~ s?

\S

' : '. .. FRST QRDER

~ss<o ~
- MATiIEMA'FlCAL LOGid ~w~1
Angelo Margaris
"... ttract;ive and well-written introduction ..."-Joumal of Symbolic Logic
The logic that mathematicians use to prove their theorems is itself a part of
mathematics, in the same way that algehra, analysis and geometry are parts of
mathematics. This attractive and well-written introduction to mathematical logic is
imed primarily at undergraduates with some background in college-level mathematics; ho~ever, little orno acquaintance with abstract mathematics is needed.
Divided into three chapters, the book begjns with a brief account of naive set theory
and logic for the beginner, and proceeds to set forth in elementary and intuitive
form the themes developed formally and in detall later. In Chapt& Two, the
predicate calculus is developed as a formal axiomatic theory. The statement
calculus, presented as a part of the predicate calculus, is treated in detall from the
axiom schemes through the deduction theorem to the completeness theorem. Then
the foil predicate .calculus is taken up again, and a smooth-running technique for
proving th~rem schemes is developed and exploited.
Chapter Three is devoted to first-order theories, i.e., mathematical theories for
which the predicate calculus serves as a hase. Axioms and short developments are
given for number theory and a few algebraic theories. Then the metamathematical
notions of consistency, completeness, independence, categoricity and decidability
:ai-e discussed. The predicate calculus is proved to be complete. The book
concludes with an outline of Godel's incompleteness theorem.
ideal for a one-semester course, this concise text offers more detail and mathematically relevant examples than those available in elementary books on logic.
Carefully chosen exercises, with selected answers, help students test their grasp of
the material. For any student of mathematics, logic or the interrelationship of the
t'.vo, this book represents a thought-provoidng in tioducuon to the log1cal ucderpinnings of mathematical theory.
"
"... an excellent text .. ."-Mathematical Reviews
Unabridged, corrected Dover (1990) republication of the edition published by
Blaisdell Publishing Company, Walham, Mass., 1967. Prefaces. Index of Symbols.
Notes. Exercises with Selected Answers. Bibliography. lndex. Addendum (with
corrections). xii + 212pp. 5~ x 8~. Paperbound.

ISBN'0-486-66269-1
90000
1

$7.95 IN USA

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).m

(continued on back fiap)

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~ .

First Order
Mathematical
Logic
'-

by

Angelo Margaris

Dover Publications, Inc.

NEW YORK

I,

Preface to the Dover Edition

Copyright 1967, 1990 by Angelo Margaris.

Al! rights reserved under Pan American and International
Cop~right Conventions.
Published in Canada by General Publishlng Company, Ltd., 30
Lesmill Road. Don Mills. Toronto, Ontario.
Puhlished in the United Kingdom by Constable and Compan~.
Ltd.
This Dover edition, first published in 1990, is an unabridged.
eorreeted republication of the work first published by Blaisclell
Publishing Company. Waltham, Massa~husetts, 1967, as "A
Blaisdell Book in Pure and Applied Mathematies." For this
edition, the author has correeted a number of errors in the text
and provided an Addendum eontaining additional eorrections as
well a8 suppiementary referenees.
Manufactured in the United States o Ameriea
Dover Publications, Ine., 31 East 2nd Street, Mineola, N.Y.
11501

Library of Congress Cotaloging-in-Publication Data

.Margaris, Angelo.
First order mathematieal logic I by Angelo Margaris.
p.
cm.
Reprint. Originally published: Waltham, Mass. : Blaisdell .
Pub. Co.. 1967. Originally published in series: A Blaisdell
book in pure and applied mathematies.
lneludes bibliographieal references.
ISBN 0-486-66269-1
l. First-order logic. I. Title.
1990
QA9 ..M32
89-29569
511.3-dc20
CIP

Many errors have been corrected for this edition. A few minor corrections that I could not squeeze in to the text appear in an Addendum,
which also lists sorne books publshed since the first edtion.
Fbr their contributions to this edition I thank Joseph Barback.
David Duncan, Ro.r Meyers, Judith Ng, lvo Thomas, Barbara Turner,
Walter Westphal, and Joe Whitford.
My thanks to the folks at Dover, for resuscitating this book and for
all the hard work they put in getting rid of the gremlins.

Preface to tl1e First Editio11

This book is for junior, senior, and beginning graduate students
of mathematics who have little or no acquaintance with abstract
mathematics.
The entire book can be covered in one semester. The latter parts of
Sections 23, 24, 28, and 29 and the proofs of sorne lemmas in Section 26
may be omitted if time presses. The examples involving fields ,
lattices, and Boolean algebras may safely be omitted. Chapter 1
should be covered very rapidly. A short course can be based on the
first 25 sections.
I thank Elliott Mendelson for reading the manuscript and offering
many valuable suggestions, and Lis! Novak Gaal and J. Barkley
Rosser for introducing me to logic. The notes and references indicate
the sources of this book. I wish to acknowledge m~r special debt. to
the books of Chmch, Kleene, iilendelson, and Ros;;er and w the
monograph of Tarski, Mostowski, and Robinson.

A.M.
Columbus, Ohio
December 1966

Contents
}

INTRODUCTION

1 Rules of Inference / 1
2 Set Theory / 5
3 Axiomatic Theories / 12
4 Predicates and Quantifiers
/ 16
5 Statement Connectives / 23
6 The lnterpretation of Predicates and Quantifiers
7 The Predicate Calculus and First Order Theories
8 The Omission of Parentheses / 36
9 Substitution of a Term for a Varia.ble J 38
10 Removing and Inserting Quantifiers / 39
11 Denials / 42

/
/

27
30

THE PREDICATE CALCUL US

12 Formulation / 47
13 The Statement Calculus / 51
14 The Deduction Theorem / 55
15 The Completeness Theorem for the Statement Calculus / 63
16 Applications of the Completeness Theorem for the Statement
Calculus / 71
17 Quantifiers / 74
18 Equivalence and Replacement / 83
ix

CONTENTS

19

Theorem Schemes / 89
Normal Forros / 94
Equality / 104

20
21

3
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

Definition and Examples / 112

Deduction / 120
Number Theory / 127
Consistency and Completeness J 140
Truth / 145
The Completeness Theorem / 158
Independence / 167
Completeness and Categoricit.y / 173
Decidability / 179
Godel's Theorem / 185
Notes

191

References

195

Addendum

201

Index of Symbols

Subject Index

205

203

First Order
Mathelllatical
Logic

1
INTRODUCTION

The logic that mathematicians use to prove their theorerns is itself

a part of rnathematics, in the same way that algebra, analysis, and
geometry are parts of mathematics. In this book we study logic as a
mathematical theory.
This first chapter is introductory and preliminary. It has three
purposes. First, it is a.n overture, introducing briefiy sume tL.e::ne.3
that are developed later. Second, it supplies the rudimentary logic
and set theory that are necessary to construct a rnathematical theory
of logic. Third, it clears the way for a smooth advance later by
disposing of sorne rninor notions and conventions.
1

Rules of Inference

A statem.ent is a declarative sentence that is either true or false (but

not both). Sorne exarnples are:
George Washington was the first
President of the United States
2

There are no positive integers a, b, e, n

with n > 2 such that an + bn = en

(1)
(2)
(3)
1

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

(1) is true. (2) is false. (3) is the famous Fermat conjecture whose
truth or falsehood is unknown at this time.
Let P and Q be staternents. Then P and Q and P or Q are also
statements. The words and and or stand for operations on staternents
in the sarne way that in ordinary algebra, + and stand for operations
on numbers. We write P /\ Q for P and Q, and P v Q for P or Q.
A typical rule of ordinary algebra is : For all integers a, and b,
a + b = b + a, The rules of logic are called rules oj inference. An
exarnple of a rule of inference is: For all staternents P and Q, the
statement P rnay be inferred from the staternent P /\ Q. We write
this rule in the following convenient form :

p /\ Q

1]

RULES OF INFERENCE

Sorne rules of inference state outright conclusions.

,_,p

(excluded middle)

(13)

-+ ,......,,...,_, p

(double negation)

(14)

(double negation)

(15)

( ,_,,....,,P) -+

The rneaning of (13) is that P v ,._,p is true outright for every statement P because of the way that V and ,......, enter into the construction
of P v ,,._,p, Similarly, (14) and (15) are true outright.
Sorne rules of inference can be derived from others.

(4)

-p-

EXA.MPLE

l.

An interpretation of (4) is : For all staternents P and Q, if P /\ Q is

true , then Pis also true. Sorne other rules of inference are:

p /\ Q
Q /\ p

Proof.
(6)

PvQ

P,

Sorne rules of

(modus ponens)

Q, p-+ S , Q-+

EXAMPLE

2.

(,......,P)--+Q

'(8)

(~)-+P

Proof.

P-+Q , Q-+S
P-+S
V

(14)
(8)

(7 )

We write the staternent If P , then Q as P-+ Q.

inference involving -+ are

P-+ ,.._,,_,p

,.._,,.._,p

P vQ
Q v P

P-+Q, p
Q

p
,.._,,.._,p

(5)

(transitivity)

(proof by cases)

(9)

(,......,P)-+Q,
(10)

Q-+,.._,~

(,.._,p -+ ,......,~
(~)-+ p

(14)
(9)

(12)

(11)

Q-+P

We give narnes to sorne of the more important rules of inference and

give the same name to closely related rules.
We write not P as ,......,p_ ,.._,pis false if Pis true, and is true if Pis
false. A rule of inference involving ,.._, is
(,..._,,Q)-+ (,.._,P)

P-+Q

(contraposition)

(12)

EXERCISES

1. Which of the following sen ten ces are staternents?

(a) Spinach was growing on Mars on March 15, 1492.
(b) Which way to the Union Station?
(e) Go jump in the lake!

INTRODUCTION

[Ch. I

2)

SET THEORY

2. Derive each of the following rules from (4) through (15).

,.._,,.._,p

(a)

3. (c)- (f) are correct; (a), (b), and (g) are incorrect.

Q
(e) ("-'P)-+

Q, C-....P)-+ ~

(proof by cases)
(proof by contracliction)

(d) P-+P
(e) (,.._,P)-+ p

(g)

(proof by contradiction)

P-+Q

P, ,.._,p
Q

3. Later we shall establish sorne criteria for correct rules of inference.

Now draw on your experience to classify each of the following rules
as correct or incorrect. Keep in mind that a rule is incorrect if and
only if there is an example in which the statements above the line
are true and the statement below the line is false.
p

(b)

(e)

(modus moron)

P-+.....,p

,.._,p

(d) P-+S, Q-+S

(PvQ)-+S
(e) P-+

(~; ,.._,Q)

,.._,(P-+Q)
(f)

p
(P

(g)

A Q)-+S
P-+S

Set Theory

From such phrases as a class of students, a collection of books, and a

gaggle of geese, we abstract the notion of set: a set of students, a set of
books, a set of geese. Given an object a anda set A, either a is in A or
it is not, and that is all that matters. For example, Mickey M:antle is
in the set of baseball players ; 3 is not in the set of even numbers.
The following statements ha.ve the same meaning :

a is in the set A
a is an element of the set A
a is a member of the set A
a EA

(contraposition)

(... -

(a) P-+Q,

ANSWERS

l. (a).

-p-

{b) p-+ Q, (,.._,P)-+ Q

(f)

a~ A means that a is not in A.

The set consisting of the objects x 1 , x 2 , , x" is denoted by
{x 1 , x 2 , . , xn} For example, {l, 7r, George w ashington} is the set
consisting of the elements 1, 7r, and George Washington. F or large sets
this notation is awkward, and for very large sets (as we shall show) it is
impossible. Therefore we use the device of denoting a set by giving a.
property shared by all the elements of the set and no other objects.
~~t P (x) be a. pro!lerty t~B.t an object :r mey or ma.~ n0t. hav-e .
F or
example, if P (x) is x is an even nurnber, then 2 has the property (because
2 is an even number), and 3 does not have the property (because 3 is
notan even number). {x J P (x )} is the set of all objects that have the
property P (x). (It is read: the set of all x such that P (x). ) For
example, {x J x is an even number} is the set of ali even numbers.
Hence 2 E {x 1 x is an even number}, and 3 tf: {x 1 x is an even number}.
Let R be the set of real numbers. Let A, B , C be any sets. The
following statements have the same meaning. The first defines the
others.
Every mem her of A is also a mem ber of B
A is included in B
A is a subset of B
AsB

Examples. {l , 3, 5} s: {2, 1, 4 , 5, 3, 7}. {x 1 x

Note that A s A for every set A.

s R.

R and x is positive}

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

The following statements have the same meaning.

B

s A

Examples. {l , 3, 5} = {3, 5, 1}. {l , 3} = {l, 3, 1}. Note thatneither

order nor repetition of elements is pertinent to the notion of set.
The empty set 0 is the set with no elements. By the definition of
equalit.y for sets, there is only one empty set. In Example 8 in Section
11 we prove that 0 s; A for every set A.
If x is any object, then {x} is the set with precisely one element,
namely x . {x} is called a unit set or singleton set.

A u B (read : A union B ) is defined to be {x 1 x

A or x

B or both}.

Examples. {l , 2. 3} u {3, 4, 5} = {l , 2, 3, 4, 5}. {l , 2, 3} u {l , 3} =

{l , 2, 3}. {l , 2, 3} u {4} = {l , 2, 3, 4}. {x 1 x E R and x ;;: O} u {x 1 x E R
and x ~ O} = R.

A n B (read: A intersection B} is defined to be {x 1 x

X

A and

B}.

Examples. {1, 2. 3} :\ {3 , 4, 5} = {3}. {l , 2, 3} n {1, 3} = {l , 3}.

{l , 2, 3} n {4, 5} = 0 . {x 1 x E R and x ~ O} n {x J x E R and x ~ O}

= {O}.
The following properties of sets are immediate from the definitions of
s, =,u , and n.
(1) If A s B and B s C, then A
(2} A u B =Bu.A
(3) (A u B) u C = A u (B u O)
(4} A nB = BnA

ne =

(5} (A n B)
(6) As A u B
(7) A n B s A

(B

SET THEORY

Examples. The wife function : assign to each married American man

his wife. The square function: assign to each real number x its square
x 2 The Fort Knox function: assign Fort Knox to each human being.

A and B have precisely the same members

A s B and
A=B

2]

C)

A function is a set A, called the domain (of definition), together with a.

rule that assigns to each element of A sorne unique object.

Iff is a function with domain A, anda is in A, then the unique object

assigned to a by f is written f (a), and is called the value off at a.
Examples. If f is the square function , then j(2 ) = 4.
Fort Knox function, then f (John Doe) = Fort Knox.

If f is the

Iff and g are functions , thenf = g if and only ifj and g ha ve the same
domain, and f (x ) = g(x ) for every x in the common domain.
Let n be a positive integer. A sequence of n terrns is a list (a 1 , a 2 , . . . ,
an ) of n objects, called terms , with repetitions permitted. A sequence of
O terms is the empty set. A finite sequence is a sequence of n terms for
sorne nonnegative integer n . For example , (1 , 3, i , 3, 4 ) is a finite sequence of five terms . Two finite sequen ces (a 1 , . . . , a,_) and (b1 , . . . , bm )
are equal if and only if they have the same number of terms (n = rn) ,
and a = b; for i = 1, 2, ... , n. For finite sequences, the notions of
order and repetition are critical. Thus (1 , 2, 3) # (2, 3, 1) and
(1, 2, 1) # (1 , 2). ( # means not equal.)
For our purposes the ordered n-tuple (a 1 , . . . , an) is the same thing as
the finite sequence (a1 , . . . , an) An ordered 2-tuple (a 1 , a 2 ) is also
called an ordered pair.
If A ; a set an c r;. is a posit iYe i:J.teger. ther:. A" is t!-: e set 0: ri:l
ordered n-tuples (a 1 , . , an) of elements of A. For example, R 2 is the
set of ali ordered pairs (a 1 , a 2 ) of real numbers. Geometrically, R 2 is
the set of ali points in the plane.
An n-place operation on A is a function whose domain is A n and
whose values all lie in A.. Addition is a 2-place operation on R since
it assigns to each ordered pair (a, b) of real numbers the real number
a + b. /\ is a 2-place operation on the set of statements since it
assigns to each ordered pair (P , Q) of statements the statement P /\ Q.
The function f with domain R 3 , defined by j(a , b, e) = a(b + e) , is a
3-place operation on R. The function g with domain R, defined by
g(a) = -a, is a 1-place operation on R.
A 2-place operation is also called a binary operation . For binary
operations, it is customary to write a. + b or a b or a o b instead of
j(a, b). Let be a binary operation on A. o is associative if and only
if (a b) e = a (b e) for all a, b, e in A. If is associative , one can

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTIO.N

2]
prove by induction that a 1 o a 2 o o a,. does not depend on the way
that the elements a1 , . , a,. are associated. For n = 4, this means
that
((a1 a2 ) a 3 ) a 4

= a1 ((a2 a 3 ) a 4 )
=

(a1

(a 2

a 3 ))

= (a1 a 2 ) (a3 a 4 )
a 4 = a 1 o (a 2 o (a3 a 4 ) )

o is commutative if and only if a o b = b o a for all a, b in A.

If is both
associative and commutative, then one can prove by induction that
a 1 o a 2 o o a,, is independent of both the order and the association of
the elements a 1 , . . , a,..
An infinite sequence is a list (a1 , a 2 , a 3 , . . . , a, ... ) of objects, with
one object for each positive integer i. As for finite sequences, the
objects are called terms and repetitions are permitted. Two infinite
sequences (a1 , a 2 , a 3 , . , a1, ) and (b 1 , b2 , b3 , . . , b, . .. ) are equal if
and only if a = b; for each positive integer i.
An enumeration of a set A is a sequence (finite or infinite) such that
every term is in A and every element of A is a term. For example,
(1, 2, 3) and (3, 2, 1, 3) are enumerations of the set {l , 2, 3}.
A set is finite if and only if it can be enumerated by a finite sequence.
A set is infinite if and only if it is not finite. For example, {l , 2, 3} is a
finite set because it is enumerated by (1, 2, 3).

THEOREM

Proof.
is finite.
Let a =
Hence a

1.

The set of positive integers is infinite.

Suppose, for contradiction, that the set of positive integers

Then it can be enumerated by a .finite sequence (a1 , a 2 , . , a,,).
a 1 + a 2 + a 3 + + a,.. Then a > a1 for i = 1, 2, ... : n.
is a positive integer that is not a term of the sequence

(a, ... ,").

2. Let A S.: B. If B is finite, then A is also finite.

by contraposition, if A is infinite, then Bis also infinite.
THEOREM

SET THEORY

the set of positive integers is countable because (1, 2, 3, ... , n ,

+ 1, ... ) is an enumeration.

THEoREM

3.

The set of rational numbers is countahle.

Proof. First we show that the set of positive rationals is countable .

Let n be a positive integer greater than l. All the positive rationals
whose numerator and denominator add up to n can be enumerated in
order of increasing numerator. For example, for n = 6, we have
! , f, ~. f. Now we start with n = 2 to get f. Then we follow with
n = 3 to get f , f, f. Then we follow with n = 4 to get f , ! , f , !, f , f .
W e con t 1nue
2 ~
l
2 3 4 .l., -,
2 3,
3 2
4 , 5 , l,
.
. this manner.. .l1 , "2"l : y2 , 8l , 2,
1n
, -, -, -, -,

t,

i,

-t.

t, !, !, . . . . Each positive rational appears in this list.

To
enumerate ali the rationals we start with O and interlace the positive
. rat10na
..
ls.. o, -,
l
l l
.l 2
2 l
l
2
2
an d negat ive
- ,
2 , - 2 y, --, :r - :r, 2, - 2, ... .
THEOREM 4 . Let A s.: B. lf B is countable, then A is countahle.
H ence, by contraposition, if A is uncountahle, then B is also uncountahle.

Prooj. Suppose B is countable. In a given enumeration of B we

cross out the terms that are not elements of A. The result is an
enumeration of A.
A 1-1 (one to one) correspondence between the set A and the set B is a
pair..ng of the elements of A with tbe elementE 'Jf B rnd-1 thb.t ~ach a in
A corresponcis to one and only one b in B, and each b in B corresponds
to one and only one a in A.
5. Suppose there is a. 1-1 correspondence between A and B.
Then A is finite (or infinite, or countahle, or uncountable) if and only ij B
is jinite (or infinite, or countable, or uncountahle).
THEOREM

Hence ,

Prooj. Suppose B is finite . Let {b 1 , . . . , b,,) be an enumeration of

B by a finite sequence. W e cross out the terms that are not elements
of A. The result is a finite sequence that enumerates A. Hence A is
also finite.
A set is countable if and only if it can be enumerated. Every finite
set is countable, and sorne infinite sets are countable. For example,

Proof. Suppose A is countable. Let (a 1 , a 2 , . ) be an enumeration

of A. Let b1 be the element of B corresponding to a1 Then (bv b2 , )
is an enumeration of B, and hence Bis also countable. Similarly, if B
is countable, then A is also countable. Hence A is countable if and
only if B is countable. Then by contraposition, A is uncountable if
and only if B is uncountable. Now suppose A is .finite. Then A can
be enumerated by a finite sequence (a 1 , . . , an). Again letting b1 be
the element of B corresponding to a1, we have that (b 1 , . . , b,,) is an

10

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

enumeration of B , and hence Bis finite . The argument is reversible,

and hence A is finite if and only if Bis finite. Then, by contraposit ion,
A is infinite if and only i B is infinite.
THEORE:II

6.

The set of real numbers is uncountable.

Proof. Let A = {x 1 x E R and O ~ x < l}. \Ve show that A is

uncountable. Then R is uncountable by Theorem 4. Every element
of A can be expressed as a proper decimal. (.23i and .01052 are
proper decimals; 2.61 and 5.0203 are improper decimals. ) The subset
{. L . O1, .001, .0001, .. . } of .A is in 1-1 correspondence with the set. of
positin integers and is therefore infinite by Theorems 1 and 5. Hence
.A is infinite by Theorem 2. Before we go on, we will clear up two minor
points. First, sorne elements of A haYe decimal representations that
termnate, and others do not. (For example, t = .25, and t =
.3333 .... ) To put all the elements of A on the same footing, we add
O's to the terminating decimals. (Thus we replace .25 by .250000 .... )
Then we work with the set of nonterminating proper decimals. The
second point is that this set is not quite in 1-1 correspondence with .A .
For example, .250000 . . . and .2499999 ... represent the same real
num ber. \Ye agree to always use the representation that ends with O's
instead of the one that ends with 9's.
\Yith the preliminaries out of the way, the main bout begins. We
show that A is uncountable. The proof is by contradiction. Suppose
A is countable. Since A is infinite, A can be enumerated by an infinite

2]

111213a

EXERCISES

l.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.
7.

nU2U3U4 . . .

i.

The first term is .aua12a 13a 14 . .. , the second term is .a21a22a23a24 . . . ,

and so on. Each aii is one of the digits O, l, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and a 1;
is the jth digit of the ith term of the sequence. We define a proper
decimal .b 1 b2 b3 . as follows. For each i,

b, =

8.

2122U23U24
.a3U3zU33U34 .. .

{~

if a = 3
if a 11 #- 3

11

Then for every i, b1 # a 11 Then for every i, .b1 b2 b3 # .ana12a; 3

because they differ in the 1'.th.digit. Hence .b 1 b2 b3 . is an element of
A that is not a term of the sequence. But the sequence was supposed
to be an enumeration of A. This contradiction shows that A is
uncountable.

sequence
l.
2.
3.

