z b represents the points which lie on the perpendicular

bisector of the line joining a and b.

hsn.uk.net

Page 9

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Fundamental Theorem of Algebra

If a polynomial P ( z ) has degree n and P ( z ) = 0 then there are n solutions
(e.g. a quadratic has two solutions, and a cubic has three solutions in ^ ).
y To

factorise a quadratic, use the quadratic formula or complete the square.

y To

factorise a cubic: find one root by inspection, use algebraic long

division to find the quadratic factor. Factorise the quadratic factor (if
possible) using the quadratic formula or completing the square.

Note that if z is a root then z is also a root.

Multiplication and division in polar form

z1z 2 = r1r2 cos ( 1 + 2 ) + i sin ( 1 + 2 )

When multiplying two complex numbers:

y multiply

the moduli;
y add the arguments.
Similarly when dividing two complex numbers:
y divide

the moduli;
y subtract the arguments.

De Moivres Theorem
z = r ( cos + i sin ) z n = r n ( cos n + i sin n ) .

De Moivres theorem for fractional powers

( r ( cos + i sin ) ) q = r q ( cos ( qp ) + i sin ( qp ) ) .

p

Strategy for finding the cube roots of a complex number

To find the cube roots follow this strategy:
1. Write the number in polar form: z = r ( cos + i sin ) .
2. Write z in two more equivalent ways by adding 2 to the argument.
1

3. Write down the cube roots by taking the cube root of z (i.e. z 3 ).

hsn.uk.net

Page 10

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Methods of Proof
Disproving a statement by giving a counter example
If you can find one example that will disprove the statement, then it must
be false.

Proof by exhaustion
If the statement is given for a small set of values, then showing that the
statement is true for every value will be enough to prove it.

Proof by contradiction
This method assumes that the statement is false and then shows that this
leads to something we know to be false (a contradiction). Therefore the
original assumption must be false, which means that the statement is true.

Proof by induction
This is a two step process.
1. Show that the statement holds for some value of n (usually n = 1 ).
2. Assume that the statement holds for some constant n = k and using this
assumption show that the statement holds for n = k + 1 .
Then the statement holds for all n 1 .

Direct Proofs
No set rules just make logical deductions.

hsn.uk.net

Page 11

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Functions
1

Critical and Stationary Points

A critical point exists where the derivative is zero or undefined.
Stationary points can be:
y maximum

turning points;
y minimum turning points;
y horizontal points of inflection.

Derivative Tests
First derivative test
The first derivative test is the nature table method used in Higher.

Second derivative test

If a stationary point exists at x = a then the second derivative test is to
calculate f ( a ) .

f ( a ) < 0 then the point is a maximum turning point.

y If f ( a ) > 0 then the point is a minimum turning point.
y If

The second derivative test may not always work; if f ( a ) = 0 then you
should revert to the first derivative test.

Non-horizontal points of inflection

A non-horizontal point of inflection exists at x = a when f ( a ) = 0 but
f ( a ) 0 and f ( x ) changes sign at x = a , i.e. the curve changes from
being concave up to concave down or vice versa.

hsn.uk.net

Page 12

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Curve Sketching
1. Identify x-axis and y-axis intercepts.
2. Identify turning points and their nature.
3. Consider the behaviour as x .
This could be a horizontal asymptote or a slant asymptote (the equation
of which is the polynomial part after algebraic long division).
4. Check where y is undefined (this means a vertical asymptote exists).
5. Sketch the curve showing asymptotes, turning points and x- and y-axis
intercepts.

Transformations of curves
All transformations from Higher should be known.

The modulus function

To sketch the modulus of a function, take any part of the curve which is
below the x-axis and reflect it in the x-axis.

hsn.uk.net

Page 13

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Vectors
1

Direction Ratios and Cosines

Direction Ratios
If a vector is p = ai + bj + ck , then the direction ratio is a : b : c .

Direction Cosines
If a vector is p = ai + bj + ck then the direction cosines are

a b
c
,
and
.
p p
p

Scalar and Vector Product

Scalar product
The scalar product of p = ai + bj + ck and q = di + ej + fk is

p.q = ad + be + cf .
Properties
y p .q = 0 p and q are perpendicular.
y p . ( q + r ) = p .q + p .r .

Vector product
The vector product of p = ai + bj + ck and q = di + ej + fk is
i
pq = a
d

j
b
e

k
c = (bf ec ) i + ( af dc ) j + ( ae db ) k .
f

The vector product is only defined for vectors in three dimensions.

Geometrically
The magnitude of the vector product of a and b is given by

a b = a b sin where is the angle between a and b.

The vector product a b is perpendicular to both vectors a and b; its
direction is determined by the right hand rule.