SET THEORY

9.
10.

is transitive by (1 ). Show that E is not transitive, i .e ., give

an object b, a set B, and a set f3 such that b E B and B E f3 but
b {3.
Is {R} the same set as R ? Why?
Give the domains of the wife function; the square function ; the
Fort Knox function.
How is the wife function affected if the domain is changed to
(a) the set of all married men ?
(b) the set of all American men ?
The range of a function f is the set of all values off. What is the
range of t he wife function ? the square function ? the Fort Knox
function ? the operation of addition on the set of positive integers ?
The domain of the function f is the set of integers, and f (x ) = x 2
for every integer x. Is f the same as the square function ? Why ?
The domain of the function f is R , and j(x) = jxj (the absolute
value of x) for every real number x. The domain of the function
.
n
..,
,
g ::s r..,, anu fj\X; = + """v' x:; for every rea.l J1um-oer x. ls j the same
function as g ?
For ali real numbers a and b, f(a, b) = a /b. Is f an operation on
R? Why?
Give an example of a 4-place operation.
Use (1) through (7) to prove
(a) B s A u B
(b) A l l B s B

11. Use Theorems 3 and 4 to prove that the set of integers is countable.

Then give a direct proof, i.e., give an enumeration.

12. Prove that if a set is countable, then it can be enumerated without
repetitions.
13. Prove that the set of all squares of positive integers is countable.
14. Prove that R 2 is uncountable.

12

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

ANSWERS

l. 1 E {l} and {l} E {{l}, {2}}, but 1 if: {{l}, {2}}.

2. No. For one thing, {R} is finite and R is infinite.
3. The set of ali married American men; R; the set of ali human beings.
4. (a) No longer a function because sorne married men have more than

5.

6.
7.

8.

9.

one wife. (b} No longer a function because sorne American men are
unmarried.
The set of ali women married to American men (which is not the
same as the set of all married American women); {x 1 x E R and
x ~ O}; {Fort Knox}; the set of all positive integers greater than l.
No. The domains are different.
Yes.
No. f(a, O) is not a real number. The same rule applied to A 2 ,
where A is the set of all real numbers different from O, is an operation
onA.
For all a, b, e, din R, f(a, b, e, d) = (a + b)(c + d).
Axiomatic Theories

A theory consists of two sets of statements. The first set. determines

the subject matter of the theory; the second set is a subset of the first
and is called the set of acceptable statements. In the experimental
sciences, "acceptable" means "true " in the sense of being in accordance
with reality, and the fina,l appeal is to obserTa.tion an:: expe:i:nent.
Thus in the theory of nuclear physics, the acceptable statements are
the true statements about atomic nuclei. In sorne theories, acceptability has little relation to truth in this sense. For example, in the
theory of chess, "A bishop moves diagonally" is an acceptable
statement because the rulebook says it is.
The theories of mathematics are axiomatic theories. In an axiomatic
theory, the acceptable statements are called tkeorems, or provable
statements, and are defined to be the statements deducible by logic
alone from certain initially specified acceptable statements called
axioms. An axiomatic theory familiar to every high school graduate is
Euclid's geometry.
In an axiomatic theory, the question "Is this statement true?" is
not relevant. The proper question is, "Does this statement follow
from the axioms by logic alone ?"

3]

AXIOMATIC THEORIES

13

In an axiomatic theory, a formal proof is a finite sequence S 1 , , Sn

of statements such that each S 1 (1 ~ i ~ n ) is either an axiom or is
inferred from one or more previous S/s by a rule of inference. The
statements S 1 , , Sn are called the steps of the proof.
A theorem is a statement that is the last step of sorne proof. To
prove a theorem means to produce a proof whose last step is the
theorem.
Every axiom is a theorem, because the finite sequence consisting of a
single step-the axiom itself-is a proof of the axiom.
Formal proofs are seldom found outside of logic books. Because a
formal proof includes every step, the formal proofs of simple theorems
are often very long. The proofs in the mathematical literature, which
we call working proofs, are in comparison outlines, giving only the
mathematical highlights and suppressing the logical details which wili
only distract the knowledgeable reader.
A formal proof leaves nothing to the imagination. There is an
effective procedure for deciding whether or not a formal proof is
correct. Every step can be checked to see if it is justified as an axiom
or by sorne rule of inference, with the checker relying only on the forros
of the steps-not their meaning. No intelligence beyond the ability
to follow routine instructions is necessary to check a formal proof. A
digital computer can be programmed to check formal proofs.
Checking a proof can be reduced to a mechanical procedure, but
finding a proof is a different mat_ter. Mathematicians have always
proceeded on the basis that finding a proof is a creative a.et, reouiring
insight, inspirat10n, pers6verance, and luck. P.ecent developments in
mathematical logic justify this attitude. Mathematicians have proved
that for many important mathematical theories there is no mechanical
procedure for finding a proof.
To make sure that every formal proof can be effectively checked
without recourse to the meaning of the steps, every statement of an
axiomatic theory must have a definite recognizable forro. For a
simple example, consider a theory in which the only statements are
those constructed from the symbols "l," "2," "3," and " = ," with the
symbols having their usual meanings. Some statements of the theory
are
111 = 11
12 = 3
312 = 312
The following expressions are not statements of the theory.
=

12

213

= =

14

INTRODUCTION

[Ch. I

Is 21 = 13 = 21 a statemenU we settle ali questions about possible

statements in the following way. \.Ve define a statement to be any
finite sequence of the symbols "l," "2," " 3," and" = " in which" = "
occurs exactly once, and this occurrence is neither the first nor the last
symbol in the sequence. Then 21 = 13 = 21 is nota statement.
The definition of statement above is formal because it involves only
the forro of certain expressions, not their meaning. The axiomatic
theories we shall study are formal axiomatic theories. The axiomatic
theories of everyday mathematics are informal theories. In an informal theory, the statements are made in a natural language (e.g.,
English). Symbols are used, but they are abbreviations for meaningful
words and phrases. In a formal theory, the statements are written in
a specially constructed symbolic language and are manipula.ted in
accordance with specified rules which make no appeal to any possible
meaning of the statements.
The construction of a formal axiomatic theory begins with the
specification of a finite set ofjormal symbols, anda string is defined to be
a fi.nite sequence of formal symbols.
A formal axiomatic theory has the following properties.
The notion of statement is effective ; i.e., there is an effective procedure
for deciding whether or not a string is a statement.
The notion of axiom is effective; i.e., there is an effective procedure
for deciding whether or not a statement is an axiom.
The notion of logical inference is effective; i.e., given a finite sequence
S 1 , . , S;; of statements, there is an effective proc1.;dure for deciding
whether or not S1c is inferred from one or more of S 1 , , S1c_ 1 by a1 rule
of inference.
Because the notions of axiom and logical inference are effective, the
notion of proof is effective. That is, there is an effective procedure for
deciding whether or not a sequence of statements is a proof.
The prime purpose of a formal theory is to make the notion of proof
effective.
A formal theory can be communicated to a reader only in a language
he already knows. (The same situation arises in teaching a foreign
language.) The symbolic language in which the statements of a formal
theory are written is called the object language. The language used to
present the formal theory is called the metalanguage. We shall use
English as the metalanguage. A statement in the object language is a
statement of the theory; a statement in the metalanguage is a statement

3]

AXIOMATIC TREORIES

15

about the theory.

We shall use a special symbolism for the object

language. Then it is easy to distinguish a statement in the object
language from a statement in the metalanguage, because the former is
written in the distinctive symbolism of the theory, and the latter is
written in ordinary English. A provable statement of the formal
theory is called a formal theorem. A statement proved in the metalanguage about the formal theory is called a metatheorem.
EXERCISES

l. State two ways in which a "proof" can be infinite.

Why are

infinite formal proofs not permitted ?

2. Prove: A.11 girls are beautiful.
3. A certain formal theory has exactly two ax:ioms,
2

__

2 = 4-+ (2

4 __.,. 2

6)

and has modus ponens (see Section 1) as its one and only rule of
inference. Find all the theorems of this theory, and give a formal
proof of each one.
4. An axiomatic theory is consistent if and only if there is at least one
statement of the theory that is not a theorem. In a certain formal
theory, (a) if P and Q are statements, then P-+ Q is also a statement;
(b\ every sta.tement of the form P -4-Q : an axiom: and (e) modm
ponens is one of t.ne ruies of inference. i:lnow tna;; this theory is not
consistent.
ANS\VERS

1. The proof may have infinitely many steps, or one of the steps may be
infinite, Le., have infinitely many symbols. The purpose of any
proof is to convince the reader; an "infinite proof" can convince
no one because no one can read it all.
2. Let T be an axiomatic theory whose one and only axiom is: All girls
are beautiful. Then this statement is not only provable-it is
axiomatic.
3. The theorems are the two axioms and 2 + 2 = 4 __.,. 2 + 3 = 6 and
2 + 3 = 6.

16

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

Predicates and Quantifiers

Our primary interest is in first arder theories. In a first order theory,

sorne set of objects is selected, and all the statements of the theory are
statements about these objects. The set of objects is called the domain,
and the objects in the domain are called individuals. Any set that is
not empty can serve as a domain. In this chapter most of the examples
are from three domains: the set ofhuman beings, the set ofrealnumbers,
and the set O, 1, 2, 3, ... of nonnegative integers. By number theory
we mean the theory of nonnegative integers. Whenever we say
number we mean nonnegative integer.
In the statement "Sam Jones loves Mary Potholder," the subject is
"Sam J ones" and the predicate is "loves Mary Potholder." W e write
this predicate as
__ loves Mary Potholder

(1)

where the dash reserves a place for the missing subject.

In logic, the notion of predicate is extended to include expressions in
which the object rather than the subject is missing. For example,
Sam J ones loves __
is a predicate.
as in

(2)

Further, both subject and object may be missing,

__ loves __

which is a 2-place predicate.

(3)

A 3-place predicate of number theoy is

--+--=--

(4)

If n is a positive integer, then an n-place predicate is an expression

containing n different kinds of blanks that becomes a statement when
the blanks are replaced by names of individuals. When a predicate
contains more than one occurrence of the same kind of blank, it is
understood that the same name of an individual is to be filled in for each
occurrence. For example,

__ + __

=7

(5)

is a 1-place predicate of number theory, from which we can get the

statements 2 + 2 = 7 and 8 + 8 = 7, but not 2 + 3 = 7. In
contrast,

__ + __

=7

(6)

4]

17

PREDICATES AND QUA.NTIFU:Rs

is a 2-place predicate, from which we can get 2 + 3 = 7. From (6) we

can also get 2 + 2 = i. It is permissible to use the same name of an
individual to fil} in different kinds of blanks; what is forbidden is
filling in different names for the same kind of blank.
Because the notation for predicates becomes unwieldy when there are
many different kinds of blanks, we shall henceforth use >ariables
instead of dashes. For variables we use x, y, z, t, k, and n. In this
notation, ( l ) becomes
x !oves Mary Potholder

(7)

and (3) becomes

x !oves y

and (4) becomes

x+y=z
and (5) becomes
X+ X= 7.

(8)

(9)

(10)

A predicate is not a statement because it is neither true n o::- false.

However, a predicate has the form of a statement, and man: ope:ations
defined for statements apply also to predicates. For example, the
operation A can be applied to the predicates x < 2 and x ~ y = i to
give the predicate x < 2 A x + y = 7.
A formula is an expression thstt is either a statement or a predicate.
Fo;r technical reas0n:s, fo:-:nulas are Uf:r::'.'1 i:. ::::-. .:..ny _places >>:...::;::-e o.ni:;
expects to find only statements. For example, in man.y formal
theories the steps of a proof are permitted to be formulas.
The following statements have the same meaning.
All human beings are greedy
Every human being is greedy
Each human being is greedy
For every human being x, x is greedy

(11 )

The phrase for every x is called a universal quantifier, and we shall write
itas Vx. In logical symbolism, (11) is written as
Vx(x is greedy)

(12)

Although Vx means for every x , the restriction to sorne gi>en domain

(in this case the domain of human beings) is understood.
The following statements have the same meaning.

18

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

There is a greedy human being

There exists a greedy human being
At least one human being is greedy
Sorne human being is greedy
There exists a human being x such t hat x is greedy

4]

PREDICA.TES AND QUANTIFIERS

EXAMPLE 4.

Vx\ly(x }oves y)

For every x, for every y, x !oves y

For every x and y, x loves y
Every human being loves every human being
Everybody loves everybody

{13 )

The phrase there exists an x such that is called an existential quantifier,

and we shall write itas 3x. In logical symbolism, (13) is writ ten as
3x(x is greedy)

(14)

Again tbe restriction to sorne given domain is understood.

The scope of a quantifier is the formula to which the quantifier
applies , and is indicated by parentheses. (12) and (14) illustrate how
quantifiers can be coupled with predicates to give statements.
Two or more quantifiers may be used in tandem. In the followi ng
examples, we begin with a st at ement in symbolic form and give several
translations.
EXAMPLE

EXA.MPLE 5.

\lx'Vy3z(x

= z)

There is an x such that for every y , x loves y

There is a human being \vho loves every human being
Sornebody loves everybody

For every x , for every y , there is a z such that x + y = z

For every x and y there is a z such that x + y = z
Given any two nurnbers x and y , there is a number z such
that X+ y= Z
The sum of any two numbers is a nurnber

VxVyVz((x

y)

(y

(nurnber theory)

z))

For every x, for every y , for every z, (x + y)

For every x, y , and z, (x + y) + z = x + (y
Addition of numbers is associative

+z=
+ z)

(y

z)

ln the statement

2.

k=5

For every y there is an x such that x loves y

Every human being is loved by sorne human being
Everybody is loved by somebody

k2

k=l

\ly3x(x loves y )

EXA.MPLE

(number theory)

EXAMPLE 6 .

l.
3x\ly(x loves y )

EXAMPLE

19

k is a dummy variable.
12

55

(15)

When (15) is written out as

22

32

42

52

55

k <loes not appear at ali. In (15) , k can be changed to sorne other

variable without altering the meaning. Similarly, in

3.

J cos x dx = sin 1
1
0

3x3y(x loves y)

There is an x such that there is a y such that x loves y

There is an x and there is a y such that x loves y
There is a human being who loves sorne human being
Somebody loves somebody

x is a dummy variable.

(16)

The statement

J cos
1
0

t dt

has exactly the same meaning as (16).

sin 1

(17)

20

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

In logic a dummy variable is called a bound variable.

4]

In the formula

3x(x < y)

the first and last occurrences of x are free, and the other two occurrences
are bound. (22) is confusing and is better written as

(18)

x is a bound variable, but y is not a bound variable.

J cos t dt =

V\'hen (18) is

0x

written as
There is a number less than y

2. k =

n(n

kl

1)/2

k is a bound variable, and nis a free variable.

f:

COS

t d,t

(3x(x < y)) A (Vx(x > O))

(20)

(3x(x < y)) A (Vz(z > O))

8)

(21)

the first two occurrences of x (from left to right) are bound, but the
third occurrence of x is free because it is not in the scope of the quantifier
3x. As far as meaning is concerned, the free and bound occurrences
of the same variable in a formula have nothing to do with each other.
In the formula

J: cos

x dx = sin x

(25)

For the most part, we shall avoid formulas such as (24), but again we
do not forbid them.

A variable may be bound in different ways, but we shall consider

only variables bound by quantifiers.
An occurrence of a variable v in a formula P is bound if and only if it
is the explicit occurrence in a quantifier Vv or 3v, or if it is in the scope
of a quantifier Vv or 3v. An occurrence of a variable is free if and only
if it is not bound. A variable is bound or free in P according as it has a
bound or free occurr<:mce in P.
In (18), both occurrences of x are bound, and the occurrence of y is
free. In the formula x < y, which is a part of (18), both the occurrence
of x and the occurrence of y are free beca.use there are no quantifiers in
this formula. This example illustrates that free and bound are relative
to a given formula.
The same variable may be both free and bound in the same formula.
In the formula

+z=

(24)

(19)

t is a bound variable, and x is a free variable.

(3x(x < 7)) A (x

(23)

all occurrences of x are bound, but the first two occurrences of x ha ve

nothing to do with the last two occurrences because they are bound by
a different quantifier. (24) can just as well be written

Similarly, in

Sin X

sin x

We shall avoid formulas in which the same variable occurs both free
and bound, but we do not forbid them, because to do so would
complicate the definition of formula. In the formula

x disappears, but y is still present. lf we think of y as being some

fixed number, (18) saya something about y. A variable that is not
bound is free. y is a free variable in (18). In the formula
kn

21

PREDICATES AND QUANTIFIERS

(22)

A precise definition of formula can be given for each formal theory.

Now we define statement and predicate in terms of formula.
A statement is a formula with no free variables. A predicate is a
formula with one or more free variables. An n-pl,ace predicate is
a formula with exactly n distinct free variables.
Some examples from number .theory follow.
3x'</y (xy

x)

(26)

is a statement since it has no free variables.

3x(x +y= y)

(27)

is a 1-place predicate since y is the one and only free variable.

(Vx(x

+y

= y

x)) A (3z(z < t))

(28)

is a 2-place predicate since it has exactly two free variables y and t.

If P is an n-place predicate, and v is free in P, then the formula
VvP is an (n - 1)-place predicate. (If Pis a 1-place predicate, then
VvP is a statement.) If vis not free in P, then VvP is still an n-place
predicate; in this case, VvP has the same meaning as P. There is no
point in applying Vv to a formula P in which v is not free, but again
we believe it is not worth the trouble to forbid such constructions. The
same remarks hold also for the existential quantifier 3v.

.22

[Ch. I

INTRODUCTION

5)

l. For each of the following predicates of number theory, give a true

statement and a false statement that result by substituting the

names of numbers for the variables:

y)(x

Statement Connectives

z)

2. If a name of an individual is substituted for one of the variables in

an n-place predicate, what is the result ~

3. If two 2-place predicates are made into one by inserting /\ between

them, how many places does the resulting predicate have?

4. (a) Give a 1-place predicate of number theory with the property
that every statement that results from the predicate by substitution is true.
(b) Repeat (a) for a 2-place predicate.
(e) Repeat (a) with "true" replaced by "false."
5. Translate the following statements into reasonably good English
statements that involve no variables.
(a) 3xVy(y loves x)
(b) Vy3x(y loves x)
(number theory)
(e) Yx'r/y3z(x + z = y)
\number theory)
(d) 3x3y\iz(x + z = yz)
(number theory)
(e) Vx3yVz(z ~ y--+ z > x)

6. For each of the following formulas, write "B" for "bound" or "F"
for "free" under each occurrence of each variable.
(a)
(b)
(e)
{d)

23

(d); you can probably do better: {d) There exist two numbers with
the property that the sum of one number and an arbitrary number is
equal to the product of the other number and the same arbitrary
number. (This answer is not quite correct. What has been
overlooked

EXERCISES

(a) X < '!/

(b) xy =X+'!/
(c) x + yz = (x
(d) X+ X= XX

STATEMENT CONNECTIVES

3y(x < y)

3zVy(z = y v y = x)
(Vx(x > O)) /\ (3y(y = x))
(3z(x + y = z)) v ((Vx(x > 2))--+ (3y(y

If P and Q are any statements, then the statement P and Q is called

the conjunction of P and Q, and we ""Tite itas P /\ Q. According to
the usual meaning of and, P /\ Q is true if and only if each of P and Q
is true.
We call "truth" and "falsehood" truth values, and abbreviate them
as T and F. The table below gives the intended interpretation of /\ .
p

T T
F

Q PvQ
T
F

T
T
T

F F

F
T

ANSWERS

l.

3. Two, three, or four.

5. (a) Somebody is loved by everybody. (b) Everybody loves somebody. (e} The difference of two numbers is a number. (d) and (e)
are best not written in ordinary English. We give an answer for

T
F
F
F

The first two columns list all the possible assignment s of truth values
to the pair {P, Q}, and the last column gives the corresponding truth
value for P /\ Q. The table above is an example of a truth value
table~ or b!i~fly ; t~4u.tlt ta.ble. "!1 exa:mr~e C:f b. ,._:-_~r~.; Lli-ictiG~.'.. ~.:~ 2 ""'."~ 2 ::= 4
/\ 3 + 2 = 7, which is false because 3 + 2 = 7 is false.
If P and Q are any statements, then the statement P or Q is called the
disjunction of P and Q, and we write it as P v Q. We choose that
meaning of or for which P v Q is true if and only if P or Q or both are
true. The truth table for disjunction is

T T

z)))

2. An (n - 1)-place predicate if n > 1; a statement if n

T F
F F

Q p /\ Q

An example of a disjunction is 2 + 2 = 4 v 3 + 2 = 7, which is true

because 2 + 2 = 4 is true.
The interpretation of or given in the truth table above is the inclusive
interpretation, which is standard in mathematics, and is sometimes
rendered as and/or. The other interpretation of or, called the exclusive

24

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

interpretation, is probably more common in ordinary discourse. In

the exclusive interpretation, P or Q is true if and only if exactly one of
the pair {P, Q} is true.
The negation of a statement is formed by inserting the word not in
the proper place (perhaps accompanied by sorne slight change in
wording), or by writing it is false that in front of the statement. The
negation of

5)

STATEMENT CONNECTIVES

In a conditional P-+ Q, Pis called the antecedent and Q the consequent.

The truth table for the conditional can be silmmarized as follows: A
conditional is true if and only if the antecedent is false or the conseq uen t
is true.
In mathematics, the following statements have the same meaning,
and each is translated as P-+ Q.
If P, then Q.
P only ifQ.
P implies Q.

Texas is the largest state

IS

Texas is not the largest state

Qif P.
Q provided P.
Q when(ever) P.
Pis a sufficient condition for Q.
Q is a necessary condition fr P.

The negation of
Mary Potholder loves candy
is
Mary Potholder <loes not love candy
The negation of
Everyone loves a fat man

A statement ofthe form (P-+ Q) /\ (Q-+ P) is called a biconditional,

and we abbreviate itas P +--+ Q. The truth table for the biconditional is

is
It is false that everyone loves a fat man
We write the negation of P as ,._,p.
is false and is false when P is true.

The negation of Pis true when P

The truth table for negation is

_,p

T
F

.F
T

T T
F
T

T
F

F F

Q P+-+Q

T T

F
T

T
F

F
F

F F

a!"ld is com~1 ete1, - determined by t he t ruth t4bft.e:s for ~ c..,... 6

following construction shows.

Q
T T
p

A statement of the form If P, then Q is called a conditional, and we

write itas P-+ Q. The truth table for-+ is
P-+Q

T
T
F
T

That the truth-table interpretation of-+ captures the full meaning of

lf P, then Q is not at all obvious. Now we confine ourselves to the
remark that the truth-table interpretation conforms to standard
mathematical usage. In Chapter 2 we prove sorne metatheorems that
justify this interpretation.

25

T F
F

P-+Q

Q-+P

T
T
F
T

F
T

"J. .-

~' - ;t.::

(P-+ Q) /\ (Q-+ P)

In mathematics, the following statements ha.ve the same meaning,

and each is translated as P +--+ Q.

P if and only if Q
P is equivalent to Q
P is a necessary and sufficient condition for Q
Q +--+ P has the same meaning as P +--+ Q, i.e., P +--+ Q is true if and
only if Q +--+ P is true. Hence P and Q can be interchanged in each of

26

6]

[Ch. l

INTRODUCTION

~-+,...,p

,...,p-+ Q +-+ R

Q p /\ Q ,....,( p /\ Q)

T T

F
T
F

F
F
F

T
F
F

F
T

T
T

Construct the truth ta.ble for ,....,p /\ ~ a.nd for ,....,p v ~ a.nd
state which ofthese two is the sa.me as the truth table for ,....,(p /\ Q).
5. (a) Show that the truth ta.ble for P v Q is the same as the truth
table for ,.._.p-+ Q. (b) Show that the truth ta.ble for P /\ Q is the
same as the truth table for ,....,(p-+ ~).
6. Use the convention to elimina.te as many parentheses as possible.
(a) ((P-+ R ) /\ ((~)-+ R ))-+ ((P v Q) -+ R )
(b) P-+ (Q +-+ (P+-+Q))
(c) (,....,P)-+ (( --P) V Q)

(P A Q) -+ R
(P V Q) +-+ R
(~) -+ (""P)
((,...,P) -+ Q) +-+ R

ANSWERS

l. (a.), (d), (e), (g), (h), and (j) are true, the others false.
2. P is false and Q is true:
6. (a) (P-+ R) /\ (~-+ R)-+ (P v Q-+ R). (b) No change.

,....,p-+ ,....,p

EXERCISES

l. Give the truth vaJue of ea.ch o the foliowing statemen7.s of numoer

27

4. The truth ta.ble for ,...,(p /\ Q) is constructed a.s follows:

the sta.tementa a.hove. However, Q-+ P does not have the same
mea.ning as P-+ Q.- Q-+ P is ca.lled the converse of P-+ Q, and its
truth vaJue can be different from the truth value of P -+ Q.
The symbols A , v , ,....,, -+, a.nd +-+ are oalled statement connectives.
With ea.ch connective there is assooia.ted an operation on sta.tements.
,...,, is called a singulary oonneotive, beca.use the associated operation is a
singulary (1-place) operation; the other four oonnectives are oalled
binar connectives beca.use their associated operations are binary
(2-plaoe) operations.
The operations a.ssocia.ted with statement connectives can aJso be
applied to predica.tes. For example, x > 2 A x > 5 is a formula.
To simplify the a.ppearance of formulas, we a.dopt a oonvention for
the om.ission of parentheses. The symbols +-+, -+, /\ , v , and ,...,, are
ranked in the given order with /\ and v having equal ra.nk. The
exa.mples below illustrate the convention. The formulas with pa.rentheses omitted a.ppear on the left.
P/\Q-+R
PvQ+-+R

THE INTERPRETATION OF PREDICATES AND QUANTIFIERS

(c)

Q.

"'$'

theory:

(a) -..(2 > 1 A 2 > 4)

Let G(x) and H (x) be 1-place predica.tes in the doma.in D, G(x, y) a.nd
H(x, y) be 2-place predica.tes in D , and G(x 1 , , xn) be an n-place

(b) -..(2 > l V 2 > 4)

(o) 4 > 3 /\ 'v'x3y(y < x)
(d) 'v'x'v'y(x < y V y ~ x)
(e) 2 < l -+ 3x(x < O)
(f) 2 < l +-+ 2 < 3
(g) ('tx(x = l))+-+6 + 5 = 10
(h) 2 + 2 = 5-+ 2 + 2 = 4
(i) ( -..(1 = O A O = O)) -+ 2 = 3
(j} (-..(1 = 0 V 0 = 0))-+2 = 3

2. Give the conditions under which P -+ Q is true a.nd its converse is

false.
3. Write v for the exclusive or a.nd give the truth table for V.

The Interpretation of Predica.tes and Quantifiers

predica.te in D.
Let. G(x, y) be the predica.te x < y of number theory. G(x, y) can be
interpreted as a function that assigns to ea.ch ordered pair (d1 , d 2 ) of
numbers the statement d 1 < d 2 , which we denote by G(d1 , d 2 ). ':['hus
1 < 2 is G(l, 2), and 2 < 1 is G(2, 1). Since ea.ch statement is true or
false, we can also interpret Gas a function that assigns to ea.ch ordered
pair (d1 , d 2 ) of numbers a truth value T or F. Thus G(l, 2) = T since
l < 2 is true, and G(2, 1) = F since 2 < 1 is false.
We shall interpret G(xv . .. , xn) as a function that assigns to each
ordered n-tuple (d1 , , dn) of individuals the truth vlue of the statement that results when "d" is substituted for "X" in G(x, .. . ' Xn)

28

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

We use this interpretation of predicates to interpret the quantifiers

''lx and 3x. 'v'xG(x) is true if and only if G(d) = T for every individual
d. For example, in number theory 'v'x(O ~ x) is true because O ~ O,
O ~ 1, O ~ 2, . .. are all true, but 'v'x(2 < x ) is false because 2 < 1 is
false. 3xG(x) is true if and only if G(d) = T for at least one individual
d. In number theory 3x(2 < x) is true since 2 < 3 is true, but 3x(x < O)
is false because O < O, 1 < O, 2 < O, .. are all false.
EXA111PLE l.

Every statement of the form

(3xG(x) ) -

(,.._,lfx......,O(x) )

(1 )

is true.
Proof. Let D be any domain and Jet G(x ) be any 1-place predicate in
D . \Ve show that 3xG(x ) and ,.._,\fx--G(x ) have the same truth value.
Then (1 ) is true by the truth table for- . Suppose that 3xG(x ) is true.
Then by the interpretation for 3, G(d 0 ) is true for sorne d 0 in D. Then
,.._,Q(d0 ) is false by the truth table for ,.._,, Then 'v'x......,O (x ) is false by
the interpretation for 'v'. Then ,.._,\fx,.._,G(x ) is true by the truth table
for --. Now suppose that 3xG(x ) is false. Then G(d) is false for every
d in D by the interpretaton for 3. Then ,....,G(d) is true for every d in
D by the truth table for ,.._,, Then 'v'x"-'G(x) is true by the interpretation
for 'v'. Then ,.._,\fx,.._,G(x) is false by the truth table for """'

EXA111PLE 2.

Every statement of the form

((VxG(x)) v ('v'xH(x)))--+ ('v'x(G(x ) v H(x)))

(2 )

is true.
Proof. Let D be any dornan and let G(x) and H (x) be any 1-place
predicates in D. We note that G(x) v H(x) is also a l-place predicate
in D. If (VxG(x)) v (VxH(x)) is false , then (2) is true by the truth
table for --+. So suppose that ('v'xG(x)) v (VxH(x)) is true. Then by
the truth table for v , either VxG(x) or VxH(x) is true. Suppose
VxG(x) is true. Then G(d) is true for every din D by the interpretation
for V. Then G(d) v H(d) is true for every din D by the truth table for
v. Then Vx(G(x) v H(x)) is true by the interpretation for 'v'. Then
(2) is true by the truth table for --+. Similarly, if VxH(x) is true, then
(2) is true.

6]

THE INTERPRETATION OF PREDICATES AND QUA..~TIFIERS

EXAMPLE 3.

29

There is a false statement of the form

('v'x(G(x)

v H(x)))--+ ((VxG(x)) v (VxH(x)))

(3)

Proof. We give two examples. First, in number theory, let G(x )

be x is even and H(x) be x is odd. For every number d, d is even v d is
odd is true. Hence Vx(x is even v x is odd) is true by the interpretation
for V. Now Vx(x is even) and 'v'x(x is odd) are both false. Hence
(Vx (x is even)) v ('v'x(x is odd)) is false by the truth table for v. Hence
(Vx(x is even

v x is odd))--+ (('v'x(x is eYen) ) v ('v'x(x is odd)))

is false by the truth table for -+. For the second example, let D consist
of the two elements d 1 and d 2 . Let G(x) and H(x) be defined in Das
follows: G(d 1 ) = T , G(d2 ) = F , H(d 1 ) = F , H(d2 ) = T. Then by the
truth table for V, G(d1 } v H(d 1 ) is true because G(d 1 ) is true , and
G(d 2 ) v H(d 2 ) is true because H (d 2 ) is true. Hence \'x(G(x) v H (x) )
is true by the interpretation for V. Now by the interpretation for V,
V:rG (x) is false because G(d 2 ) is false , and vxH(x) is false because H (d 1 )
is false . Hence ('v'xG(x)) v ('v'xH(x)) is false by the truth table for v.
Hence (3 ) is false by the truth table for --+ .
EXA}IPLE

4.

EYery statement of the form

('v'xVyG(x, y))~ ('v'y'v'xG(x, y))

is true.

(4 )

Proof. Let D be any domain, and let G(x, y) be any 2-place predicate
in D. We show that 'v'xVyG(x , y) and VyVxG(x, y) have the same truth
value. Then (4) is true by the truth table for ~. Suppose Vx'v'yG(x, y )
is true. Then, by the interpretation for V, we have in turn : 'v'yG(d, y )
is true for every din D, G(d, e) is true for every d ande in D, VxG(x , e) is
true for every e in D, and finally, VyVxG(x, y) is true. Now suppose
that 'v'x'v'yG(x, y) is false . Then by the interpretation for V we ha'.ve in
turn: 'v'yG(d 0 , y) is false for sorne d 0 in D, G(d0 , e0 ) is false for sorne d 0
and e0 in D, 'v'xG(x, e0 ) is false , and finally, 'v'y'v'xG(x, y) is false.

EXA.MPLE 5.
There is a cruel dictator
has the same meaning as
There is a human being d such that
d is cruel and d is a dictator

(5)

(6)

30

[Ch. 1

INTltODUCTION

[n the domain of human beings, the symbolic form of (6) is

3x(x

is cruel /\ x is a dictator)

(7)

7]

THE PREDICATE C.ALCULUS AND FIRST ORDER THEORIES

31

These definitions are justified by various remarks, examples, and

exercises in Sections 5 and 6. The choice of fundamental operators
is a matter of taste. Other popular choices are { /\ , ,...,, V'} and

{V,,.....,, 3}.

Hence (7) is the symbolic translation of (5).

We begin with some examples of first. order theories and then

abstract from them the predicate calculus.

EXERCISES

EXAMPLE l. The theory L of linearly ordered sets. A linearly

ordere.d set is a nonempty set D together with a 2-plaoe predica.te < in
D having the following properties.

L. Show that every statement of the following form is true.

(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)
(e)

('v'xG(x)) -+ (3xG(x))
('v'xG(x))~ (,_x......,(i(x))
((\fxG(x)) /\ ('t/xH(x)))~ ('t/x(G(x) /\ H(x)))
(3x(G(x) v H(x)))- ((3xG(x)) V (3xH(x)))

Ll.
L2.
L3.

(3x3yG(x, y))~ (3y3xG(x, y))

~. Show that there is a false statement of the form

((3xG(x)} /\ (3xH(x)))-+ (3x(G(x) /\ H(x)))

~. Translate the following statements of number theory into logical

symbolism.
(a) There is an even number.
(b) There is an even square.
(e) There is an odd number greater than O.

For every x in D it is false that x < x.

For every x, y, z in D, if x < y and y < z, then x < z.
For every x and in D, x < y or x = y or y < x .

Examples of linearly ordered sets are the integers and the rea.Is with
the usual meaning of < .
We formulate L as a formal theory. The formal symbols are the
logical operators

-+
the punctuation marks
the 2-ph ce predi-;;ate f:y::".l bols

The Predica.te Cafoulus and First O:der Theories

The most important system of logic for mathematics is the first order
)redicate calculus, which we call the pre.dicate calculus. The predicate
~alculus supplies ali the language and logic necessary to state and prove
tny theorem of a first order theory. In this section we shall consider
mly the linguistic aspect of the predicate calculus.
The logical operators are the statement connectives and the quantifiers

t and 3.
Some of these operators can be defined in terms of the others. Let
We define /\ , v , and 3 in
;erms of ,....,, -+, and V.

P and Q be formulas, and v a variable.

P v Q is an abbreviation for ,._,p-+ Q.

P /\ Q is an abbreviation for ,._,(p-+ ,_,(J).
P ~ Q is an abbreviation for (P-+ Q) /\ (Q-+ P).
3vP

is an abbreviation for ,_,\fv,....,P.

<

a.nd a.n infinite sequence

x

y z x 1 y 1 z1 x 2 y 2

of variables.
A string is a finite sequence of formal symbols.
Formula is defined as follows: (1) If u a.nd v are variables, then
(u < v) a.nd (u = v) are formulas {atomic formulas). (2) If P and Q
are formulas, then (P-+ Q) is a formula. (3) If P is a formula, then
,_,pis a formula. (4) If Pis a formula and vis a va.ria.ble, then VvP
is a formula. (5) Only strings are formulas, a.nd a string is a formula
only if its being so follows from one of (1) through (4).
Briefiy, a formula is a string constructed from a.tomic formulas by a
finite number (perhaps zero) of applications of the logical operations.
For example, (x < y) is a formula by (1). Then Vx(x < y) is a formula

32

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

by (4). Then --'v'x(x < y) is a formula by (3). Also (y < z) is a

formula by (1). Then ,-...,(y < z) is a formula by (3). Then
(,......,'v'x(x < y)~ ,-...,(x < z))

is a formula by (2). Then Vz(,......,'rfx(x < y)~ ........(x < z)) is a formula
by (4).
Ll through L3 above are the axioms of L. We translate Ll through
L3 into logical symbolism as follows.
LL

L2.
L3.

Vx.-...(x < x)
VxVy'r/z(((x < y) /\ (y < z)) ~ (x < z))
'v'x'v'y(((x < y) v (x = y)) V (y < x})

EXAMPLE 2.

The theory AG of abelian groups.

An abelian group is a nonempty set D together with a binary

operation + on D and a particular element O of D with the following
properties.
For every x, y, z in D , (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).
AG2. For every x in D, x + O = x.
AG3. For every x in D there is a y in D such that x + y
AG4. For every x and y in D , x +y= y+ x .

AGl.

O.

Examples of abelian groups are the integers and the reals with the
usual meanings of + and O.
The formal 1>ymbols c:f AG s.re

,....,

the 2-place predicate symbol

the 2-place operation symbol

+
the constant symbol

o
and an infinite sequence of variables
X

y z

Y1

Z X2 Y2 .

Term is defined as follows. (1) Every variable is a term. (2) O is a

term. (3) If r and s are terms, then (r + s) is a term. (4) Only strings

7J

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS AND FIR.ST ORDER THEORIES

33

are terms, and a string is a term only if its being so follows from one of
(1) through (3).
Sorne terms are
x, O, (x +O), (O+ x ), ((x + z) +O), ((x +y) +(x

z))

If r and s are terms, then (r = s) is an atomic formula. Clauses (2)

through (5) of the definition of formula are exactly t he same as for L .
The axioms AGl through AG4 translate into the following:

z)

AG2. Vx((x + O) = x )
AG3. Vx3y( (x + y) = O)
AG4. 'v'x'r/y((x + y) = ( y

x ))

AGl.

'v'x'v'yVz(((x

y)

(x

(y

z)))

Comparing L and AG, we not e t hat each predicate symbol gives rise
to at omic formulas and that t he operation sy mbol of AG applied to
terms yields new terms. In L , the only terms are t he variables and
need no special mention.
V{ith these examples as a. guide, we formulate t he linguistic part of
the predicate calculus.
The formal symbols are
~

together with (a) an infinite sequence of variables, (b) for each positive
integer n an infinite sequence of n -pla cl? p red ica.te sym ?ofr. (e; for <;a.t;:.
p::.isitive integer n an infir.ite sequence of n-place operation symbols, and
(d) an infi.nite sequence of constant symbols.
Term is defined as follows : (1) Every variable is a term. (2) E very
constant symbol is a term. (3) If F is an n-place operation symbol, and
t 1 , . . . , t.,, are terms (not necessarily distinct), then F(t 1 , , tn) is a
term. (4) Only strings are terms, anda string is a term only if its being
so follows from (1), (2), or (3).
Formula is defined as follows : (1) If Gis an n-place predicate sy mbol,
and t 1 , . , tn are terms (not necessarily distinct), t hen G(t1 , , tn) is
a formula (an atomic formula). (2) If P and Q are formulas , then
(P ~ Q) is a formula. (3) lf P is a formula, then ,.._,p is a formula.
(4) If Pis a formula and vis a variable, then 'ivP is a formula. (5) Only
strings are formulas , anda string is a formula only if its being so follows
from one of (1) through (4).
Every formula of every fi.rst order theory can be expressed in t he
symbolisip. of the predicate calculus. For example, to formulate the

34

INTRODUCTION

[Ch. 1

theory L of linearly ordered sets, we use the first two 2-place predicate
symbols G and H for = and <. Then axioms Ll through L3 are
written as follows:
Ll.
L2.
L3.

Vx(,-B(x, x))
VxVyVz((H(x, y) /\ H(y, z))-+ H(x, z))
VxVy((H(x, y) v G(x, y)) v H (y, x))

In L we have no use for the operation symbols and the constant

symbols and the predicate symbols different from G and H. We simply
discard them.
To formulate the theory AG of abelian groups, we use the first 2-place
predicate symbol G for =, the first 2-place operation symbol F for + ,
and the first constant symbol e for O. Then the axioms are written as
follows:
AGI.
AG2.
AG3.
AG4.

VxVyVzG(F(F(x, y), z), F (x, F(y, z)))

VxG(F(x, e) , x)
Vx3yG(F(x, y), e)
VxVyG(F(x, y), F(y, x))

We discard ali the operation symbols, predicate symbols, and constant

symbols except for F, G, and c. If we agree to write (x = y) for
G(x, y ), (x + y) for F(x, y), and O for e, then we are back to the more
familiar notation. Similarly, in L we can write (x = y) for G(x, y) and
(x < y) for H(x, y).
Every formula of the predicate calculus uses only a finite number of
variables, but there ; no upper bound. on the nmber of va.rd.iles tha;:.
may appear in a formula. Therefore we supply an infinite sequen6e of
variables. Every familiar first order theory uses only a finite number
of operation symbols, predicate symbols, and constant symbols, but
again we supply infinite sequences of these symbols to make sure that
we have enough for any given theory.
We have not displayed the operation symbols, predicate symbols,
and constant symbols. These symbols may be chosen in any way that
makes the notion of formula effective. In Chapter 2 we give one
choice that achieves this purpose.
In presenting the predicate calculus we have used the symbols "P,"
"v," "r," "G," "F," and "c." These symbols are not formal symbols.
They are symbols in the metalanguage. "P" stands for a formula,
"v" for a variable, "r" for a term, "G" for a predicate symbol, "F"
for an operation symbol, and "e" for a constant symbol.

7)

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS AND FIRST ORDER THEOR.IES

35

We close this section with one more example of a .first arder theory.
EXAMPLE 3. Let N be number theory. We use the 2-place predicate
symbols = and < , the 2-place operation symbols + and (multiplication), and an infinite sequence of constant symbols
01234 ...

We do not give the axioma for N here. In Chapter 3 we give a different

formulation, complete with axioms. Until then we use this formulation
of N as a source of examples. Let r and 8 be terms. (r ~ 8 ) is an
abbreviation for (r < 8) V (r = 8). We shall sometimes write 8 > r
in place of,.. < 8, and 8 ~ r in place of r ~ 8. We also write r8 in place
of r8 and omit many parentheses in accordance with the usual
conventions of number theory.
EXERCISES

l. State wh.r each first order theory must have at least one predicate

symbol.

2. An interpretation 1 for a first order theory T is a nonempty set D

together with an n-place predicate in D for each n -place predicate
symbol of T, an n-place operation in D for each n -place operation
symbol of T, and an element of D for each constant symbol of T.
Each statement of T translates in a natural manner into a statement
about D. A model for T is an interoretation for T h 1>;tich ths
<:.;:iom.s of T are. tnie s L<,e;m:ints. Eor example, a model for the
theory of abelian groups is (in the usual mathematical terminology )
an abelian group.

(a) Give an interpretation for the theory L in which Ll and L2 are

true but L3 is false.
(b) Give a model for AG in which D consists of a single element, and
verify that every axiom is true.
(c) Let D be the set of positive real numbers. Interpret + as
(multiplication) and O as l. Is this a model for AG?
(d) Add axioma to L that say (in the symbolism of the predicate
calculus)
L4.

For every x, y in D, if x < y, then there is a z in D such

that x < z and z < y.

L5.
L6.

For every x in D there is a y in D such that y < x.

For every x in D there is a y in D such that x < y .

[Ch. l

INTRODUCTION

(e) Give interpretations in which (i) Ll through L3 are true but L4

is false; (ii) Ll through L4 are true but L5 is false; (iii) Ll
through L5 are true but L6 is false ; (iv) Ll through L6 are true.
Define term andformula for N.
Are the following strings formulas or abbreviations for formulas
of N ? Why?
(a) Vxy(x + y = y + x)
(b) 30Vx(x + O = x)

ANSWERS

With no predicate symbols there can be no at omic formulas and

hence no formulas.
(e) Yes.
No for both. In VvP , v must be a variable.

8]

THE OMISSIO~ OF P .ARID."THES:&S

Dots are used to replace parentheses. An operator with a. dot

outranks all operators with no dots in a given formula. For e.'<a.mple,
P /\. Q-+ R is an abbreviation for P /\ (Q-+ R). A.n operator with 11
dots outranks all operators wit h less than n dots. If two operators
have the same number of dots, then the normal rank holds between
them. We give some examples. The abbreviated formulas appear
on the left.
,.._,Pv . Q~R

,.._,p

P 11:Q-+. R~s
Vv.P-+ Q .~. 'VvP-+ 'VvQ

P 11 (Q-+ (R~ sn
'Vv(P-+ Q) ~ (Vr:P-+ Vt-Q)

V (Q~R)

We do not use dots with ,....,,. Because our description of the use of dots
is vague, we shall use them sparingly and with caution t-0 n.void
ambiguity.
For iterated conjunctions and disjunctions we use the connntion of
association to the left. For example, P 11 Q 11 R 11 S is a11 nhbrtn-iation for (( P 11 Q) 11 R ) 11 S. This convention is not used with -+
and~ .

The Omission of Parentheses

To simplify the appearance of formulas we adopt sorne convenons for the omission of parentheses. Final parentheses are omitted
l
formulas . For example, we writ e P-+ (Q-+ R ) . in place of
P-+ (Q-+ R) ). The parentheses in (Q -+ R) are retained to distinuish P-+ (Q-+ R) from (P-+ Q)-+ R. Similarly, final parentheses
re omitted in terms . F or. e:",-an1ple, 've \~'Tite x + (y + z) ir.. pL1e;: of
e + (y + z)) .
1
vVe rank the operators ~ , -+, /\' V' V, 3, ,.._, in the given order,
ith 11 and v having equal rank and V, 3, and ,.._, haYing equal rank .
'his means that V, 3, and ,....,, have minimum possible scope. For
xample, in ,. . . ,vvP-+ Q, the scope of,....,, is VvP, and the scope of Vv is
> The examples below illustrate this convention. The abbreviated
)rmulas appear on the left. Square brackets [ ] in the right-hand
)rmulas indicate conventions already built into the definition of forrnla. (That is, these brackets should not be there at all; they are
sed only for these examples.)
,....,,p-+Q 11 R

[,....,,p] -+ (Q

P 11 S-+,....,,Q~R

((P 11 S)-+ [,....,,Q])~ R

[ ,..._,[VvP]] -+ 3uQ
((Vv[ ,....,,[3uQ]]) v S) -+ R

--NvP-+ 3uQ
Vv,....,,3uQ v S -+ R

11 R)

37

EXERCISES

l. Use the conventions to eliminate all parentheses.

(a) ('Vv(P v Q)) ~ (('VvP) V (3vQ))

(b) (('VvP) /\ (VvQ))-+ ((3v(P /\ Q))
(e) ((P-+ R ) :, (Q....,. P ))-+ ((P v
(d) P-+ (Q~ (P~Q))

Q/ -+

E)

(e) .......,('Vv(((.......,P) /\ Q)-+ R))

2. Rewrite without using dots, but using the other comentions.

(a) ,.._,p :v: Q /\ ,.._,R .v. R /\ ,-..,.,Q
(b) P :/\: Q .v. R .-+. P~Q
(e) ,.._,vv :P -+. ,-..,.,Q ~ R

ANSWERS

l. (a)
(b)
(e)
(d)

'Vv.P v Q .~. 'VvP V 'VvQ

'VvP /\ VvQ .-+. 3v .P /\ Q
P-+ R./\ . Q-+ R .-+. P v Q-+ R
P-+:Q.~. P~Q

(e) ,.._,vv . .......,P 11 Q-+ R

38

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

10)

2. (a) ,._,p V ((Q /\ --R) V (R /\ ~))

(b) p " (Q V R--+ (P- Q))
(e) ,.._,Vv(P--+ (--<J- R))

39

EXERCISES

l. Let P be Vy(x < y) V 3z(y = z).