Scalar triple product

The scalar triple product is a. ( b c ) . Note that this is a scalar.

hsn.uk.net

Page 14

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Equations of Lines
Vector form of the equation of a line
The line through point A with direction d has equation
r = a + d
uuur
where a = OA , r = xi + yj + zk and is a real parameter.

Parametric form of the equation of a line

From the vector equation,

x = a1 + d1 , y = a2 + d 2 , z = a3 + d 3
where A is the point ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and the direction is d = d 1i + d 2 j + d 3 k .

Symmetric form of the equation of a line

If x = a1 + d1 , y = a2 + d 2 , z = a3 + d 3 are the parametric equations of a
line, then the symmetric equation is
x a1 y a2 z a3
=
=
d1
d2
d3

This is obtained by rearranging the parametric equations for .

Equations of Planes
Vector equation of a plane
The vector equation of the plane containing point A with normal n is
r .n = a .n
uuur
where a = OA and r = xi + yj + zk .

To find the vector equation of the plane containing the non-collinear points
A, B and C, use the following process.
uuur
uuur
1. Calculate AB and AC , and call one of these a.
uuur uuur
2. Calculate the normal as n = AB AC .
3. Using n and a write down r .n = a .n .

hsn.uk.net

Page 15

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Cartesian equation of a plane

The Cartesian equation of a plane containing the point A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , with
normal n = n1i + n2 j + n3k is

n1x + n2 y + n3 z = d
where d = a .n . (This comes from the vector equation.)

Parametric equation of a plane

The parametric equation of a plane is

r = a + b + c
where a is the position vector of a point in the plane, b and c are two noncollinear vectors parallel to the plane, and and are real parameters.

Intersections
Intersection of, and the angle between two lines
Two lines in three dimensions can
y be

identical;
y be parallel;
y intersect;
y be skew (not intersect at all).
The angle between two lines L1 and L2 is calculated by finding their
directions d1 and d 2 , and then using the rearranged form of the scalar
product formula from Higher:
d .d
cos = 1 2 .
d1 d 2

Intersection of, and angle between two planes

Two planes in three dimensions can
y be

coincident, i.e. the same plane;

y be parallel;
y intersect in a line.
Note that parallel and coincident planes have normals that are proportional.
The intersection of two planes can be found using Gaussian elimination or
algebraic manipulation to solve their equations simultaneously.

hsn.uk.net

Page 16

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

The angle between two planes is the angle between their normals. Given
planes with normals m and n, the angle between them is calculated using:

cos =

n.m
.
nm

Intersection of three planes

Three planes in three dimensions can
y intersect

at a point;
y intersect in a line;
y have no common point of intersection.
Use Gaussian elimination to work out how the planes intersect:
ya

unique solution means intersection at a point;

y a family of solutions means intersection in a line;
y no solution means no common point of intersection.

Intersection of, and the angle between a line and a plane

A point of intersection can found by substituting the equation of the line in
parametric form into the equation of the plane and solving for .
To find the angle between a line and a plane:
1. find n, the normal to the plane;
2. find the angle between the line and n;
3. the angle between the line and the plane is 2 .

hsn.uk.net

Page 17

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Differentiation
1

Rules
Product Rule

( fg ) =

f g + fg .

Quotient Rule
f f g fg '
.
=
g2
g

Chain Rule
d
( f ( g ( x ))) = f ( g ( x )).g ( x ).
dx

Trigonometric Definitions
sec x =

1
cos x

cosec x =

1
sin x

cot x =

Standard Derivatives
d
( ln x ) = 1x
dx

d x
e ) = ex
(
dx

1
tan x

d
1
sin 1 x ) =
(
dx
1 x2

d
1
cos 1 x ) =
(
dx
1 x2

d
1
tan 1 x ) =
(
dx
1+ x2

d
1
sin 1 ax ) =
(
dx
a2 x 2

d
1
cos 1 ax ) =
(
dx
a2 x2

d
1
tan 1 ax ) = 2
(
dx
a + x2

Inverse Differentiation
y If

f ( x ) has inverse f

( x ) then

d
f
dx

(x) =

f ( f

1
1

( x ))

dy
1
= dx .
dx dy

hsn.uk.net

Page 18

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Implicit Differentiation
This is done using the chain rule:

d
d
dy
f ( y) =
f ( y ). .
dx
dy
dx

EXAMPLE

Given x 2 + xy + y 2 = 1 , find

dy
.
dx

Differentiating throughout with respect to x:

( )

( )

d x 2 + d ( xy ) + d y 2 dy = d (1)
dx
dx
dy
dx dx

dy
dy
+ 2y = 0
dx
dx
dy
( x + 2 y ) = 2 x y
dx
dy
2x + y
.
=
dx
x + 2y

2x + y + x

Parametric Differentiation
dy

dy dt
= .
If x = f ( t ) and y = f ( t ) then
dx dx
dt
EXAMPLE

A curve is defined parametrcally by x = 2t + 1, y = 2t 3 .