(a) What is P(x 1 /x), P(yfx), P(z/x), P(2x/x), P(x + y/x), P(3 + y/x)?
(b) Which of the following terms does P admit for x: x 1 , y, z, 2x,
X+ '!f, 3 + y1
(e) What is P(x/y) 1
(d) Wha.t is P(x/x) 1

Substitution of a Term for a Variable

Let P be a formula, v a variable, and t a term. Then P(t/v) is the

formula that resulta when ea.ch free occurrence of v in P is replaced by
11,n occurrence of t. We say that P(t/v) is the result of substituting t for
~in

REMOVING AND INSERTING QUA'NTIFIERS

2. Does P always admit v for v?

What is P(v/v)1

.ANSWERS

P.

l. (a) Vy(x1 < y) V 3z(y = z), Vy(y < y) V 3z(y

z),
Vy(z < y) v 3z(y = z), Vy(2x < y) v 3z(y = z) ,
Vy(x + y < y) V 3z(y = z), Vy(3 + y < y) V 3z(y == z)
(b) X1 , Z , 2x
(e) Vy(x < y) v 3z(x = z)
(d) p

~LL"!'\il'LE

l. Pis 3y(y > x). Below we list sorne terms, and alongside
:ach term the result of substituting this term for x in P.

z
2z

z + 2
x+z

>
>
>
>
>
3y(y >
3y(y
3y(y
3y{y
3y(y
3y(y

2)
z)
2z)

P(2/x)
P(z /x)
P(2z/x)

z + 2)
X

y)

z)

P(z

10

2/x)

P(x + z/x)
P(y/x)

Removing a.nd Inserting Quantifiers

The rule of specialization is
VvP

'(2/x) says that there is a number greater than 2, and P(z/x) says that
tere is a number greater than z. But P(y/x) sa.ys that faere is a
imber greater than itself. When y is substituted for x in P, y falls

ithin the scope of the quantifier 3y and becomes bound. As a result,

(y/x) does not say the same thing about y that P does about x. This
nd of substitution is of no use in the predica.te calculus and can lead
error. The useful substitutions are singled out by the definition
low.

P(t/v)

t:

provided P admits the term t for v

The idea is that if Pis true for every v, then in particular it iB true for t.
EXAMPLE

l.

Vx(x ~ O)
X;?; 0

Vx(x ~ O)
y~

Vx(x ~ O)

Vx(x ~ O)
l+yz;?;(I

The rule of existential introduction is

Let u and v be variables and P a formula. P admits u for v if and
ly if every free occurrence of v in P becomes a free occurrence of u
P(u/v).

[n Example 1, P does not admit y for x but admits every variable

ter than y for x. We extend the definition to terms. Let t be a
m, va. variable, and P a formula. Then P admits t for v if and only
=> admits u for v for every variable u that occurs in t.
In Example 1,
~dmits t for x if and only if y does not occur in t.

P(t/v)
3vP

provided P admits the term t for v

The idea is that if P is true for t, then there is a v for which P iz true.
EXAMPLE 2.

X> 2
3x(x

> 2)

y > 2
3x(x > 2)

5 > 2
3x(x > 2)

1 ~ y > 2
3x(x > 2

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

10]

The rule of generalization is

Then we infer x < 2 A x > 2. Then existential

introduction gives the false statement 3x(x < 2 A x > 2). The error
lies in using the sarne variable x in both applications of Rule C. After
X < 2 is inferred from 3x(x < 2) by Rule e, X becornes restricted and is
not eligible for another use of Rule C. We may now apply Rule C to
3x(x > 2) to get y > 2, but no false statement results from x < 2 A
y > 2. The idea is that in inferring x < 2 from 3x(x < 2) by Rule C,
we choose sorne integer x that is less than 2. In inferring y > 2 from
3x(x > 2) we choose an integer y that is greater than 2. If we also call
the second integer x, then we are assuming (incorrectly) that there is an
integer x that is both less than 2 and greater than 2.

~he

only interesting applications of this rule occur when v is free in P .

idea is that if Pis true for v, and v is not restricted (i.e., stands for
n arbitrary element of the domain}, then Pis true for every element
f the domain.

~he

:xAMPLE 3. Let f be the function that assigns to each real number x

ie real number x 2 , and let g be the function that assigns to each real
umber x the real number 2x. Then the derivative off exists and is g.

EXAMPLE 6. We begin with the true statement Yy3x(y < x ) ofnumber

tbeory, apply specialization to get 3x( y < x ), and then apply Rule C to
get y < x. Then we generalize to get 'v'y(y < x), and finally we apply
existential introduction to get the false statement 3xVy( y < x }. The
error occurs in the application of generalization. \Vhen Rule C is
applied to 3x(y < x) to give y < x , both x and y become restricted.
Example 4 shows why x should be restricted. That y should become
restricted wben Rule e is applied to pass frorn 3x(y < x) to y < X is
perhaps surprising. This example shows why the restriction is
necessary.

Let x be a fixed but arbitrary real nurnber. Then we have

Proof.

. .t (x
l rml

h-O

h) 2

x2

. .t x2
1l~

. 2xh h+ h2
lim1t

2xh

h-O

h-O

+ h2

x2

. (2x +
= lim1t

h)

h-O

e have shown that the drivative off at x exists and is 2x.

bitrary, the derivative off exists and is 2x for every x.

2x

Since x is

The rule of existential elimination is

3vP
P(u/v)

41

x < 2 and x > 2.

provided v is not restricted

VvP

REMOVING AND INSERTING QUANTIFIERS

From Examples 4 through 6 we see that a variable becomes restricted

OCCUr~ fre~ :r.1. . form-~12.. that is inJe1Ted 1J}~ f~u}t:. ( .

\Vhen. it

where u is a variable that is not restricted

1e idea is that if P is true for sorne v, then we can choose sorne object
for which P is true. We call existential elimination "Rule C"
C" for "choose "). The precise restrictions on generalization and
1le C are given in Chapter 2. Now we give sorne exarnples that show
w careless use of these rules can lead to error.
:AMPLE 4. We begin with the true staternent 3x(x < 2) of number
iory, apply Rule e to get X < 2, and then generalize to get the false
.tement 'v'x(x < 2). When p is inferred from 3xP by Rule e, X
iomes restricted and is not eligible for generalization.

ExAMPLE 7. We begin with the true statement 3x'v'y( y + x = y ) of

number theory, strip away the quantifiers by Rule C and specialization
to get y + x = y , and then reinsert the quantifiers in reverse order by
existential introduction and generalization to get Vy3x(y + x = y ).
The result is a true statement and no error occurs. In applying Rule C
to 3x'Vy(y + x = y) to get Vy(y + x = y), only x becomes restricted
because y is not free in Yy(y + x = y ). Therefore in the final step we
can safely generalize on y. Note that there are no restrictions on
specialization and existential introduction (except that P admits t far
v, which is always satisfied when t is v) .
EXERCISES

AMPLE 5. We begin with the two true statements 3x(x < 2) and
> 2) of number theory. Rule e applied to each statement gives

l. For each statement in list I state which statements in list II may be

inferred from it by one or more applications of the four rules for

t2

[Ch. 1

INTR.ODUCTION

11)

removing and inserting quantifiers, and give the step-by-step

derivation.

DENIALS

43

The rules apply not only to statements but to formulas and also to
formulas that are parts of other formulas.

I. 2 < 5, 3y'r/x(yx = x) , Vx(x ;:i: O), Vx3y(x < y).

II. 3y'r/x(x < y), 3y(2 < y), 3 ;:., O, 3x(x < 5),
Vx3y(yx = x), 3y(y ;:i: O), 3x3y(x < y).

We show how to pass from (2) to (3) using the rules above.
(d) applied to (2) gives
3x,....,Vy3z(x + y = z)
(4)

EXAMPLE l.

Example.

Then (d) applied to (4) gives

Vx(x ;:i: O)

;:i:

3y(y ;:i: O)

3x3y-az(x

specia.liza.ti on
existential introduction

z)

(5 )

Finally, (e) applied to (5) gives (3).

EXAMPLE 2.

Give a working proof from a mathematics book in which all four of

the rules for removing and inserting qua.ntifiers a.re used.

The negation of
Vx(P V Q)

(6)

,.._,Vx(P V Q)

(7 )

is

Denials

which, by (d), is equivalent to

A denial of a statement P is a statement which has the sa.me mea.ning

; ,.....,p, ,.....,p is the simplest denial of P but not always the most
>eful.

3x,.....,(P v Q)

For example, the nega.tion of

Vx'r/y3z(x

+y=

,.....,Vx'tly3z(x

+y

z)

= z)

guiva.lent to (2) is
3x3yVz,....,(x

+y =

z)

(3)

!lich is a. more useful denial. In (3), the qua.ntifiers come a.t the
ginning, and hence the rules for removing quantifiers can be a.pplied.
general, it is desirable to transfer the negation sign in front of a
i.tement as far as possible into the sta.tement. W e list below some
les which provide a mea.ns of finding useful denials o statements.
e say that two statements are equivalent if they ha.ve the same
ianing.
(a) ,_,(p V Q)
(b) ,_,(p " Q)

(e) -axP
'. d) ,.....,VxP
'.e) ,_,(P-+ Q)

is equivalent to
is equivalent to
is equivalent to
is equivalent to
is equivalent to
!

1
\,

,_,p " _,(J

,_,p V _,(J

Then, by (a ), (8) is equivalent to

(1)

{2i

L
1'~

3x(,.....,p 11 -Q)
E:x:A .r?LE 3.

p" ~

(9)

The negation of
3x(P-+ Q)

(10)

-ax(P-+Q)

(11)

is

which, by (e), is equivalent to

\;fx,.....,(P-+Q )

(12)

Then, by (e), (12) is equivalent to

EXAMPLE 4.

Vx,.....,P

3x,......, P

(8 )

Vx(P 11 -.Q)

(13)

Vx3y(y ~ x)

(14)

A denial of

is
3x\;fy,.....,(y

x)

(15)

44

11)

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

DENIALS

Since ,..._,p V ,...,-,(J is equivalent to ,...,p

P -+ Q, we finally get

Logic can take us no further, but number theory enables us to replace

,....,(y ~ x} by y > x to get

Q which is equivalent to

Vx(x is a dictator-+ x is cruel)

(16)

3x'v'y(y > x)

45

(26}

as the translation of (22).

EXAMPLE 5.

In most applications, the most useful denial of

P

If Pis false, then the conditional P-+ Q is true. We say that it is

vac'UCU8ly true. In Chapter 2 we show that we can get by with modus
ponens as the only rule of inference. If P-+ Q is vacuously true, then
Q may be true or false, but there is no danger of inferring a false Q from
modus ponens on P -+ Q and P beca.use P is false.

(17)

Pn-+Q

AA

is
P1

A A

Pn

(18)

-,(J

which results by (e) when (17} is considered to be of the forro P-+ Q.

EXAMPLE 6.

EXAMPLE 8. Let A be a set. W e shall prove that

Example 7, 0 s:; A translates into Vx(x E 0-+ x E A).
element of the domain. d E 0 -+ d e A is vacuously
Vx(x E 0 -+ x E A) is true by the interpretation for V.
0 s:; A is vacuously true.

The formula
3o(o >

o"

Q)

(19)

occurs as a part ofmany formulas in mathematical analysis.

and (b), a denial of (19} is

vs(,....,s

>

ov

-,(J}

The mathematician is interested only in positive o's.

is equivalent to P-+ -,(J, (20) is equivalent to

vs(s
us.~ful

which is the most

Using (c}

> o-+ -,(J)

,....,Q
EXERCISES

(21}

ExAMPLE 7. In the domain of human beings we set out to translate

into logical symbolism the statement
Every dictator is cruel

,....,(x is cruel})

,....,,..._,(x is cruel))

-,(J-+ ,....,R

(23)

(g) Ve3nVm.m > n-+

aj < e
(h) 3y(y e M)-+ 3x(x e M A Vz(z E M-+ x ~ z))
(i) VM .O E M A 'v'x(x E M-+ x + 1 E M)-+ Vx(x e M)

lam -

f(c)I

< e))

2. In the domain of human beings, translate into symbolic form.

(24)

3ecause a denial of a denial of P is equivalent to P, we now find a

lenial of (24). (e} and (b} give

'v'x(,....,(x is a dictator}

(22}

By Example 5 in Section 6, (23} translates into

A

(c) P

(d) ,._,Vx'v'y3z(xz ..,; y)

(e) Ve3o'v'x.lx - el < O-+ jf(x} - f(e)j < e
(f) Ve.e > 0-+ 3o(o > O A Vx( lx - el < o-+ lf(x) -

!\. denial of (22) is

There is a dictator who is not cruel

l. Find a useful denial of each of the following formulas.

-~~

(a) 3y'r/x(zy = x)
(b) VxVy(x < y V x ;;: y)

denial !n practice.

3x(x is a dictator

It is customary in mathematics to say that the converse of Vx(P-+ Q)

is Vx(Q-+ P). Thus the converse of "Every integer is a real number"
is "Every real number is an integer."

(20}
Since ,..._,p

0 s:; A. By
Let d be any
true. Hence
We say that

(25}

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)

Everybody is greedy
Nobody is greedy
Every college dean is greedy
Ko college dean is greedy
Kot all freshman girls are beautiful
Ali freshman girls are not beautiful

46

[Ch. 1

INTRODUCTION

ANSWERS

l. (a) Yy3x(xy # x)
(b) 3x3y(,......(x < y) /\ ,.._,(x ;;::: y))
(e)

P "

,._,e

(d) VxVy3z(xz = y)
(e) 3eV3x.
< /\ lf(x) - /(c) I ;;::: e
(f) 3e.e > O /\ V( > 0-+ 3x(lx - el < /\

x - el

jf(x) - f(c) j ; : :

e))

THE PREDICATE
CALCULUS

lam - al ; : :

(g) 3eVn3m .m > n /\

e
(h) 3y(y E M) /\ Vx(x E M-+ 3z(z E M /\ x > z))
(i) 3M.OEM /\ Vx(xEM-+x + 1 eM) /\ 3x(,.._,zEM)
2. (a) Vx(x is greedy)

(b)
(e)
(d)
(e)

is greedy)
a college dean-+ x is greedy)
Vx(x is a college dean-+ ,.._,(x is greedy))
,.._,Vx(x is a freshman girl-+ x is beautiful) or
3x(x is a freshman girl and '"-'(X is beautiful))
(f) 'v'x(x is a freshman girl-+ '"-'(X is beautiful) )
Vx,.._,(x
Yx(x is

In this chapter we shall formulate and develop the first order

predicate calculus as a formal axiomatic theory. We shall make a
fresh start, pushing Chapter 1 to the background.
'~

12

Formula.iion

The formal sym bols are

,....,_.,.V(,)a.f3yx

A atring is a finite sequence of formal symbols.

A variable is a string consisting of a.n occurrence of x followed by zero
or more occurrences of . In other words, the va.ria.bles a.re x, x, x,
11, ... , and we ca.ll this order of the variables the alphabetic order.
An n-place predicate aymbol (na. positive integer) is a. string consisting
of a.n occurrence of a: followed by n occurrences of # followed by zero or
more occurrences of . Thus the 2-place predica.te symbols a.re a:##,

xi

cx##I, cx##ll, a:##I!!,

An n-place operation aymbol (na positive integer) is a string consisting
of a.n occurrence of f3 followed by n occurrences of # followed by zero or
47

:_4*<,a.

48

THE PREDICATE C.ALCULUS

more occurrences of

[Ch. 2

12]

FOR!'tlULATION

P v Q is an abbreviation for
P /\ Q is an abbreviation for
P +-+ Q is an abbreviation for
3vP
is an abbreviation for

Thus the 2-place operation symbols are

f3##, ,8##1, {3##1 1, ,8##111 ....

A constant symbol is a string consisting of an occurrence of y followed
by zero or more occurrences of I The constant symbols are y, y j,

49

,...._,p-+ Q
,..._,(p-+ .--..Q)
(P-+ Q) /\ (Q-+ P)
,..._,yv ,..._,p

y, . ...

Term is defined as follows: (1 ) Every variable is a term. (2) Every

constant symbol is a term. (3) If F is an n-place operation symbol,
a.nd t 1 , . , .tn are terms (not necessarily distinct), then F(t 1 , . . . , tn) is a
t,erm. (4) Only strings are terms, anda string is a term only ifits being
;o follows from (1) , (2 ), or (3).
t
Formula is defined as follows: ( 1) If G is an n-place predicate symbol,
md t 1 , , tn are terrns (not necessarily distinct), then G(t 1 , . , tn) is
~ formula (an atomic formula). (2) If P and Q are formulas , then
P-+ Q) is a formula. (3) If P is a formula , then ,...._,p is a formula.
4) If Pis a formula and vis a variable, then Vv P is a formula. (5 ) Only
,t rings are formulas , and a string is a formula only if its being so
ollows from (1) , (2) , (3) , or (4).
A subformula of the formula Pis a consecutive part of P that is itself
. formula.
An occurrence of a variable v in a formula Pis bound if and only if
; occurs in a subformula of P of the form VvQ. An occurrence of v in P
; free if and only if it is not a bound occurrence. The variable v is free
r bound in P according as it has a free or bound occurrence in P.
A statement or clc.~'"'d .fc.:mi' 1a is & form::la with ric- frfe Y:...ria.ole>:. If
>is a formula and v 1 , , vn are the distinct variables that are free fo
> in the order (from left to right) in which they first occur free in P ,
!len Vv 1 VvnP is the closure of P .
If P is a formula , v is a variable, and t is a term , then P(t/v) is the
~sult of replacing each free occurrence of v in P by an occurrence of t.
If v and u are variables and Pis a formula, then P admits u far v if
nd only if there is no free occurrence of v in P that becomes a bound
Dcurrence of u in P(u/v). If t is a term, then P admits t far v if and
nly if P admits for v every variable in t.
We use" P," "Q, " "R," "S," "U," and "V" to stand for formulas ,
u," "v," and "w" to stand for variables, "G" and "H" to stand
1r predicate symbols, "F" to stand for an operation symbol, "r,"
s," and "t" to stand for terms, and "e" to stand for a constant
rmbol.
The conventions of Section 8 for the omission of parentheses are
orried over.

The only reason for defining the variables, predicate symbols,

operation symbols, and constant symbols as we have done above is to
show that they can ali be defined using only a finite number of formal
symbols.
Th~ notions of string, variable, predicate symbol, operation symbol,
constant sy mbol, term, formula, and statement are ali effective.
This completes the description ofthe linguistic aspect ofthe predicate
calculus. We turn now to the notion of deduction.
it

Let P , Q, and S be any formulas , v any variable, and t any term .

Then each of the follo\Ving formulas is an axiom.

, Al. P-+. Q-+ P

~7
~
(
A 2 . . _,,. / p-+ Q. :-+ ( S-+ I-: .--+.. S-+ Q j
~
7 )
~
..
~
--A3. - ~-+,..._,p.-+. p_,,.Q
A4. Vv(P-+ Q) .-+. VvP-+ VvQ
A5. VvP-+ P(t/v)
provided P admits t for v
( A6. P-+ 'efr P
-provided v is not free in P

-s

Further, if Pisan axiom, and vis free in P, then VvP is also an axiom
(axiom generalization, or Ax Gen).
There is exactly one rule of inference : from P -+ Q and P to infer Q
(modus ponens).
Al through A6 are called axiom schemes. Each axiom scheme
provides infinitely many axioms, which we call instances of the axiom
scheme. For each axiom provided by an axiom scheme, Ax Gen
provides a finite number of additional axioms. Although the number
of axioms is infinite, the notion of axiom is effective because each axiom
has one of six recognizable forros.
If Q is inferred by modus ponens on P-+ Q and P, we call P-+ Q the
majar premies and P the minar premiss.
Let fl. be a finite set of formulas. We define "deduction from fl.,"
which reduces to "proof" when fl. is the empty set.
A deduction from fl. is a finite sequence S 1 , . . . , Sn of formulas such
that for each S1 (1 ~ i ~ n) , at least one of the following holds.

.:_;

;;~ll
t

':!
'

L,,
t ~

t :
t

t
J
!

50

[Ch. 2

THE PR.EDICATE CALCULUS

l.

2.
3.

8 1 is an axiom
(axiom)
8 1 is in A
(assumption)
There exist positive integers j and k, each less than i, such that
Sk is S1 -+ 8 1
(modus ponens)

rhe following statements have the same meaning.

There is a deduction 8 1 , , Bn from !::,, such that Bn is Q
There is a deduction of Q from A
A yields Q
/:,. .,_ Q
A proof is a deduction from the empty set.
iave the same meaning.

The following statements

13]

THE STATEMENT CALCULUS

51

Let P be an axiom with exactly three free variables. How many

additional axioms derived from P can one get by using Ax Gen ?
3. Write out the formula A(x, y, z) /\ 3xB(x) in ful!, using no abbreviations or conventions.
4. Let Sv ... , Sn be a deduction from /:,.. Prove that for every
m (1 ~ m ~ n ), S 1 , . , Sm is also a deduction from A.
5. Is 1-- a formal symbol? Why?

ANSWERS

2. 15.
3. ,...,,(a###(x,

5. No.

x, x i!) -+ ,....,,...,,'fz,...,,a#l(x)).

There are exactly 12 formal symbols, and r- is not one of them.

0 r- Q (A r- Q with A empty)

t-Q
Q is a theorem
Q is provable

13 The Statement Calculus

The formulas in are called assumptions. If A is the empty set,

hen each step in a deduction from !::. is justified as an axiom or by
nodus ponens, and hence the deduction is a proof according to the
lefinition of proof given in Section 3 (replacing "statement" by
'formula"). If A is not empty, and one or more steps in a deduction
rom A are justified only as assumptions (clause 2), then this deduction
; not a proof. The last step is not proved outright, it is mc;rely
~educed from A. Deductions are useful because they afford a means bf
'.iscovering proofs (as we shall show).
In order to be a.ble to write some formulas of the predicate calculus
dthout cluttering up the page with weird symbols, we make the
ollowing conventions. We write the variables (in alphabetic order) as
X

X1

Y1

Z1

X2

'Ve write A, B, and O for the first three n-place predicate symbols (for
very n). Hence A(x, y, z), B(x, z), A(x), and O(x, y, z, x 1 ) are
)rmulas.

EXERCISES

For each of the six axiom schemes, give one axiom provided by the
scheme. (You may use A, B, C, x, y, z.)

The statement calculus is that part of the predica.te calculus that

remains when axiom schemes A4 through A6 and Ax Gen are discarded.
To put it another way, we use axiom schemes Al through A3, modus
ponens, and the same definition of deduction. We develop the
statement calculus first, and then use it to develop the ful! predica.te
calculus.
THEOREM

Proof.

l.

1--A (x) -+ A(x)

A formal proof of A(x) -+ A(x) is exhibited below.

A(x) -+:A(x)-+A (x) .-+A(x) .:-+:. A(x)-+. A(x)-+ A(x) :-+: A(x)-+A(x)
A(x) -+: A(x)-+ A(x) .-+. A(x)
A(x) -+. A(x)-+ A(x) :-+: A(x)-+ A(x)
A(x) -+. A(x)-+ A(x)
A(x)-+ A(x)

Theorem 1 is the statement, "A(x)-+ A(x) is a theorem." Beca.use

this statement is in the metalanguage, Theorem 1 is a metatheorem.
Its proof is an argument in the metalanguage designed to convince the
reader that there is a formal proof of A (x)-+ A(x). No argument is
more convincing than the exhibition of such a formal proof.
If A = {P1 , . . . , Pk}, we write "P 1 , ., Pk 1--Q" for "A r-Q."

1\
-

.~

:.'

j
1~

J-. ~
.;._;

52

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

THEOREM 2.
Prooj.

,._,A(x)

1-

[Ch. 2

13]

A (x)-+ B (y)

l.
2.

A formal deduction of A (x)-+ B (y ) from ,.._,A (x) is exhibited

......,A(x)

3.

"-'A(x) .-+. ,.._,B( y ) -+ ,.._,A (x)

......,B(y)-+ ,.._,A(x)
,.._,B(y)-+ -A(x) .-+. A(x) -+ B (y)
A(x)-+ B (y)

4.

5.

No analysis (justification for the steps) is given in the proofs of

Theorems 1 and 2 because the definition of deduction makes no provision
for an analysis. None is necessary; each step can be effectively checked
to determine if it is an axiom or an assumption or if it is inferred from
two earlier steps by modus ponens. The formal proof of A(x) -+ A (x)
can be analyzed as follows. Step 1 is an axiom-the instance of A2
in which S is A(x), P is A (x)--+ A (x ), and Q is A (x). Step 2 is an
axiom-the instance of Al in which P is A (x) and Q is A (x) -+ A (x) .
Step 3 is inferred by modus ponens on steps 1 and 2. Step 4 is an
axiom-the instance of Al in which Pis A (x ) and Q is A(x). Step 5 is
inferred by modus ponens on steps 3 and 4.
Because this book is intended for human readers rather than
deduction-checking robots, we shall henceforth supply an analysis with
each formal deduction. The amount of detail in an a!lalysis is a ma.tter
of taste. For the formal proof of A(x)-+ (x), we ke the follow~ng
analysis.

2.
3.
4.
5.

A(x) -+: A(x)-+ A (x) .-+. A(x) .:-+:. A (x) -+. A(x)-+
A(x) :-+: A(x) -+ A(x)
A(x) :-+: A (x)-+ A(x) .-+. A(x)
A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ A(x) :--+: A(x)--+ A(x)
A(x) .--+. A(x)-+ A(x)
A(x)-+ A(x)

A2
Al
MP, 1, 2
Al
MP,3,4

" A2" after step 1 indicates that step 1 is an instance of axiom scheme
A2. "MP, 1, 2" after step 3 indicates that step 3 is inferred by modus
ponens on steps 1 and 2, with step l the major premiss and step 2 the
minor premiss. (We always give the number of the major premiss
first.)
THEOREM 3.

1-,.._,A(x) -+. A(x)-+ B(y)

53

Prooj.

below.

l.

THE STATEMENT CALCULUS

6.
7.

,.._,B(y)-+ .-.....A (x) .-+. A(x) -+ B (y)

,.._,B(y) -+ ,.._,A (x) .-+. A (x ) -+ B (y) .:-+:. ,.._,A (x) :-+:
,.._,B(y ) -+ ...._,A (x) .-+. A (x ) -+ B ( y)
...._,A(x) :---r: ,.._,B( y)-+ ......,A (x ) .-+. A (x) -+ B ( y )
,.._,A (x ) :-+: ,.._,B( y)-+ ......,A (x) .-+. A(x)-+ B (y) .:-+:.
"-' (x ) .-+. ,...._,B( y)-+ ,.._,A (x ) :-+: "-'A (x) .-+.
A(x) -+ B (y )
......,A(x) .-+. ,.._,B( y ) -+ "-' (x) :---r: ......,A (x) .-+.
A(x)-+ B (y)
,...._,A (x) .-+. ,.._,B(y)-+ ,.._,A (x)
......,A (x ) .-+. A(x) -+ B ( y )

THEOREM 4.

A (x) -+ B (y), B (y) -+ C(z), A(x)

1-

A3
Al
MP, 2, 1

A2

MP, 4, 3
Al
MP, 5 , 6

O(z)

Proof.

l.
2.
3.
4.

5.
~ f::

A (x) -+ B (y)
B (y) -+ C(z)

as
as
as
MP, 1, 3
MP, 2, 4

A (x)
B (y)
O(z)

;: {

"as" is .~tn abbreviation for " ;~ ssun: rtio~ "

The formal proof of A (x)-+ A(x) is easily modfied to give a formal
proof of B(y)-+ B (y) or A(x)-+ ,._,Q(z) .-+. A (x) -+ ,._,Q(z). We need
only replace A (x) t hroughout by B ( y ) or A (x) -+ ,._,Q(z). Indeed, a
formal proof of P-+ P for any formula P can be obtained by replacing
A (x) throughout by P .
THEOREM 5.

1-P-+ P .

l.

2.
3.
4.
5.

-,

"

,~.

i~--~
,.. ,
-

Then the sequence

p -+: p-+ p .-+. p .:--+:. p -+. p-+ p :-+: p-+ p

p -+: p -+ p .-+. p
p -+. p -+ p :-+: p -+ p
P-+. P-+ P
P-+ P

i . . .

l.E:J

(For every formula P , 1-P-+ P. )

Proof. Let P be a fixed but arbitrary formula.

of five steps below is a formal proof of P -+ P.

f
f. t
J
ir

A2
Al
MP, 1, 2
Al
MP, 3, 4

.,

';

J'
f~ .
l

'

54

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

[Ch. 2

P-+ Pis nota formula because "P" is nota formal symbol. We

call P-+ P a formula scheme. Any particular formula of the form
P--+ P, such as A(x)--+ ,..,_,Q(z) .--+. A(x)--+ ,..,_,Q(z), we callan instance of
P--+ P. Theorem 5 states that every instance of P--+ Pis a theorem.
Therefore we call P --+ P a theorem scheme. The proof of Theorem 5
gives a uniform and effective procedure for constructing a formal proof
of any instance of P --+ P.
From now on we shall prove theorem schemes instead of individual

formal theorems.
THEOREM:

14]

2. Is the following formal proof correct?

,.._,Q-+ ,.._,p.--+. P-+Q

,._,Q--+ ,..._,p .--+. p--+ Q .:-..+: . ,._,p :-..+: ,..,_,Q--+ ,._,p .--+.

A3

14

3.
4.

P-+Q
,._,p :--+: ,.._,Q-+ ,..,_,p.--+. P-+ Q
,._,p :-..+: ,..._,Q--+ ,..,_,p .--+. p--+ Q .:-..+:. ,._,p.--+. ,..,_,Q--+

Al
MP, 2, 1

is

,._,p :-..+: ,.._,p .--+. p--+ Q

,._,p .--+. ,.._,Q--+ ,..,_,p :-..+: ,._,p .--+. p--+ Q

A2
MP, 4, 3
Al
MP, 5, 6

,_.p .--+. ,.._,Q--+ ,..,_,p

,._,p.--+. p--+ Q

1-A(x)--+ A(x)
i-P-+ p

2.
3.
4.

A2, Sis A(x), Pis B(y), Q is A(x)

A(x) --+. B(y)--+ A(x)
Al, Pis A(x), Q is B(y)
A(x)--+ B(y) .--+. A(x)--+ A(x)
MP, 1, 2
A(x) --+. B(y)--+ A(x) :-..+: A(x)--+ A(x)

5.

A(x)--+ A(x)

Substitute B(y)--+ A(x) for B(y) in 3

MP, 4, 2

A formula. Also a theorem.

A formula scheme. Also a theorem scheme.
The assertion "A(x)-+ A(x) is a theorem."
The assertion " P --+ P is a theorem scheme."

EXERCISES

1. Give a formal proof of

A(x)--+ B(y) .--+. A(x) :--+: A(x)--+ B(y) .-+.B(y)

,.._,A(x)--+ ,.._,B(y), B(y), A(x)--+ C(z) f- C(z)

,.._,A(x) --+. B(y)--+ ,._,Q(z), ,..,_,A(x)-+ B(y) , C(z)

1-

A(x)

The Deduction Theorem

We write " .6., P 1-Q" for "~u {P} 1-Q."
If ~ ' P 1- Q, thenL1

We give below sorne examples to clarify the distinction between a

theorem, a theorem scheme, the assertion that something is a theorem,
and the assertion that something is a theorem scheme.

P-+P

A(x) --+. B(y)--+ A(x) :-..+: A(x)--+ B(y) .--+. A(x)--+ A(x)

4. Prove ,..,_,p 1- P--+ Q

l.
2.

A(x)-+ A(x)

Why?

l.

(a)
(b)

Proof. Let P and Q be fixed but arbitrary formulas. Then the

sequence of seven steps below is a formal proof of ,.._,p --+. P--+ Q.

5.
6.
7.

55

3. Give a formal deduction for each of the following .

f-,.._,p --+. p --+ Q

6.

THE DEDUCTION THEOREM:

1-

The deduction theorem

P--+ Q

Before proving the theorem, we give sorne examples.

Theorem 13.2 is ,.._,A(x) 1-A(x)--+ B(y). Let L1 be the
empty set, P be ,.._,A(x), and Q be A(x)--+ B(y) . Then the deduction
theorem applied to Theorem 13.2 gives 1-,.._,A(x) .--+. A(x)--+ B(y).
ExAMPLE

l.

EXAMPLE 2. Theorem 13.4 is A(x)--+ B(y) , B(y)--+ C(z), A(x) 1- C(z).

Let .6. = {A(x)--+ B(y) , B(y)--+ C(z)}, P be A(x), and Q be C(z). Then
the deduction theorem applied to Theorem 13.4 gives

A(x)--+ B(y), B(y)--+ C(z) 1-A(x)--+ C(z)

(1)

Now let 6. = {A(x)--+ B(y)} , P be B(y)--+ C(z) , and Q be A(x)--+ C(z).

The deduction theorem applied to (1) gives
A(x)--+ B(y)

1-

B(y)--+ C(z) .--+. A(x)--+ C(z)

(2)

Now let 6. be the empty set, P be A(x)--+ B(y), and Q be B(y)--+

C(z) .--+. A(x)--+ C(z). The deduction theorem applied to (2) gives
f-A(x)--+ B(y) :-..+: B(y)--+ C(z) .--+. A(x)--+ C(z).

56

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

When is the empty set, the deduction theorem becomes

If P

1-

Q, then 1-P-+ Q

(3)

14)

THE DEDUCTION THEOREM

Case 2. 8 1 is in ti. The following sequence of three steps is a

deduction of P-+ 8 1 from ti.
81

The usual way of proving a conditional P-+ Q in mathematics is to

assume P and deduce Q. Now a deduction ofQ from Pis not the same
thing as a proof of P-+ Q. In a deduction of Q from P , P is an
assumption and the last step is Q, while in a proof of P-+ Q there are
no assumptions and the last step is P-+ Q. But (3) says that every
dedqction of Q from P can be converted into a proof of P-+ Q. From
the standpoint of the logician, (3) justifies a common mathematical
practice. From the standpoint of the mathematician, (3) indicates
that the predicate calculus is in accordance with mathematical custom.
In passing from , P 1- Q to 1- P-+ Q by the deduction theorem ,
we say that the assumption P has been discharged. \Vhen an assumption is discharged by the deduction theorem it does not disappear; it is
transferred across 1- to become the antecedent of a conditional.
THEOREJ\1

3 (The deduction theorem).

If , P

1-

Q, then

1-

Case J. S 1 is an axiom. The following sequence of three steps is a

deduction of P-+ S 1 from .

S1
S1 .-+. p-+ S1

P-+S1

8 1 .-+. P-+S1
P-+81

ax1om
Al
MP

[/1

2.
3.

81
SI .-+. p-+ S1
P-+81

S2
f/'2 5. 82 .-+. p -+ S2
6. P-+S2

MP

axiom
Al
MP, 2, l

sm

(a)

"',~
;.

"

rf,,
b

assumption
Al

MP, 5,4

.,.'!{(_,i

Suppose that one of cases 1, 2, or 3 applies to each of S 1, S 2, ... , Sm.

We proceed as above to get 5/1 , 5/2 , . . , !/m, which is a deduction of
P-+ 8m from D. in which P-+ 8 1 , . , P-+ Sm are steps. Suppose that
+ 1 is inferred from s, and
by modus ponens.
Case 4. Sk is Si-+ Sm + 1 , and Sm + 1 is inferred by modus ponens on
Sk and Si. In the deduction 5/1 , , !/m from D. appear the following
key steps:

sk

P-+ (S-+ Sm+1)

and
(b)

The sequence above is actually a proof of P-+ S 1 , since no step is

justified as an assumption. By the definition of deduction, it is also a
deduction from . In a deduction from , only formulas in !::,. can be
justified as assumptions, but there is no compulsion to use all, or even
any, of the formulas in .

assumption
Al

Case 3. 8 1 is P. Then P-+ 8 1 is P-+ P , and we supply the

five-step proof of P -+ P.
So we have a sequence of three or five steps that is a deduction of
P-+81 from ti. Let us call this sequence f/'1 . Now we consider 8 2
Like 8 1 , 8 2 is an axiom or is in ti or is P. For ea.ch case we imitate the
corresponding ca.se for S1 , replacing S 1 throughout by 8 2 to get a
sequence of three or five steps that is a deduction of 8 2 from . Call
this sequence 5/2 Now we write f/'2 after 5/1 The result isasequence
which is a deduction of P-+ 8 2 from in which P-+ S 1 and P -+ 8 2
are steps. For example, suppose 8 1 is an axiom and 8 2 is in ti. Then
f/'1 , 5/2 is

P-+ Q.

Proof. Let S 1 , , Sn be a deduction of Q from U {P }. First we

supply an analysis if none is provided. The idea behind the proof is to
convert each step S 1 into P-+ S 1, using only formulas in as assumptions. Then P-+ S" is P ____,. Q. The steps of the fo:;-!11 P-+ S; are
called the key steps. In general, the sequence P -+ S 1 , . . . , P 4" Sn is
not a deduction from , so we show how to insert steps before each key
step to make the whole a deduction from . We begin with S 1 . S 1 is
an axiom or is in or is P.

57

1;

1
~

'

"i=:1
i

P-+Si

Then !/m + 1 is
(i) J!-+ (Si-+sm+1l]-+[(P-+Si> -+ (P-+sm+IV
(ii) P-+ Si.-+. P-+ Sm+i
(iii) P-+Sm+ i

A2

MP, (i), (a)

MP, (ii), (b)

f
~

l!.47?

..rZ.:'..~?~..-.i~2~

;r-::'' . -l~~~iu~'.,.~::~

~-

...._,1

"1~~~'~
-.':Y:~
..

58

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

We continue in this manner through S 1 , .. , Sn, getting a. deduction

S''i, ... , .9n of P -+ Q from D.. For each S1, one of cases 1 through 4
applies. If one of cases !,' 2, or 3 applies, .9 depends only on S and
can be written without reference to any other step. If S is inferred
by modus ponens on S1c and S 1, then P-+ S j and P-+ S1c occur in
.91 , . . , .91 _v and case 4 can be applied.
The proof above exhibits an effective step-by-step procedure for
converting a deduction of Q from D. u {P } into a deduction of P-+ Q
from D.. Below we show how to cast this step-by-step procedure into a
proof by induction.
We prove by induction on n the following statement. For every
positive integer n,

14]

THE DEDUCTION THEOREM

deduction theorem is applied to give ,_,A(x) .-+. A(x) -+ B(y). The

sequence 1 through 6 is a set of instructions for constructing a formal
proof. We call ita proof outline. Step 6 says, "Follow the proof of
the deduction theorem to convert steps 1 through 5 into a proof of
,.._.A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y)."
From now on we shall give proof outlines instead of formal proofs .
We indent steps to indicate which steps depend on which assumptions.
In the proof outline above, steps 1 through 5 all lie in the same column
as ,.._.A (x) to indicate that they are deduced from the assumption
,.._,A(x). At step 6, where ,.._,A(x) is discharged, the formula moves to
the left to indicate that it does not depend on ,._,A(x).
THEOREM

If S 1 , . ., Sr. is a deduction of S" from 6. u {P}, then there is

a deduction of P-+ Sn from b. in which P-+ S 1 , . . . , P-+ S.,,.
are steps

(4)

Basis. If 11 = 1, then S 1 is an axiom or is in 6. or is P . Then one of

cases l through 3 above applies.
1 nduction step. Assume that (4) is true for n , and consider a
deduction S 1 , ,Sn, Sn+l with n + l steps of Sn+l from b.u {P }.
S 1 , . , Sn is a deduction of S.,,. from t:.. u {P}. Therefore, by the
induction hypothesis, there is a deduction P} of P -+S.,,. from 6. in which
P-+ 8 1 , .. , P-+ S.,,. occur as steps. Sn+i is an axiom or is in D. or is P
or is inferred by modus ponens on Sk and Sj. One of cases l through 4
applies. If Sn+i is infe::red by modus poaens on S1c ar.ci 2 1, tl.en j ~ .
and k ,.;; n, and hence p-+ sj and p-+ sic occur in!?) and are avail~ble
for use with case 4.
EXAMPLE

4.

f-,.._.A (x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y)

Proof.

l.

2.
3.

4.
5.
6.

,.._.A(x)
,.._.A(x) .-+. --B(y)-+ --A(x)
--B(y)-+ --A(x)
--B(y)-+ --A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y)
A(x)-+ B(y)
,.._.A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y)

as
Al
MP, 2, 1
A3
MP,4, 3
DT, 1-5

The proof in Example 4 is not a formal proof. Steps 1 through 5

constitute a deduction of A (x)-+ B(y ) from ,.._,A(x). In step 6 the

59

5.

l' ~

f-t

j. .'".

J~:_:..b
~- !

1~~:;

t:~:~~

':-"'
.~
t-'-i""'

';rj
-"'-O-'

~;~
;,: ~
w..!J:

Ji

.;::~
':-'~

;_:~
t,. >.('~

f' ~
! ~

f-,_,.._.p-+ p

Proof.
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

q:-_;i~:,j

'

? >,

,.._,,.._,p
,.._.,.._.p .-+. ,.._.p-+ ,.._,,.._.,.._,p
,.._.p-+ ,.._.,.._,,.._,p
,.._,p-+ ,.._.,...._,,.._,p .-+. ,.._.,.._.p-+ p
,.._.,.._,p -+ p

p
,.._.,.._.p-+p

as
Tl3.6
M:P, 2, 1
A3
MP,4, 3
MP,5, 1
DT, 1-6

~'

'

i1 . '

{ o;

lr: thf provf 0ut.li11c ~,bo v- e : ~ rl:i .&': a.:ft er sLe.p ~ m e~-ns "J... . : t l .s :oi.L...
insert the formal proof of ,.._,,.._.p .-+. ,._,p-+ ,._,,.._.,.._.p which can be
extracted from the proof of Theorem 6 of Section 13." The proof
outline above completely specifies a formal proof of ,.._.,.._.p-+ P. We
do not give the formal proof, but we do compute the total number of
steps in the formal proof. Steps 1 and 3 through 6 above each call for
one step in a formal deduction. Step 2 calls for 7 steps. Hence steps
1 through 6 call for 12 steps which constitute a deduction of P from
,._,,._,p, Step 7 calls for the deduction theorem to be applied to this
12-step deduction. Th~\ first step is replaced by 5 steps, and every
other step is replaced by 3, steps. Hence the total number of steps in
the formal proof of ,_,.._.p.:,. P is 3(12) + 2 = 38.
By avoiding the deduction theorem and using a little ingenuity, one
can find a shorter formal proof of ,.._.,.._.p-+ P. However, the technique
of starting from assumptions and using the deduction theorem is a great
help in discovering proofs.

f,1>:;
.

..

;:\,
'~

~!

i'
t

1
i
1

60

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

TuEOREl\1 6.

1-P-+ ,.._,,.._,p

THE DEDUCTION THEOREM

l.

THEOREM 7.

,.._,,.....,,.._,p-+ ,.._,p
,.._,,.....,,.....,p-+ ,.._,p .-+. p-+ ,.._,,.._,p
P-+ ,.._,,.._,p

'~,!

Proof.

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

61

T5
A3
MP, 2, 1

1-P-+ Q .-+. ~-+ ,.._,p

Proof.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

S-+P
,.._,p
s -+ P .-+. ,.._,p -+ ,.._,s
,.._,p-+,....,s
,.._,s
,.._,s .-+. ,.._,p-+ ,.._,{,.._,S-+ P)
,...,p-+ ,..._,(,.._,S-+ P)

as
as
T7
MP, 3, 1
MP,4, 2
TS
MP, 6, 5
MP, 7,2
DT, 1-8
A3
MP, 10, 9
DT, 1-11

,.._,(,....,8-+ P)

,.._,p-+ ,.._,{,.....,S-+ P)
,.._,p -+ ,.....,{ ,.....,s-+ P) :-+:
,.....,s -+ P .-+. P
s - P :-+: ,......,s - P .-+. P

2.

,.._,,.._,p

as
as

3.

,.._,,.._,p-+p

T5

4.
5.
6.
7.

p
Q

MP,3, 2
MP, 1, 4
T6
MP, 6, 5

\Ve conclude this section with sorne theorems that state sorne
natural properties o deduction. D. and r are finite sets o formulas.

DT, 1-7

TE:EOREM 10.

l.

8.
9.
10.
11.

P-+Q

Q-+ ,....,,.._,(J
,.._,,.._,Q
,.._,,.._,p-+ ,.....,,.._,(J
,.._,.....,p-+ ,....,,.._,(J .-+. ,.._,Q-+ ,.._,p
,.._,Q-+ ,.._,p
P-+ Q .-+. --Q-+ ,.._,p

A3
MP, 9, 8
DT, 1-10

In the proof outline above, the assumption ,.....,,.._,p is discharged at

;tep 8, and the assi.:mption P _,. Q is discharged e.t step :~. .P_t. ei-c~
iischarge the column of formulas shifts to the left. Thus step is
ieduced from both assumptions P-+ Q and ,.._,,.._,p, step 9 is deduced
from P -+ Q only, and step 11 is deduced from no assumptions.
rHEOREM 8.

1-Q -+. ,.._,R-+ ,.._,(Q-+ R)

l.

7.

Q-+R
R
(Q-+ R)-+ R
(Q-+ R) -+ R .-+. ,.._,R-+ ,.._,(Q-+ R)
,.._,R-+ ,.._,(Q-+ R)
Q -+. ,.._,R-+ ,.._,(Q-+ R)

as
as
MP, 2, 1
DT, 1-3
T7

MP, 5, 4
DT, 1-6

If D. . . . . Q, then D. u

,.....,s -

P .-+. P

; :

l
l

[ _.., _

l :;i
1

COROLLARY 11.

If t-Q, then I' 1-Q for every I'.

If ti

t-

P and I'

t-

p-+ Q, then D. U I'

t-

Q.

Proof. Let 8 1 , . . , Sn-i P be a deduction of P from A, and let

U1 , . ., Um-i P-+Q be a deduction o P-+Q from r. Then
S 1 , . ., S,,_ 1 , P, U 1 , . , Um-l P-+Q, Q is a deduction o Q from
D. u r in which Q is justified by modus ponens on P-+ Q and P , and
every other step is justified exactly as before.

P and D.

CoROLLARY 13.

If A

CoROLLARY 14.

If 1-P and

CoROLLARY 15.

If A

1-

1-

P-+ Q, then A

1-

1-

Q.

P and 1-P-+ Q, then D.

1-

Q.

1-

p-+ Q, then

Q.

.i'

rHEOREM 9.

1-S-+ P :-+: ,.._,s-+ P .-+. P

1-

;:_

r . . . . Q Jor every r.