dy
Find
in terms of t.
dx
dy

dy dt 6t 2
= dx =
= 3t 2 .
dx dt
2

hsn.uk.net

Page 19

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Integration
1

Standard Integrals
x n +1
x dx = n + 1 + c

( ax + b )

n +1

a ( n + 1)

+c

sin x dx = cos x + c

cos x dx = sin x + c

sin ( ax + b ) dx = 1a cos ( ax + b ) + c

cos ( ax + b ) dx = 1a sin ( ax + b ) + c

sec

x dx = tan x + c

dx = sin 1 x + c

2
1 x

dx = sin 1 ( ax ) + c

a x
1

dx = 1a tan 1 ( ax ) + c
2
2
a x

1
dx = tan 1 x + c

2
1+ x

dx = e x + c

ax +b

dx = 1a e ax +b + c

1
dx = 1a ln ax + b + c

ax + b

1x dx = ln x + c

dx =

( ax + b )

Integration by Substitution
To find

f ( x ) dx

using the substitution u = u ( x )

du
and rearrange to get dx in terms of du ;
dx
2. replace dx by this expression and replace u ( x ) with u;

1. find

3. integrate with respect to u.

hsn.uk.net

Page 20

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

EXAMPLE

Use the substitution u = x 2 8 to find x 3 ( x 2 8 ) 3 dx .

1

Given u = x 2 8 ,

du
du
. Then
= 2 x so dx =
dx
2x

du
2x

3
2
3
3
x ( x 8 ) dx = x u 3
1

= 12 x 2u 3 du
1

= 12 ( u + 8 ) u 3 du
(
(u

= 12
u 3 + 8u 3 du
= 12

3
7

7
3

3
+ 24
4 u +c

3 x 2 8 3 + 3 x 2 8 3 + c.
= 14
(
) (
)
7

To find a definite integral, you should change the limits to be in terms of u.

Areas
The area between two curves or between a curve and an axis can be
calculated as in Higher.

Volumes of Solids of Revolution

The solid formed by rotating a curve between x = a and x = b about the
b

x-axis has volume V = a y 2 dx .

Partial fractions and Integration

Partial fractions can be used to integration rational functions.
EXAMPLE

1
1
1

1
dx = 14

dx = 4 ( ln x 3 ln x + 1 ) + c .

( x + 1)( x 3 )
x 3 x +1

Integration by Parts
fg=

fg f g

Sometimes one application of integration by parts is not enough and a

repeated application must be used.

hsn.uk.net

Page 21

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Differential Equations
1

Separable Differential Equations

If

1
dy
= f ( x ) g ( y ) then
dy = f ( x ) dx .
dx
g ( y)

A general solution has a +c and a particular solution can be found if

initial conditions are given.

First Order Linear Differential Equations

These have the form

dy
+ P (x) y = f (x)
dx
and can be solved using the following process.
1. Identify P ( x ) (the equation must be in the form above).
2. Calculate the integrating factor I ( x ) = e P ( x ) dx .
d
3. Then
(I (x) y) = I (x) f (x).
dx
4. Integrate both sides to get I ( x ) y = ( I ( x ) f ( x ) ) dx .
5. Rearrange to give y.
If given initial conditions then a particular solution can be found.

Second Order Homogeneous Linear Differential Equations

These have the form
a

d2y
dy
+
b
+ cy = 0
dx 2
dx

and can be solved using the following process.

1. Write down auxiliary equation: am2 + bm + c = 0 .
2. Solve for m and write down the general solution as follows
y
y
y

distinct real roots m1 and m2 : y = Ae m x + Be m x ;

one repeated real root m: y = Ae mx + Bxe mx ;
px
complex roots p qi : y = e ( A cos qx + B sin qx ) .

hsn.uk.net

Page 22

HSN21000

Advanced Higher Mathematics

Course Summary

Second Order Non-Homogeneous Differential Equations

These have the form
d2y
dy
a 2 + b + cy = f ( x )
dx
dx

where f ( x ) will be a simple function such as a polynomial, exponential or

trigonometric function.
The particular integral y p is calculated by making an educated guess:
y if

f ( x ) is a constant, try y p = a

y if

f ( x ) is linear, try y p = ax + b

y if

f ( x ) is a quadratic, try y p = ax 2 + bx + c

y if

f ( x ) = e rx , try y p = ke rx

y if

f ( x ) has the form sin nx or cos nx , try y p = p sin nx + q cos nx .

The particular integral is then found by substituting y p ,

dy p

dx
into the differential equation and solving by equating coefficients.
The general solution is given by

and

d 2 yp
dx 2

y = yc + y p

where yc is the complementary solution, i.e. the solution of the

corresponding homogeneous equation:
d2y
dy
a 2 + b + cy = 0.
dx
dx

hsn.uk.net

Page 23

HSN21000