Proof. Let 8 1 , , Sn be a deduction of Q from ti. Then 8 1 , . . . , Sn

is also a deduction o Q from D. u r with the same analysis. If S 1 is an
axiom, it is still an axiom. If S 1 is inferred from Sk and S1 by modus
ponens, it is still inferred fro m Bk and S, by modus ponens. I f FL is an
i:.ssumption, then it is in t. and hence in D. u r' and hence is still an
assumption.

THEOREM 12.

Proof.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

10.
11.
12.

--

~
~

-~

.... .
~.!.1
~.

62

(Ch. 2

THE l'REDICATE CALCULUS

The proof of Theorem 12 involves nothing more than the definition

of deduction a.nd an application of modus ponens. Therefore we shall
indicate an application of Theorem 12 (or any of its corollaries) by
"modus ponens."
TID:oREM 16.

If P 1 ,

. .,

Pn

1-

Q and D.

1-

P 1 (i = 1, 2, ... , n), then

/:l. 1-Q.

In a deduction of Q from {P1 , . . , Pn}, replace each step

which is a P 1 by a deduction of P 1 from D.. The result is a deduction of
Q from D..

15]

COMPLETENESS THEOREM FOR THE STATEMENT CALCULUS

I,

~1

63

5. Give a formal proof of ,..._,,..._,A (x)-+ A(x) with fewer than 38 steps.
6. How many steps are there in the formal proof of A(x)-+ B(y) .-+.
,..._,B(y)-+ ,..._,A(x) if the proof outlines of Theorem 7 and previous

theorems are followed faithfully1

7. Give a formal proof of A{x)-+ B(y) .-+ . .-,,B(y)-+ -..A{x) with
fewer than 70 steps.
8. Prove the converse of the deduction theorem: If D. 1- P-+ Q, then
!:l., p 1-Q.

. ~.:~.
l~

'"
~

~I

~
(:l!

Proof.

CoROLLARY 17.

If P 1 ,

.. ,

Pn

1-

Q and 1-P1 (i = 1, 2, ... , n), then 1-Q.

The deduction theorem and Corollary 17 are the two ways of

immediately converting a deduction into a proof.
EXERCISES

In Exercises 2, 4, 5, and 7, write A for A(x) and B for B(y).

l. Prove
(a) P -+. Q-+ R :-+: Q -+. P-+ R
{b) P-+Q :-+: P-+ (Q-+ R) .-+. P-+ R
(e) P-+ (P-+Q) .-+. P-+Q

(d) P V ,...,p
(e) ,...,p V P
(f) P V Q -+ Q V P
(g} p A Q-+ p
(h} P A Q-+Q
(i) P A Q-+ Q A P
(j) p -+. Q-+ p A Q
(k) (P-+ Q)-+ Q .-+. (Q-+ P}-+ P

2. Follow faithfully the instructions in the proof of the deduction

theorem to convert the proof outline of Example 4 into a formal
proof of ,_,A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y).
3. In the proof of Theorem 5, step 5 is ,...,,_,p-+ P. Why can't we
stop at step 5 ~
4. Give the 38-step proof of ,_,,..,_,A (x} -+ A (x} called for by the proof
outline of Theorem 5.

~:

15

The Completeness Theorem for the Statement Calculus

In this section we shall prove that the statement calculus is a

decidable theory; i.e., there is an effective procedure for deciding
whether or not a formula is a theorem of the statement calculus. Recall
that every formula is an atomic formula, or of the forro P-+ Q, or of
the form ,_,p, or of the forro VvP.
A formula is prime if and only if it is an atomic formula or of the forro
VvP. For example, A(x) and Vx(A(x}-+ ,..._,B(x)) are prime formulas.
A formula P that is not prime is formed from prime formulas, called
the prime constituents of P , by a finite number (greater than zero) of
applications of ,..._, and -+. For example, the prime constituents of
(A(x)-+ ,...,yy,....,B(y))-+ ,...,Vx(O(x)-+ A(x)) are A(x}, 'rfy,....,B(y), and
'efxfC(x ) -+ A (x)) /
When a truth value T or F is assigned to each prime constituent of a
formula P (with each occurrence of the same prime constituent in P
assigned the same truth value), a unique truth value is assigned to P by
the truth tables for ,....,,, and -+ given in Section 5.

_.,

F
f

t'
t

,,'

1
.,., 1
/;,

-~

J'
!

EXAMI'LE l.

The truth table for A(x)

,....,,,B(y) is

A(x)

B(y}

,..._,B(y)

A(x)-+ ,....,,,B(y)

T
T

F
F

F
F

T
T

T
F

T
T
T

There are 2 prime constituents, and hence 4 distinct assignments of

truth values to the prime constituents. Each assignment results in a

;~

t
l

1
1

t
11
'

.
THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

[Ch. 2

.r uth value for A(x)-+ ,_,B(y ).

~ven in the following forro.

The truth table above may also be

)4

A (x )

-+

,.....,

B (y)

T
T

F
T
T

F
F
T

T
T
F

:xAMPLE

15]
LEMMA

-+

A (x)

Every axiom. of the statement calculus is a tautology.

3.

4. lf P-+ Q and P are tautologi es, then Q is also a tautology .

(Modus ponens applied to two tautologies gives a tautology. )

Proof.

A (x)

.-+.

A (x )

-+

B (y )

T
F

T
T
'F
T

T
F

T
T
F
T

T
T

fT'

-F

r,

The notion of tautology is effective; i.e., there is an effective procedure

mstruct the truth table) for deciding whether or not a formula is a
'J tology. We shall show that a formula is a theorem of the statement
lculus if and only if it is a tautology.
A formula scheme is tautologous if and only if it takes the value T for
ery assignment of truth values to theletters "P ," "Q," . .. thatappear
it. For example, P -+. Q -+ P is tautologous, as the truth table
ow shows.
p -+. Q -+ p

T
F
T
F

T
T
T
T

T
T
F
F

T
F
T
T

T
F
T
F

l.
2.

3.
4.

n
~

i ;,

'l' 1.~~

The truth table for-+ is given below.

A formula is a tautology if and only if it takes the value T for every

:signment of truth values to its prime constituents. For example,
(x ) -+ A (x ) is a tautology. Another tautology is ""A {x) .-+. A (x ) -+
(y), as the truth table below shows.

m
.J.

LEMMA

here is only one prime constituent, arid hence 2 distinct assignments.

(x)-+ A(x) takes the value T for both assignments.

F
T
F
T

65

Proof. W e prove that every instan ce of P -+. Q -+ P is a tautology.

The proofs for A2 and A3 are similar. Let S be any instance of
P -+. Q-+ P . Then there exist subformulas P* and Q* of S such
that S is P* -+. Q*-+ P*. Every assignment of truth values to the
prime constituents of S results in truth values being assigned to P* and
Q*. The truth table a.hove shows that P* -+. Q* -+ P* takes the
value T for every assignment of truth values to P* and Q*. Hence S
is a tautology.

2.
A (x )

COMPLETENESS THEOREM FOR THE STATEMENT CALCULUS

~_~

-+

.T
F
T
F

T
T

T
T
F
F

.:1~ 1

~;l

:,

Suppose P-+ Q and P take the value T for every assignment to the
prime constituents of P and Q. Then line 3 cannot occur because
P-+ Q is never F, and lines 2 and 4 cannot occur because Pis never F .
Hence 0nly liae l can occur; i.e., Q alwa,ys tak es the v,lue T .
THEOREM

5.

Every theorem of the statement calculus is a tautology.

Prooj. We prove that every step of every proof is a tautology.

Then every theorem is a tautology since every theorem is the last step
of some proof. Let S 1 , . . . , Sn be a proof. We prove by induction on
n that every step in S 1 , . . . , Sn is a tautology. If n = 1, then S 1 is an
axiom. By Lemma 3, every axiom is a tautology. Now suppose that
for every proof with n steps, every step is a tautology, and considera
proof S 1 , . . . , Sn, Sn+ 1 with n + 1 steps. S 1 , . . . , S,, is itself a proof.
Hence by the induction hypothesis, the steps S 1 , . . , Sn are all
tautologies.
+ l is an axiom or is inferred by modus ponens.
If
+ l is an axiom , then
+ l is a tautology. If
+ l is inferred from
and S; by modus ponens, then S k and S ; are tautologies, sin ce j : :,; n and
k :::;; n. Then, by Lemma 4, S,,+ 1 is also a tautology.

sn

sn

s,,

sn

sk

,.

L:.
J~

l '"

t
~

..
~

"';

66

[Ch. 2

TRE PREDICA.TE CALCULUS

15]

The idea behind the proof of Theorem 5 is that every axiom is a

tautology, and modus ponens applied to two tautologies gives a
tautology. Then every theorem is a tautology since every theorem is
the result of starting with sorne axioms and applying modus ponens a
finite number of times. The induction proof makes this argument
precise. We shall encounter other metatheorems whose proof requires
induction. Usually we shall give the induction proof, but sometimes
we shall merely give the underlying idea.
Now we prove: Every tautology is a theorem of the statement calculus.
The proof is complicated and requires sorne preliminaries. First we
need the following lemma:

A
F
,.._,A, B 1- ,.._,A

.. .,

U~

1-

P'

,.._,A, B

EXA111PLE 6.
P is A(x)-+ ,..._,B(y). The table below shows the four
assignments to the prime constituents A(x) and B(y) , the corresponding
truth value for A(x)-+ ,.._,B(y), and the assertion (1) for each assignment. We write A for A(x) and B for B(y) .

,..._,B

A-.+,..._,B

T
F
T
F

T
T
F
F

F
F
T
T

F
T
T
T

A -+ ,.._,E

A-+,.._,B
T
,...,A, B 1-A-+ ,..._,B

A -+ ,.._,B.

Let P be a formula, and let every prime formula in P be in

U" of disti.,ct pri:nf. fonrr,,;,Z'.i,.{;. Pvr a given ;;~::n'.gnrntn:
- of truth values to U 1 , , Uk, let u; (I ~ i ~ k) ancl P' be defined as
is U1 ij U 1 is assigned T, ancl
is
follows:
1 if U 1 is assigned F;
P' is P if P takes the value T, ancl P' is ,...._,p if P takes the value F. Then
. ,

u;

u; .._.u

Vi , ... , u~ . . . P'
Proof.

1-

1-

the list U 1 ,

A, B 1- "-'(A-+ --B)
,.._,A, B 1-A-+ ,..._,B
A , ,..._,B 1- A -+ ,.._,B
,.._,A, ,.._,B 1-A-+ ,..._,B

To illustrate the lemma, we go through the second assignment in

detail. In the second assignment, A is assigned F, B is assigned T,
and A-+ ,.._,B takes the value T. Hence A' is ,.._,A, B' is B, and
(A-+ ,..._,B)' is A-+ "-'B. Then (l) is

,.._,A, B

1-

,.._,E
F
,.._,A, B 1- ,...,,,.._,E

The sequence "-' , B 1- ---A; ,.._,A, B 1- B; ,.._,A, B 1- ,.._,,..._,B;

,.._,A, B 1-A-+ ,.._,B; parallels the construction of the truth table for
A-+ ,.._,B. "-', B 1- B and -..A , B 1- ,.._,,.._,B are not needed to prove
,.._,A, B 1- A -+ -..B; because A --+ ,.._,B takes the truth value T when
A is assigned F regardless of what truth value is assigned to B.

(1)

We give an example befare proving this lemma.

B
T
,.._,A, B

Thus, for the subformula ,.._,B, the given assignment of F to A and T to

B gives ,.._,B the value F. Hence A' is ,.._,A, B' is B, and (,..._,B)' is
,.._,,.._,B. We prove ,..,.,,A, B 1- ,.._,A: ,.._,A , B 1- B; ,.._,A, B 1- ,....,,,..._,B; and
,.._,A, B 1-A-+ ,.._,B in turn. "-' , B 1- .._,A since the single step .._,A
is a deduction of ,.._,A from "-', B. Similarly, ,.._,A, B 1- B. Then
modus ponens applied to "-', B 1- B and 1-B-+ ,.._,,.._,B (Theorem
14.6) gives -..A, B 1- ,.._,_,B. Then modus ponens applied to
"-' , B 1- ,..._,A and
1--..A .-+.A-+ ,.._,B (Theorem 13.6) gives

u; ,.._,u;

U~,

(2)

We prove (2) to illustrate the proof of the lemma. The idea is to prove
(1) for every subformula of P that occurs in the construction of the

67

truth table for P. For the assignment we are using, the table below
lists the subformulas of P, their truth values, and the corresponding
statement (1).

Let P be a formula , and let every prime con.stituent of P be in the list

U 1 , . , Uk oj distinct prime formulas. For a given assignment of truth
values to U1 , . . , Uk, let u; (1 ~ i ~ k) and P' be dejined asjollows:
is Ut if U; is assigned T , and
is
ij U; is assigned F ; P ' is P ij
P takes the value T, and P' is ,.._,p if P takes the value F. Then

u;

COMPLETENESS THEOREM FOR THE STATEMENT CALCULUS

Let Ll = {U~, .. ., U~}.

Ll

r,:

(1)

Then (1) becomes

1-

P'

(3)

We proceed by induction on the number n of symbols in P, counting as

a symbol each occurrence of ,..._, or --+ that is not an occurrence inside
sorne U1

Basis.

If n

O, then P is sorne U 1, and hence P' is

is in Ll, and (3) is immediate.

u;.

Then P'

lncluction step. Suppose that (3) holds for every formula with n or
fewer symbols, and consider P with n + l symbols.

THE PREDICATE C.ALCULUS

[Ch. 2

Case l. Pis --Q for some Q.

1ypothesis gives

Since Q has n symbols, the induction

>8

t:u-Q'

(4)

Subcase 1.1. Q takes the value T. Then P takes the value F, Q' is
I, P' is ,..._,p (which is ,....,.,,..._,(J), and (4) is t:.. 1- Q. Then modus ponens
.p plied to 1-Q and t-Q-+ ,....,.,,_.c (Theorem 14.6) gives /:),, 1- ,.....,,_.c,
rhich is (3).
Subcase 1.2. Q takes the value F. Then P takes the value T , Q' is
-Q, P' is P (which is --Q), and (4) is A 1- --Q, which is (3).

Case 2. P is Q -+ R for some Q and R . Since each of Q and R has

, or fewer symbols, the induction hypothesis gives
A t-Q'

(5)

t:..

(6)

nd
1-

R'

Subcase 2.1. R takes the value T. Then P takes the value T , R '
; R, P' is P (which is Q-+ R), and (6) is A 1- R. Then modus ponens
pplied to A 1- R and 1-R -+. Q-+ R (Axiom scheme Al) gives
, 1- Q-+ R , which is (3).
Subcase 2.2. Q takes the value F . Then P takes the value T , Q' is
-Q, and P' is P (which is Q-+ R) , and (5) is 1- --Q. Then modus
onens applied to A 1- --Q and 1---Q .-+. Q-+ R (Theorem 13.6) gives
1- Q-+ R , which is (3) .
Subcase 2.3. Q takes the value T and R takes the value F. Thn
takes the value F , Q' is Q, R' is ,.....,R, P' is ,....,.,p (which is ,..._,(Q-+ R)) ,
nd (5) and (6) are A 1- Q and 1- ,...,R. Modus ponens applied
o A 1- Q and 1-Q .-+. ,..._,R-+ ,..._,(Q-+ R) (Theorem 14.8) gives
, 1- ,.._,R-+ ,..._,(Q-+ R).
Then modus ponens applied to !:l. 1- ,....,R and
1- ""R -+ ,_,(Q -+ R) gives A 1- ,..._,(Q -+ R), which is (3).

15]

COMPLETENESS THEOREM FOR THE STATEll!ENT CALCULUS

.A 1- ,..._,B-+ P and .A 1- ,.._,B-+ P .-+. P gives .A 1- P. Similarly,

starting with ,...,,.A, B 1- P and ,.._,.A, ,.._,B 1- P, we get ,.._,.A 1- P. Hence
the assumption B' (which is B in sorne cases and ,..._,B in the other cases)
is eliminated. We go on to eliminate .A' in the same way: The
deduction theorem applied to A 1- P and ,.._,.A 1- P gives 1-.A -+ P and
1-,..._,.A -+ P. Modus ponens applied to 1-.A -+ P and 1-.A -+ P :-r:
--A -+P.-+. P (Theorem 14.9) gives 1-,...,_,.A-+ P.-+. P. Then
modus ponens applied to 1-,.._,.A -+ P and 1-,..._,A -+ P .-+. P gives 1-P.
THEOREM 9 (The completeness theoremfor the statement calculus).
tautology is a theorem of the statement cakulus.

Every

Proof. Let P be a tautology . Let U 1 , . , U k be the distinct prime

constituents of P. Let u; and P ' be defined as in Lemma 7. Beca.use
Pis a tautology, P' is P for every assignment. Hence by Lemma 7,
U~ , . . ., U~ 1- P for every assignment to U 1 , . . ., Uk. In particular,
U~, . . . , U~_ 1 , Uk 1- P and U~ , . . ., U~_ 1 , ,.._,uk 1- P for every assignment to U 1 , ., Uk-i Let !:l.= U~ , .. ., u; (l ~ i :;;; k) . The
deduction theorem applied to !:l.k-1 > uk 1- p and .6.k-1 > ,.._,uk 1- p gives
Ak- 1 1- Uk-+ P and t:..k-i 1- ,..._,Uk--+ P . Modus ponens applied to
t:..k-i 1- Uk-+ P and 1-Uk-+ P :-r: ,...,_,Uk-+ P.-+. P (Theorem 14. 9)
gives Ak-l 1- ,...,_,Uk-+ P ,___,.,P. Then modus ponens applied to
t:..k-i 1- ,....,uk-+ P and .6.k-i 1- ,..._,uk ___,. P ,___,., P gives Ak-i 1- P.
Thus the assumption u;, is elimine.t ed. Similarly, U~ _ 1 , ., U{ are
eliminaved in turn, giving 6.k_ 2 1- P, . . . , !:l. 1 1- P , and finally, 1-P.

:>

~XAMPLE

P is .A .-+. ,...,,A-+ B. (Again we write .A for .A(x) and

~ for B(y).) Pis a tautology; hence P' is always P. Then Lemma 7
:ives .A , B 1- P; ,...,.A, B 1- P; .A, ,..._,B 1- P; and ,...,.A , ,_E 1- P. We
how that P is a theorem. The deduction theorem applied to A, B 1- P
.nd A, ,_,E 1- P gives A 1- B-+ P and A 1- ,..._,B-+ P . Modus ponens
.p plied to A 1- B-+ P and 1-B-+ P :--+: ,..._,B-+ P .-+. P (Theorem
4. 9) gives A 1- ,_,E-+ P .-+. P. Then modus ponens applied to
8.

69

THEOREM 10. A formula is a theorem of the statement cakulus if and

only if it is a tautology.

Proof.

Theorems 5 and 9.

There are many ways of checking tautologies other than the method
of truth tables. We give one below. The reader is encouraged to
improvise. Let P be a formula. We suppose that Pis nota tautology
and proceed to fill in truth values for the subformulas of P until a
contradiction (i.e., a confct) results, or until each prime formula is
assigned a truth value. If a contradiction results, then the initial
assumption that Pis nota tautology is false . Hence in this case Pis a

70

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

[Ch. 2

16)

autology. If each prime formula is assigned a truth value with no

ontradiction, then Pis nota tautology, and we have a specific assignnent for which it takes the value F. This method applies equally well
o schemes.
11. Suppose P .-+. Q -+ P is not tautologous. Then by the
mth table for -+, P takes the value T and Q -r P takes the value F.
ince Q-+ P takes the value F , Q takes the value T , and P takes the
alue F. Hence P takes both T and F as values. This contradiction
aows that p .-+. Q - p is tautologous.

Applications of the Completeness Theorem for the Statement

Calculus

CXAMPLE

We now return to the foil predicate calculus. Every proof in the

statement calculus is a proof in the predicate calculus, because the
predicate ca1culus includes all the formulas , axioms, and rules of
inference of the statement calculus. Therefore every theorem of the
statement calculus is a theorem of the predica te calculus. By Theorem
lO in Sect ion 15, this means that every tautology is a theorem of the
predicate calculus.

12. Suppose that Q -r P .-r. ,.._,pis not tautologous. Then

-r P takes the value T, and ,..._,p takes the value F. Then P
tkes the value T. We can assign either T or F to Q. Therefore
-r P .-r. ,..._,pis not tautologous, and further, it takes the value F
hen Pis assigned T , and Q is assigned either T or F .

:xAMPLE

We give below a list of tautologous schemes.

l. P V Q<;->Q V P
2. p /\ Q ........ Q /\ p

3.
4.
5.
6.

EXERCISES

For each formula scheme, construct the truth table and state if the
scheme is tautologous. (A scheme with three distinct letters has 8
lines in its truth table.)

P-+ Q . 1\. Q-+ R .-+. P-;. R

P./\. P-+ Q .-+. Q
p -r Q .-+. Q-+ p

Q /\

P /\ Q- ,..._,(,...._,p V .......,Q)
P v Q- (P-+Q)-rQ
(P /\ Q) /\ R - P /\ (Q /\ R)

P- .......,,.._,p

P-rQ./\. ,.._,p-+R.-+.Q v R
(j) P /\ ~-+ R /\ ,.._,R.-+. P-r Q
(k) ~-+......,P.-. P-rQ
(i)

Let P be .......,B(y)-+ ,.._,A(x) .-+. A(x)-+ B(y). Let T be assigned

to A(x) and F be assigned to B(y). Imitate Example 6 to show that
A(x), ,.._,B(y) 1- Q' for every subformula Q of P, starting with the
prime formulas and progressing to P. Do not use Lemma 7, but

71

make use of the proof of Lemma 7 to handle the various cases that
arise. Write A for A(x) and B for B(y).

16

(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)

APPLICATIONS OF THE COlllPLETENESS THEOREM

.' f

P-Q .-.Q-P
P -+. Q -+ R .-. Q -+. P -+ B
(P v Q) V B.-. P V (Q V R )
(P /\ Q) /\ B.-. P /\ (Q " R )

7. p /\ (Q V R) - (P /\ Q) V {P " R)
8. P v (Q A R) .-. {P v Q) A (P V B)
9. P A P-P
l f'. F v p._-+ P
11. P - ,..._,.......,p
12. P V ,..._,p
13. P -r Q :-r: Q-+ R.-+. P-+ R
14. P-+ Q .A. Q-+ B.-+. P-+ R
15. P-rQ.-. "'Q-r ,..._,p
16. P-r,.....,Q.-. Q-,.._,p
17. P A Q-r R :-r: P-r. Q-+ R
18. P -+. Q -r R :-+: P A Q-+ R
19. P A Q-r B .- . P-+. Q-+ R
20. P V (P A Q) - P
21. P A {P v Q) - P
22. P-r. P-rQ.-. P-+Q
23. P-+ Q .A. P-+ R.-. P-+ Q A R
24. ,.._,(p V Q)- ,.._,p A ~
25. ,.._,(p A Q)- ,..._,p V ,.._,Q

J
]

commutati ve laws

associative la ws

distributive laws

1 i.<len1

pote1~.:; L.-:. i.'; .":,

J
J

double negation
excluded middle
transitivity of
implication
contraposition

law of exportation
law of importation
export-import law

J
J

absorption laws

De M:organ 's laws

72

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.

34.
35.
36.
37.
38.

p V Q./\.P-+R./\.Q-+R.-+.R
,.._,p-+ R /\ ,.._,R.-+. P
,.._,p-+ p .-+. p
p-+ ,...,_,p .-+. ,.._,p
P /\ ,.._,Q-+ R 11 ,.._,R .-+. P-+ Q
P /\ ,....,,,,Q-+ ,.._,p.-+. P-+Q
p /\ ,.._,Q -+ Q .-+. p -+ Q
P-+Q .-. ,.._,p V Q
p-+ Q - ,...,_,(p /\ ,.._,Q)
P v Q .-. (P-+ Q) ->- Q
P V Q .-. ,._,p-+ Q
P V Q .-. ,._,(,.._,p /\ ,.._,Q)
P /\ Q .-. ,...,_,(,_,p V ,.._,Q)

proof by cases

proof by
contradiction

relations between
connectives

ExAMPLE

These schemes should be studied and interpreted until they become

self-evident. For example, "P /\ Q -+ R" may be read, " If P and
Q, then R." "P-+.Q-+ R" may be read, "If P, then ifQ then R."
Ifwe read them this way, it becomes apparent that they have the same
meaning. Then the export--import law (19) becomes easy to remember
and use.
Suppose P 1 -+ (P 2 -+ -+ (P 11 -+ Q) )is a tautology, and suppose
that in sorne formal proof P 1 , P 2 , . , P 11 occur as steps. Then we can
get Q as a step in the following way. The completeness theorem for
the statement calculus gives an effective procedure for constructing a
proof of P 1 -+ (P2 -+ (P11 -+ Q) ). Then modus ponens in turn
with P 1 , P 2 , , P 11 gives a sequence of steps that ends with Q.
l.
5.
6.
7.
8.

yz #-O
z = o 11 yo =
yO = O
z

*o

APPLICATIONS OF THE COMPLETENESS THEOREM

73

formal proof of (1). Then write step 6-+ (step 7-+ step 8), which is
justified by modus ponens on (1) and step 5. Then write step 7-+ step
8, which is justified by modus ponens on step 6--+ (step 7-+ step 8) and
step 6. Then write step 8, which is justified by modus ponens on
step 7 -+ step 8 and step 7. All the reader has to check is that (1)
is a tautology. This is straightforward. A more sat isfying procedure
is to informally derive step 8 from steps 5 through 7 in the following way. By the commutativity of conjunction, step 6 is equivalent to yO = O /\ z = O-+ yz = O. This in turn is equivalent to
yO = O.-+. z = O-+ yz = O by the law of exportation. Then modus
ponens with step 7 gives z = O-+ yz = O. Then contraposition
gives yz =f O-+ z =f O. Then modus ponens with step 5 gives z =f O.

39. p /\ Q - ,...,_,(p-+ ,-._,Q)

40. p - Q - p-+ Q . /\. Q -+ p

EXAMPLE

16]

o -+ yz = o
se, 5-7

2.

2.

y = y /\

4.
5.

X=

= y .-+. y = y - y

y= y
Y-+Y

se, 2, 4

=X

"se, 2, 4" after step 5 means that

step 2-+ (step 4-+ step 5)

(2)

is a tautology. Then, as in Example 1, there is an effective procedure

for filling in the formal steps between steps 4 and 5. The reader can
either accept that (2) is a tautology, or he can make out a truth table,
or he can informally derive step 5 from steps 2 and 4, or he can verify
that (2) is a tautology by the method of contradiction as follows:
Suppose (2) is false. Then steps 2 and 4 are true and step 5 is false.
Since step 5 is a conditional, we have that x = y is t rue and y = x
is false. Since x = y and y = y (step 4) are true, the antecedent
y = y /\ x = y of step 2 is true. Since step 2 is true, the consequent
y = y - y = x of step 2 is true. But y = y is true and y = x is false.
Hence y = y - y = x is false. This contradiction shows that (2) is a
tautology.

"se" stands for "statement calculus." "se, 5-7" after step 8 means
that

EXERCISES

step 5-+ (step 6-+ (step 7-+ step 8))

(1)

is a tautology. The instructions at step 8 are as follows: Construct the

l. For each of the following, state if t he step justified by the statement

calculus is correctly justified.

.
~

i4

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

(a)

(b)
(e)

(d)

[Ch. 2

Ii]

6. 'f/v,..._,Q--+ Vv,..._,p
7.

,_,Q --+

8.
3.
4.
l.
2.

,..._,yv,.....,P-rQ

8.
9.

1O.
(e) 17.

23.
24.
(f) 4.
5.
(g) 9.
10.
(h) 2.
3.

Vv~

SC, 6,i

QUANTIFIERS

75

Theorem 1 allows us to use specialization in proof outlines.

indicate an application of Theorem 1 by "spec."

We

Q
P-rQ
'f/v,..._,P-+ ,..._,p(t/v)
P(t/v)--+ ,.._.yv,..._,p
Vv(P +-t Q) .-+. VvP--+ VvQ
Vv(P +-t Q) .--+. vvQ--+ VvP
Vv(P +-t Q) .--+. VvP -r-t VvQ
,..._,VvP--+ 3v(P--+ Q)

S0,3

SO,

P /\

Abelian groups.
l.
2.
3.

se. s, 9

VxVy(x + y = y + x)
Vy(O + y = y + O)

axiom
spec, l
spec, 2

o+ o= o+ o

In this example, A is the empty set. Step l is a deduction of

+ y = y + x). Theorem l applied to step l gives step 2.
Here t' is x and P is Vy(x + y = y + x) and t is O. (If e is a constant
symbol, P ahvays admits e for v.) Then Theorem l applied to step 2
gives step 3. Here vis y and Pis (O + y = y + O) and t is O.
Vx'Vy(x

3vQ-+ 3v(P--+ Q)
VvP-+ 3vQ .--+. 3v(P--+ Q)
3y(x '

EXAMPLE 2.

SO,

17,23

y')

O v 3y(x
~ --+

y') --+ x'

3y(x' =y')

SO, 4

THEOREM

3.

f-P(t /v)-+ 3vP provided P admits t for v.

P-r Q V R
,_,p--+ Q V .....,R
Q
4. R-rP

SC, 9

Proof.

Suppose P admits t for v.

vv,..._,p-+ ,..._,p(t/v)
P(t/v) -+ ,..._,yv,..._,p
P(t/v)-+ 3vP

l.
2.
3.

se, 2, 3

A5

se,

same as 2

2. ProYe the generalized deduction theorem:

A, P 1 ,

.,

Pn

f-

Q if and only if A f-P 1

/\ /\

Pn--+ Q

ANSWERS

Since 3vP is an abbreviation for ,..._,yv,....,P, step 3 is exactly the same

as step 2 and is given only for clarification.

T.r;e next theorem allows us to use existentiai introduction in proof

outlines.

l. All but (h) are correctly justified.

THEOREM

17

Quantifiers

l.

Ij A

lf A

f-

P(t/v), then A

f-

3vP, provided that P admits t Jor v.

Proof. Imitate the proof of Theorem 1, using Theorem 3 instead of

Axiom Scheme A5.

In this section we shall study the rules for removing and inserting
quantifiers. The ideas are the same as in Section 1O, but the details
are considerably different. We begin with the rule of specialization.
THEOREM

4.

f-

VvP, then A

f-

P(t/v), provided that P admits

We indica te an application of Theorem 4 by "3."

EXAMPLE

t for v.
Proof. Suppose that A f- VvP and P admits t for v. Then modus
ponens applied to A f- VvP and f- VvP--+ P(t/v) (Axiom Scheme A5)
gives A f- P(t/v).

5.

Abelian groups

O = x)

l.
2.

o+ o= o

3.

3x(O

Vx(x

+x

= O)

Theorem 4 is applied to step 2 to give step 3.

= O, and t is O.

P is O + x

axiom
spec, l
3, 2
A is the empty set, vis x,

76

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

17]

QUANTIFIERS

Case 3. sl is in!::... Then V is not free in 81. Then the following

sequence of three steps is a deduction of VvS 1 from !.l.

An important special case of A5 is

VvP-+ P

1-VvP-+ 3vP

Proof.
VvP
p

l.

2.
3.
4.

3vP
VvP-+3vP

as
A6

MP, 2, l

lnduction step. We assume (1) and considera deduction 8 1 , . , S 11 ,

Sn+i from 6. "''ith n + 1 steps. 8 1 , , S 11 is itself a deduction from !.l.
Hence by (1) there is a deduction 2) from 6. in which VvS1 , , VvS 11
occur as steps. If B,.+ 1 is an axiom or is in 6., then one of cases 1
through 3 above applies, and we append to 2) the necessary one or
three steps to get a deduction from 6. in which 'rfvS 1 , , 'rfvS,., VvS 11 + 1

P-+3vP
6.

S1
S 1 -+ Vv8 1
VvS 1

l.
2.
3.

which is obtained by letting t be v. P always admits v for v, and

P(v/v) is always P. Similarly, an important special case of Theorem
3 is

THEOREM

77

as
spec
3
DT, 1-3

occur as steps.
Case 4. S 11 + 1 is inferred from S"' and S1 by modus ponens, where
8"' is 8 1 -+Bn+i Sincej ~ n and k ~ n, the steps
(a) VvS1

In the proof outline above we used the convention that if the analysis
for step k mentions no other step, then step k depends only on step
k - l. Thus we "'Tote "spec" instead of "spec, 1," and "3" instead
of "3, 2."
Next we consider the rule of generalization.
A variable vis not free in t::.. if and only if there is no formula in t::.. with
a free occurrence of v.
THEOREM

7.

lf t::..

1-

Q, then t::..

1-

VvQ, provided that v iB not free i71 6..

Suppose that v is not free in 6..

n the statement: For every n,
Proof.

W e prove by induction on

if S 1 , . . . , Sn is a deduction from t::.., then there is a

deduction from t::.. in which 'r/vS 1 , . , VvS11 occur as steps

(1)

Basi8. If n = 1, then 8 1 is an axiom or is in 6..

Case l. S 1 is an axiom and v is free in S 1 . Then VvS 1 is also an
axiom by Ax Gen. Hence the single step VvS 1 is a deduction from 6..
Case 2. S 1 is an axiom and vis not free in S 1 Then the following
sequence of three steps is a deduction of VvS 1 from !::...
l.
2.
3.

81

axiom

S 1 -+ VvS 1
'rlvS1

A6
1-IP, 2, 1

and
(b) Vv(S1 -+Sn+ 1 )

occur in!').

Then

to!')

we append

Vv(S1 -+811 + 1 ) .-+. VvS1 -+ VvBn+i

VvS1 -+ VvS,.+ 1
'rfvSn+l

(i)
(ii)
(ili)

The :::esult is a deducvion from t::.. in which VvS 1 ,

as steps.

A4
MP, (i), (b)
MP, (ii), (a)
,

.;vS.,., VvS,.+ 1 occur

We indicate an application of Theorem 7 by "gen."

EXAMPLE

8.

Number theory
1-Vx.2 <

< 7-+ 2 <

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

4.

2<XAX<7
2 <X
2 < X A X < 7 -+ 2 < X
'rfx .2 < X A X < 7 -+ 2 <

as

so
X

DT, 1-2
gen

In this example, 6. is the empty set at step 3, so x is not free in 6..

78

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

9. In this example from number theory, we show what can

happen if the restriction on gen (vis not free in A) is violated.

EXAMPLE

l.
2.

3.
4.

x<2
Vx(x < 2)
x < 2 --+ Vx(x < 2)
Vx.x < 2--+ Vx(x < 2)

as
gen
DT, 1-2
gen

Step 4 is a false statement because 1 < 2--+ Vx(x < 2) is false. \Ve
look with deep suspicion upon any "proof" of a false statement in
number theory. The error occurs at step 2. Since x is free in the
assumption x < 2, gen cannot be applied with x until this assumption
is discharged. (The application of gen at step 4 is correct, because at
step 4 A is the empty set.)
THEOREM 10.

1-VuVvP--+ VvVuP

17]
QUA...~TIFIERS

5.
6.

7.
8.
9.
10.

Vv( ,..._,Q --+ ,...._,p) .--+. Vv~ --+ Vv""P

Vv,...._,(J-,i. Vv,..._,p
,...,,(J-+ Vv"-'Q
,...._,yv,..._,p--+ Q
3vP-,i.Q
Vv(P--+ Q) .--+. 3vP--+ Q

THEOREM 12. lf A
not free in t::.. or Q.

t-

3v P and !::.., P

t-

Q, tken !::..

t-

79

A4
.MP, 5, 4
A6
SC,6, 7
same as 8
DT, 1-9

Q, provided tliat v is

Prooj. Suppose t::.. t- 3vP a.nd Ll, P 1- Q and v is not free in A or Q.

The deduction theorem gives A t- P--+ Q. Since vis not free in t::.. , gen
gives t::.. t- Vv(P--+ Q) . Since v is not free in Q, Theorem 11 gives
1-Vv (P-+ Q) .--+. 3vP-+ Q. Then modus ponens with A t- Vv( P-+ Q)
gives t::.. t- 3v P --+ Q. Then modus ponens l\ith A t- 3v P gives t::.. t- Q.

Prooj.

l.
2.

VuVvP
VvP

3.

4.
5.

6.

VuP
VvVuP
VuVvP--+ VvVuP

as
spec
spec
gen
gen
DT, 1-5

The proof of T be.)ren1 l O usGs tv.-o e.pp i: :-:<:..tions Gi ge:J.. ~.:.nct

Theorem 7 provides for only one application, sorne explanatiort is
necessary. Steps 1 through 3 show that Vu'ivP t- P. Since u is not
free in the assumption, Theorem 7 gives Vu'ivP 1- VuP (step 4).
Since v is not free in the assumption, Theorem 7 applied again gives
Vu'ivP t- Vv'iuP (step 5).

Proof.

EYAcC 'LI: l:i .

-,\"e ia s;rc:r,e t ile conventions used with Theorem 12 in

proof outlines, taking for granted two theorems of number theory.

l.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.

W e now take up Rule C.

THEOREM 11.

Theorem 12 is the Rule O theorem. Here is how we use it in proof

outlines. Suppose 3v P is a step in a deduction from Ll, i.e ., A t- 3 v P .
We take P as another assumption and go on to deduce Q. Now we
have !::.., P t- Q. If vis not free in A or Q, then Theorem 12 gives A t- Q.
We say that the assumption Pis discharged by Theorem 12. Note that
P now disappears entirely.

3x(x > 3)
X > 3
X>3-+X>2
X> 2
3x(x > 2)
3x(x > 2)

theorem
Cx

theorem
MP, 3, 2
3
e, 2

1-Vv(P--+ Q) .--+. 3vP--+ Q if V is not free in Q

Suppose v is not free in Q.

l.
2.

3.
4.

Vv(P--+Q)
P--+Q
--Q--+ ,.._,p
Vv(~--+ ,.._,p)

as
spec

se
gen

Here A is the empty set, 3vP is 3x(x > 3), and Q is 3x(x > 2). At step
1 we have 1-3x(x > 3). At step 2 we take x > 3 as an assumption.
At step 5 we have x > 3 1- 3x(x > 2). Since x is not free in A or
3x(x > 2), Theorem 12 gives 1-3x(x > 2) at step 6. "Cx" at step 2
means "Rule O with the variable x ." This notation serves three
purposes. First, it indicates that step 2 is the result of removing 3x
from the preceding step. Second, it signals that we intend to use

80

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

[Ch. 2

Theorem 12 later to discharge step 2. Third, it singles out the variable

that is involved in the application of Theorem 12. Theorem 12 is
applied at step 6. "C, 2" means the Rule C assumption of step 2 is
now discharged. Note that officially step 2 is an assumption. For
that reason, steps 2 through 5 are indented. When step 2 is discharged
at step 6, the formula moves to the left to show that it no longer
depends on step 2.
THEOREM

14.

1-3v(P /\ Q)

3vP

17]
...-..

l.,

.. "!

.,....

..

l.
2.

3.
4.

5.
6.

3vQ

3x(x < 2)
3y(y > 2)
X< 2
y> 2
X<2Ay>2

3v(P

5.
6.

7.
8.
9.

Q)

X<y
8.
3y(x < y)
9.
3y(x <y)
10.
3x3y(x <y)
11. 3x3y(x < y)

as
Cv

p /\ Q
p

se

3vP

3
SC, 2
3
SC,4, 6
e, 2

3vQ
3vP /\ 3vQ
3vP 11 3vQ
3v(P /\ Q) ~ 3vP

11

3vQ

Q ~ 311P ''- 311Q. Since '?-~ i~ r.icr: f:"'oc iE

lv(P /\ Q) or in 3vP /\ 3vQ, Theorem 12 gives 3v(P 11 Q) 1- 3vP A 3f1Q
step 8).
l'HEOREM

15.

1,

1-'t/v(P ~ Q)

.~.

3vP

9.

't/v(P~Q)

3vP

p
P~Q

Q
3vQ
3vQ
3vP~3vQ

Yv(P

Q)

.~.

3vP

3
C, 3

The next proof illustrates how Rule C can be used twice on the same
formula.
THEOREM 17.

'-:h:3vP --+ 313 uP

Prooj.

2.
3.

3u3vP
3vP

4.

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

e, 4

At step 8 we have x < 2, y > 3 1- 3y(x < y). Then Theorem 12 gives
step 9. Here Pis y > 3, Q is 3y(x < y) , is {x < 2}, and vis y. At
step l O we have x < 2 1- 3x3y(x < y). Then Theorem 12 gives step 11 .
Here P is x < 2, Q is 3x3y(x < y), ti is the empty set, and vis x .

l.

3vQ

Prooj.
l.
2.

MP, 6,5
3

DT, 1-8

In the proof outline above, ti is {3v(P /\ Q)}. At step 1 we have

lv(P A Q) 1- 3v(P A Q) . Step 2 is the Rule C assumption. At step
7 we ha1Te 3v(P A Q), P

theorem
theorem
Cx, l
Cy,2
SC, 3,4
theorem

X<2Ay>2~X<y

7.

l.

QUANTIJ!'IERS

3vQ

as
as
Cv
spec, 1
MP,4, 3
3
e, 3
DT, 1-7
DT, 1-8

81

XAMPLE 10. .n.we u may be used more than once in a proof outline.
We give an example from number theory.

Prooj.

2.
3.
4.

--~~~~~~~~~~~~

3uP
3v3uP
6.
3v3uP
7.
3v3uP
8. 3u3vP ~ 3v3uP
5.

as
Cu
Cv

3
3

e, a
e, 2
DT, 1-7

EXERCISES

l. In Example 2, give a formal proof of O + O = O + O.

2. Prove Theorem 4.

B2

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

18]
EQUIVALENCE AND :&EPLACEMENT

~.

Find the errors in the following incorrect proofs of false statements.

3.

(a) 1-Vy(y > 2) (number theory)

4.
5.
o> 1
6.
o> l
7. --(x > 2) - O > 1
8. """'( > 1)

Proof.
l.
2.

3.
4.

5.
6.
7.

3 > 2
3x(x > 2)
X> 2
Vx(x > 2)
y> 2
y> 2
Vy(y > 2)

theorem
3
Cx
gen
spec

9.

10.

5.
6.
7.

Vx(x < x + 1)
X < X + 1
3y(x < y)
X< y
Vx(x <Y!
3y'v'x(x < y)
3yVx(x <y)

4.

5.
6.
7.

8.

theorem

X> 2
'v'x(x > 2)

SC,7,8
gen

l.

4 > 3
3x(x > 3)
3.
X> 3
4.
X>3-x>2
5.
X> 2
6. X> 2
7. 'v'x(x > 2)

theorem
spec
3

Cy

(f) 1-'v'v3uP -

gen
3

theorem

3
Cx
theorem
MP,4,3
O, 3
gen

3u'v'vP

Prooj.

e, 4

l.
2.

3.

Proof.
3x(x < 2)
3x(x > 2)
X< 2
X> 2
X < 2 /\ X > 2
3x(x < 2 /\ x > 2)
3x(x < 2 /\ x > 2)
3x(x < 2 /\ x > 2)

DT, 1-6

2.

(e) 1-3x(x < 2 /\ x > 2) (number theory)

l.
2.
3.

se, 1, 4
C,4

Proof.

gen

Proof.
l.

3
Ox

(e) 1-'v'x(x > 2) (number theory)

e, a

(b) 1-3yVx(x < y) (number theory)

2.
3.
4.

3x(x > 2)
X> 2

4.
5.

theorem
theorem
Cx, 1
Cx, 2
se, 3, 4
3

6.
7.

'v'v3uP
3uP
p
VvP
3u'VvP
3uVvP
'v'v3uP - 3u'VvP

as
spec

Cu
gen

e, a
DT, 1-6

18 Equivalence and Replacement

e, 4
e, 3

Pis equivalent to Q if and only if 1-P ~ Q.

TliEOREM

l.

1-Vv(P ~ Q) .-. VvP ~ 'v'vQ

(d) 1-Vx(x > 2) (number theory)

Prooj.
Proof.

l.
l.

,...._,(x > 2)

2.

3 > 2

as
theorem

Vv(P~Q)

2.

VvP

3.

P~Q

as
as
spec, 1

83

84

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICA.TE CALCULUS

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.

p
Q
VvQ
VvP-+ VvQ
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. VvP-+ VvQ
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. VvQ-+ VvP
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. VvP +-+ VvQ

18)

spec,2
se, 3, 4
gen
DT, 1-6
DT, 1-7
similar to 1-8
se, 8, 9

CoROLLARY

(The replacement theorem). Let U, V, Pu, and Pv be as

lf r-U +-t V and 11 1- Pu. then 11 r- P v

CoROLL.A.RY 4

1-Vv1 Vvk(U +-+V).-+. Pu+-+ Pv

tSee Addendum, page 201.

lf 1-U +...+ V,

Proof. Suppose 1-U +-+ V. Then k applications of gen give

1-Vv1 'tvk( U+-+ V). Then modus ponens with 1-Vv1 Vv1c( U+-+ V).-+.
Pu+-+ Pv gives 1-Pu+-+ Pv.

result oj replacing one or more specified occurrences (but not necessarily

all occurrences) of U in Pu by occurrences of V . Let every variable that is
free in U or V and bound in Pu be in the list v1 , , vk. Then

where Qv is the result of replacing the specified occurrences of U in Qu by

occurrences of V . Then 1-Vv1 'tvk( U+-+ V) .-+. ,_,(Ju+-+ ,_,(Jv by the
statement calculus.
Case 3. Pu is Qu-+ R 0 . Let Qv and Rv be defined as in case 2.
By the induction hypothesis, 1-Vv1 'tvk( U+-+ V) .-+. Q 0 +-+ Qv and
1-Vv1 Vvk(U +-+ V) .-+. Ru +-+ Rv. Then 1-Vv1 Vvk(U +-+ V). -+.
(Qu-+ R 0 ) +-+ (Qv-+ Rv) by the statement calculus.
Case 4. Pu is VvQu. Since vis bound in Pu, either vis in the list
v1 , . . . , vk, or v is not free in U or V. In either case, v is not free in
.Vv 1 'tvk(U +-+ V). Assume Vv1 'tvk(U +-+ V). The induction hypothesis gives Vv 1 'tvk( U+-+ V) .-+. Qu +-+ Qv. Then modus ponens

Let U, V, Pu, and Pv be as in Theorem 2.

3.

then 1-Pu+-+ Pv.

2. t (The equivalence theorem.) Let U and V be formul,as.

Let Pu be a formul,a in which. U occurs as a sUbjormul,a. L P v be the

1-Vv1 'tvk(U +-+V).-+. Qu+-+Qv

85

gives Qu+-+Qv. Since v is not free in the assumption, gen gives

'tv(Qu+-+ Qv). Theorem 1 gives Vv(Qr;r +-+ Qv) .-+. VvQu +-+ 'tvQy. Then
modus ponens gives VvQu +-+ VvQy. Hence 1-Vv1 Vvk(U +-+ V) .-+.
VvQu +-+ 'tvQv by the deduction theorem.

TREOREM

Proof. The proof is by induction on the number n of symbols in P V

counting each occurrence of ,....,,,, -+, or V as a symbol. \Ve first consider
a special case.
Case l. Pu is U. Then Pv is V. Then 1-Vv1 'tvk(U+-+ V) .-+.
Pu+-+ Pv by k applications of spec and the statement calculus.
Basis. If n = O, then case 1 must hold.
lnduction step. Assume the theorem holds for every formula with
n or fewer symbols, and consider Pu with n + 1 symbols. Suppose
also that case l does -1ot holtl.
Case 2. Pu is ,_,(Ju. By the induction hypothesis,

EQUIVALENCE A.ND REPL.A.CEMENT

in Theorem 2.

Proof. Suppose 1-U +-+V and 111- Pu. Then r-Pu+-+ Pv by

Corollary 3. Then the statement calculus with 11 1- Pu gives 11 1- P v

In proof outlines, "equiv" indicates an application of Theorem 2 or

Corollary 3, and "rep" indica tes an application of Corollary 4. The
remainder of this section is devoted to applications of the replacement
_ theorem.

'

" TlmOREM

5.

r-VvP +-+ --3v,..._,p

Proof.
l.
2.

3.
4.

VvP +-+ ,..._,,..._,VvP

p-,..._,,....,,,p
'tvP +-+ ,..._,,..._,yv,..._,,..._,p
VvP +-+ -av,..._,P

taut
taut
rep, 1, 2
same as 3

"taut" after step 1 indicates that step 1 is a tautology. Note that

step 3 <loes not follow from step 1 by the statement calculus, because P
is in the scope of the quantifier 'tv. The replacement theorem is
necessary to make a replacement within the acope of a quantifier.
In informal number theory, 3x(x < 2) and 3y(y < 2) have the same
meaning. In formal number theory, these two formulas are equivalent.

86

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

18]

We first consider the formulas x < 2 and y < 2, which are similar
according to the definition below.
We sometimes write P(v) for a formula. The variable v mayor may
not be free in P(v), and variables other than v may be free in P (v).
Let u and v be distinct variables, and let P(u) and P(v) be formulas.
P (u) is similar to P(v) if and only if vis not free in P(u) and u is not free
in P(v), and P(u) admit~ v for u and P(v) admit~ u for v, and P(v/u )
is P(v) and P(u/v) is P(u). Briefly, P(u) is the same a.s P (v), except
that P(u) has free occurrences of u in exactly those positions in which
P(v) has free occurrences of v.
The definition of similar is symmetric, i.e., if P(u) is similar to P (v),
then P(v) is similar to P(u). We observe also that if P(u) is similar to
P(v), then ,.._,p(u) is similar to ,..._,p(v).
THEOREM

1-'r/uP(u) ~ 'r/vP(v)

Proof.

EXAMPLE

as
spec
gen
DT, 1-3
repeat 1--4, interchanging u
and v

'iluP('llJ ~ 'ivP(v)

'~ "'"":
~
;:,1..;,
'i,
;)

10.

Suppose that in proving sorne theorem of number

y+x~x+y

(1)

and have already proved

'r/xvy(x

y ~ y

x)

(2)

If we try to get (1) from (2) by spec we run into trouble. (Try it. )
However, the difficulty is purely notational and easily overcome by
changes of bound variables. Recall that x , y , x 1 , x 2 are distinct
variables. x + y ~ y + x is similar to x + y 1 ~ y 1 + x. Hence
Theorem 7 applied to (2) gives
x)

'rly1(x + Y1 ~ Y1 + x ) is similar to Vy1(x 1

. Theorem 7 applied to (3) gives

~.

i1" ...,.,,

ti~Then

Y1 ~ Y1

Vx'Vy1(x

(Change of bound variable). If !!. 1- Q, and Q' is the result of

replacing one or more occurrences of VuP(u) in Q by occurrences of
VvP(v), and P(u) is similar to P(v), then !!. 1- Q'.

Theorem 8 and the replacement theorem.

theory we need

if P(u) is similar to P(v).

VuP(u)
P(v)
'r/vP(v)
'r/uP(u)--+ 'r/vP(v)
'r/vP(v)--+ 'r/uP(u)

l.

2.
3.
4.
5.

THEoREM 9. If f,. 1- Q, and Q' is the result of replacing one or more

occurrences of 3uP(u) in Q by occurrences of 3vP(v), and P (u) is similar
to P(v), then !!. 1- Q'.

Suppose P(u) is similar to P(v).

Proof.

6.

6.

87

EQUIV ALENCE AND REPLACEMENT

'tx! V'!J': (x1 ~ ~-/-: ~ 'F1

Y1 ~ Y1

+ :::.;.)

spec applied to (4) gives Vy 1 (y + y 1

+ X ~ X + y.

r application of spec gives y

(3)

+ X1)

Then
(4)

y 1 +y) , and another

THEOREM 7

Theorem 6 and the replacement theorem.

Proof.
THEOREM

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

8.

1-3uP(u) ~ 3vP(v)

if P(u) is similar to P(v).

Suppose P(u) is similar to P(v).

'rfu,.....,P(u) +-t 'rfv,...,P(v)
,....,yu,.....,P(u) +-t ~-...;'rfv,...,P(v)
3uP(u) ~ 3vP(v)

T6

se
same as 2

E:XA.MPLE ll . A theorem of abelian groups is 'r/x'r/y3z(x + z = y).

Let t 1 and t 2 be any terms in which z <loes not occur. we show that
:'.3z(t1 + z = t 2 ) is a theorem. For example, 3z((x + y) + z =
~(y + x) + x) is a theorem. Let v 1 and v 2 be variables distinct from
''each other and from x, y , and z, and from each variable that occurs in t 1
or t 2 Then 3z(x + z = y) is similar to 3z(x + z = v2 ), anda change of
bound variable gives 'v'x'r/v2 3z(x + z = v2 ). Similarly, 'r/v2 3z(x + z =
>V2 ) is similar to Vv2 3z(v1 + z = v2 ), anda change of bound variable gives
J~Yv1 'r/v2 3z(v1 + z = v2 ) . Then 'r/v2 3z(v1 + z = v2 ) admits t 1 for v1 since
,:Peither v2 nor z occurs in t 1 Then spec gives Vv2 3z(t 1 + z = v 2 ) .
,S imilarly, 3z(t1 + z = v2 ) admits t 2 for v2 since z <loes not occur in t 2 ,
;and spec gives 3z(t1 + z = t 2 ).

19]

[Ch. 2
88

THEOREM SCHEMES

89

THE l'REDICATE c.ALCULUS

EXERCISES

The next theorem generalizes the method of Example 11.

l. Prove: (a) Pis equivalent to P; (b) if Pis equivalent to Q, then Q is

equivalent to P; (e) if Pis equivalent to Q and Q is equivalent to R,
then P is equivalent to R.
2. Is x > 2 - Vy(y > x) .-+. Vx(x > 2)- Vx'r/y(y > x) an instance of

12. Let A 1- Vu 1 Vu"P. Let t 1 , , t" be terms such

that no variable bound in P occurs in any t 1 Then t:.. 1-P(t1/u 1, ... , t,,/u,.) ,
where P(t 1 /u 1 , . . , t,.iun) is the result of replacing each free occurrence of

TK.ll:OREM

u 1 in

P by an occurrence of t 1 f or 1 ~ i ~ n.

the equivalence theorem 1 Why 1

3. Prove in number theory: If 1-x > 2-+ y > 2, then 1-3 > 2-+
'r/y(y > 2). Do you believe that P(u) - P(v) is provable if P(u) is
similar to P(v)? Why 1
4. Prove 1-'r/u'r/v(P(u) A P(v))- 'r/u'r/v(P(u) v P(v)) if P(u) is similar
to P(v).
5. Prove 1-'r/v(P v Q)-+ 3vP v 'r/vQ using Axiom Scheme A4, the
replacement theorem, and the definitions of v and 3.
6. Prove in number theory 1-'r/x(x :::;;; 3-+ 'r/y(y > 3-+ y > x))-+
'r/y(y :::;;; 3-+ Vx(x > 3-+ x > y)).
7. Let U, V, Pu. and Pv be as in Theorem 2. Suppose A 1- U - V
and !::.. 1- Pu and no variable bound in Pu is free in ti. Show that
!::.. ...... Pv.

Proof. Let v 1 , . . , Vn be distinct variables that do not occur in

Vu1 VunP or in t 1, ... , tn. Since no V occurs in Vu 1 Vu ...P, n
changes of bound variables give A 1- Vv1 ... vv . . P(v1/U1, ... ' Vn /u,.).
Since no variable bound in Vv1 ... vv ... P(v1 /U1 , ... ' v... /un) is free in any
t;, n applications of spec give A 1- P(t 1 /u 1 , . , t11 /u 11 ).
We in di cate an application of Theorem 12 by "spec."
l.
2.

VxVy3z(x + z = y)
3z((x + y) + z = (y

x)

For example,

spec

A change of bound variable is sometimes necessary in a proof outline

that uses Rule C more than once.

ExAMPLE 13. In Example 17 .16 we proved 3x3y(x < y) starting
with the theorems 3x(x < 2) and 3y(y > 2). Suppose we bave
3x(x > 2) instead of 3y(y > 2). Then we would have to use Rule C
twice with x, and Exercise 17 .3( e) shows that we cannot use Rule C
twice in the same proof outiintl with the same -.aritt.ble. vYt prooeeC.

19

,,T 0

Theorem Schemes

Below we list some of the more important theorem schemes of the

predicate calculus. A few have already been proved a.'1d are sta.ted
z..gain for reaci.y reference. Sorne are proved in this section. Those
whose proof involves nothing new are assigned as exercises.

as follows:
3x(x < 2)
3x(x > 2)
3y(y > 2)
x < 2
4.
y> 2
5.

l.
2.
3.

theorem
theorem
Theorem 9
Cx, 1
Cy, 3

Then we proceed as in Example 17.16. Henceforth we shall omit

explicit mention of Theorem 9. For example, the above proof outline
will appear as
3x(x < 2)
2. 3x(x > 2)
X < 2
3.
y > 2
4.

l.

theorem
theorem
Cx, 1

Cy,2

VvP-+ P(t/v) if P admits t for v

VvP-+3vP
VvP~ P if vis not free in P

(Axiom Scheme A5)

(Theorem 17.6)
(Theorem 1)
(Theorem 18.6)
'r/uP(u) - 'r/vP(v) if P(u) is similar to P(v)
(Theorem 2)
VuVvP - 'r/vVuP
(Theorem 18.5)
VvP - ,._;;jv,.....,p
(Theorem 3)
'r/v,.....,P- ,._;;jvP
(Theorem 17.3)
P(t/v)-+ 3vP if P admits t for v
9. 3vP - P if v is not free in P
(Theorem 18.8)
10. 3uP(u)- 3vP(v) if P(u) is similar to P(v)
11. 3u3vP- 3v3uP
(Theorem 4)
12. 3uVvP -+ 'r/v3uP
13. 3vP - ,.....,yv,.....,p
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

90

[Ch. 2

THE l'REDICATE C.ALCULUS

3v--P +-+ ,./vvP

(Theorem 18.1)
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. VvP +-+ VvQ
(Theorem 5)
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. P +-+ VvQ if t' is not free in P
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. P +-+ VvQ if vis not free in Q
Vv(P +-+ Q) .--+. 3vP +-+ 3vQ
(Theorem 6)
Vv(P +-+ Q) .--+. P +-+ 3vQ if v is not free in P
Vv(P--+ Q) .--+. VvP-+ VvQ
(Axiom Scheme A4 )
21. Vv(P-+ Q) +-+ P-+ VvQ if vis not free in P
(Theorem 17.15)
22. Vv(P-+ Q) .--+. 3vP-+ 3vQ
23. Vv(P--+ Q) +-+ 3vP-+ Q if v is not free in Q
24. VvP--+ VvQ .--+. 3v(P--+ Q)
25. Vv3u(P -+ Q) .--+. 3vVuP --+ 3v3uQ
(Theorem i )
26. Vv(P /\ Q) +-+ VvP /\ VvQ
27. Vv(P /\ Q) +-+ VvP /\ Q if vis not free in Q
28. Vv(P /\ Q) +-+ P /\ VvQ if vis not free in P
29. VvP /\ 3vQ-+ 3v(P /\ Q)
(Theorem 8)
30. Vv(P V Q) -+ VvP v 3vQ
31. Vv(P v Q) +-+ VvP v Q if vis not free in Q
32. Vv(P V Q) +-+ P V VvQ if vis not free in P
(Theorem 9)
33. VvP v VvQ-+ Vv(P v Q)
34. VvP V 3vQ-+ 3v(P V Q)
(Theorem 10)
35. 3v(P-+ Q) +-+ VvP-+ 3vQ
36. 3v(P-+ Q) +-+ VvP-+ Q if v is not free in Q
37. 3v(P-+ Q) +-+ P-+ 3vQ if vis not free in P
38. 3vP-+ V-vQ .-+. v~1 ( P-+ Q)
39. 3vP--+ 3vQ .-+. 3v(P-+ Q)
1
(Theorem 17.14)
40 . 3v(P /\ Q) -+ 3vP /\ 3vQ

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.

3v(P
3v(P
3v(P
3v(P
3v(P

THEOREM

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

l.

/\ Q) +-+ 3vP /\ Q if v is not free in Q

/\ Q) +-+ P /\ 3vQ if vis not free in P
V Q) +--> 3vP v 3vQ
v Q) +-+ 3vP v Q if vis not free in Q
v Q) +-+ P v 3vQ if vis not free in P

19]

THEOREM SCHEMES

THEOREM

r--Vu'VvP +-+ 'VvVuP

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

'Vu'VvP-+ VvVuP
VvVuP-+ Vu"lvP
VuVvP +--+ 'VvVuP

THEOREM

3.

Tl7.l0
Tl7.10
se, 1, 2

r--Vv,....,P+-+ ~vP

Proof.
l.
2.

Vv,.._,P +--> ,....,,.._,yv,.._,P

vv,.._,P+-+ ~vP

THEOREM 4 .

taut
same as 1

r--3uVvP-+ Vv3uP

Proof.
l.

3uVvP
YvP

2.
3.

4.

3uP
Yv3uP
Vv3uP
3uVvP-+ Vv3uP

5.
6.

7.

as

Cu
spec
3
gen
C,2
DT, 1-6

r--Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. P +-+ VvQ if v is not free in P.

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

Suppose that vis not free in P.

Vv(P +-+ Q) .--+. VvP +--+ YvQ

VvP+-+ P
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. P +-+ VvQ

r--VvP +-+ P if v is not free in P.

Tl8.l
Tl
se, 1, 2 (or rep, 1, 2)

r--Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. 3vP +-+ 3vQ

Proof.

Suppose that vis not free in P.

VvP-+ P
P-+ VvP
VvP+-+ P

2.

l.

A5
A6

so,

1, 2

2.
3.

Vv(P +-+ Q)
3vP
P+-+Q

as
as
spec, 1

91

92

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

4.

5.

6.
7.
8.

3vQ

9.
10.
11.

3vQ
3vP-+ 3vQ
Vv(P +-+ Q) .--+. 3vP--+ 3vQ
Vv(P+-+Q).-+.3vQ-+3vP
Vv(P +-+ Q) .-+. 3vP +-+ 3vQ

19]
THEOREM SCHEMES

Cv, 2
SC,3,4
3

e,

8.

DT, 1-7
DT, 1-8
similar to 1-9

THEOREM 9.

se, 9, lo

l.
2.

Vv(P 11 Q)

se

VvP

gen

se,2

VvQ
VvP 11 VvQ
Vv(P 11 Q) -+ VvP 11 VvQ
VvP 11 VvQ
VvP

as
se
spec

se, n

apee
se, 11, 13
gen
DT, 9-15
se, 8, 16

THEOREM

gen
SC, 4, 6
DT, 1-7

"ivQ

Vv(P 11 Q)
VvP 11 VvQ-+ Vv(P /\ Q)
Vv(P 11 Q) +-+ VvP 11 VvQ

8.

1-'r/v(P V Q)-+ VvP V 3vQ

Proof.
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Vv(P V Q)
P V Q+-+ ,...._,Q-+ p
Vv(~-+ P)
Vv( ~ -+ P) .-+. Vv~ -+ VvP
'tfv,..._,Q -+ VvP

4.
5.
6.
7.

as
spec

as
taut
rep, 1, 2
A4

MP, 4, 3

1-VvP V VvQ-+ Vv(P V Q)

'VvP

p
P

3.

Proof.
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.

se
same as 6
DT, 1-7

Proof.

1-Vv(P 11 Q) +-+ VvP 11 VvQ

THEOREM 7.

VvP v ,...._,Vv~
'r/vP v 3vQ
'Vv(P v Q)-+ 'VvP V 3vQ

6.
7.

as
spec

se

'Vv(P v Q}
'VvP-+ 'Vv(P V Q)
'VvQ-+ Vv(P V Q)
'VvP V 'VvQ-+ Vv(P v Q )

THEoREM

10.

gen
DT, 1-4
similar to 1-5
SC,5, 6

1-3i(P-+ Q) +-+ 'VvP-+ 3vQ

Proof.
l.
3v(P-+ Q)
2.
VvP
3.
P-+Q
4.
:;
5.
Q
3vQ
6.
7.
3vQ
8.
'VvP-+3vQ
9. 3v(P-+ Q) .-+. VvP-+ 3vQ
10.
-dv(P-+ Q)
11.
,....,,..._,yv,..._,(P-+ Q)
12.
vv,...,(P-+ Q)
13.
"'(P-+Q)~ P /\ ~
14.
Vv(P /\ ~)
15.

16.
17.
18.
19.

'Vv(P /\ ~) +--+ 'VvP /\ 'Vv~

VvP /\ Vv~
VvP 11 ,....,.,,..._,Vv~
VvP /\ -dvQ
"'('VvP-+ 3vQ)

as
as
Cv, l
apee, 2
MP, 3, 4

e,

DT, 1-7
DT, 1-8
as
same as 10

se

taut
rep, 12, 13
T7

se, 14, 15
se

same as 17

se

93

94

TRE

20.
21.
22.

--.3v(P-+ Q)-+ ,......,(VvP-+ 3vQ)

VvP-+ 3vQ .-+. 3v(P-+ Q)
3v(P-+ Q) +-t VvP-+ 3vQ

20)

[Ch. 2

PREDICATE C.ALCULUS

NORMAL FORMS

EXA.?vIPLE l.

DT, 10-19

The table below defines a 3-plaoe truth value operationj.

se
se, 9, 21

p 1 , p 2, p 3 are variables ranging over {T, F}.

as
TlS.5
lo, 11

l.
2.

Another proof of the second part {by cases):

10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.

,..._,VvP
VvP - -av,..._,P
3v,.._,P

se,

,.._,p

3.
4.

Cv

5.
6.
7.
8.

se

P-+Q
3v(P-+Q)

e,

13
DT, 10-16
as

3v(P-+Q)
,....,vvP-+ 3v(P-+ Q)

3vQ
Q
P-+Q
3v(P-+Q)
3v(P-+Q)
3vQ-+ 3v(P-+ Q)
,..._,vvP v 3vQ-+ 3v(P-+ Q)
VvP-+ 3vQ .-+. 3v(P-+ Q)

P1

P2

Pa

f (p, P2, Pa)

T
F
T
F
T
F
T
F

T
T
F
F
T
T
F
F

T
T
T
T
F
F
F
F

F
F
T
F
F
F
T
F

Since {T, F} has 2 elements, the domain {T, F}3 off has 23 elements.
For every n, {T, F}" has 2" elements. Each line of the table above
states what value f assigns to one of the 8 possible ordered triples
(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) of truth values. For example, line 2 states that f (F, T, T)
= F. The 8 lines of the table completely define/.

Cv

se

e, 19
DT, 18-22
17, 23

se,
se

We define ,....,, -+, /\ ,

,..._,T= F
=T

EXERCISES

,..._,p

1. Prove the unproved theorem schemes in any order, making maximum

use of what has aln~ady been proved.
2. Prove the unproved theorem schemes in the order given, using oitly
the statement calculus, theorem schemes 1 through 14 (for those
following 14), and the rules for removing and inserting quantifiers.
3. For each of Theorem Schemes 27 through 34 and 40 through
45, find another theorem scheme that does not involve /\ or V
from which the given scheme follows by the replacement theorem. For example, 26 follows from 35 because 26 is equivalent
to Vv,......,(P -+ ~) +-t ,.....,(VvP -+ ..-...,YvQ), which is equivalent to
--.3v(P -+ ~) +-t ,......,(VvP -+ 3v~), which is equivalent to

v , and +-t as truth value operations as follows :

T-+ T = T
F-+T=T
T-+F=F
F~P=T

TAT=T
FAT=F
T /\ F = F
FAF=F

TvT=T
FvT=T
TvF=T
FvF=F

T+-tT=T
F+-tT=F

T......c; F = F
F+-tF=T

Ali we have done is to reproduce the truth tables for ........,, -+, /\, v, and
It should come as no surprise that such identities as p +-t q =

+-t.

(p-+ q) /\ (q-+ p) are true.

To every formula P there corresponds a -unique truth value operation

Let P 1 , , P,, be the distinct prime constituents of Pin
the order in which they first occur from left to right. Each assignment
p 1 , .. , Pn of truth values to P 1 , . . . , P,, results in a unique truth value
for P. Then f is defined by: for each assignment p 1 , . . . , p,. to
P 1 , . , P,,, f(p 1 , ,p,,) is the truth value thereby assigned to P.

/as follows.

3v(P-+ ~) +-t YvP -+3v~.

~O

95

Normal Forms

EXAMPLE 2. To the formula (A(x) v B(y)) /\ ,..._,{A(x) /\ B(y)) there

corresponds the operation f defined by

A truth value operation is an operation on the set {T, F} of truth

ralues.

f (p1, P2) =

'1

(P1 V P2) /\ ,....,(P1 /\ P2)

96

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

20]

NORMAL FORJ.IS

97

We can now describe a. tautology as a. formula. whose corresponding

truth value operation always takes the value T. A coi,tradiction is a
formula whose corresponding truth value operation always takes the
value F . For example, ,_,A(x) A A(x) is a contradiction.
we now show that for ea.ch truth value operationf there is a formula
P with the same truth table, i.e. , the truth value operation corresponding
to P isf.

If P 1 A -p 2 A p 3 = T, then P 1 = -p2 = p 3 = T by the truth table

for A . Then p 1 = T, p 2 = F , p 3 = T. We know t hatj(T , F, T) =
T . If p 1 A -p 2 A -p3 = T , then p 1 = -.;p 2 = -p 3 = T. Then
p 1 = T , p 2 = F , p~ = F. We know thatf(T, F , F) = T. Hence, if
g(p1 , pz, p3) = T , then also f(p , pz, p 3) = T . Hence f (p 1, p 2 , p 3)
T if and only if g(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) = T . Therefore

EXAMPLE 3. We produce a formula with the sa.me truth table as the

operation f of Example l. Let P 1 , P 2 , P 3 be distinct prime formulas .
f takes the value Ton lines 3 and 7. On line 3, p 1 = T , p 2 = F , and
p 3 = T . Corresponding to line 3 we use the conjunction

for every ordered triple (p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) of truth values, i.e., f = g.

f (p1, P2 , p3) = g(p1 , P2. p3)

EXAMPLE 4 . f is defined by

P1 A ,_,p2 A P3

On line 7, p 1 = T , p 2
use the conjunction

F , and p 3
P1 A

,_,p2

F.

Corresponding to line 7 we

A ,_,p3

(P1 A ,_,p2 A P3) V {Pi A ,.._,p2 A ,_,p3}

of these conjunctions has the same truth table as f . To see this, let g
be the operation corresponding to
We show t hat f

,.._,p2

g.

A P3) V {P1 A ,.._,p2 A ,..._,p3).

A -P2 A p3) V (P1 A

-P2

A -p3). 1

First, suppose that f(p 1, p 2, p 3 ) = T. Then either p 1 = T, p 2 = F ,

p 3 = T , or p 1 = T, p 2 = F , p 3 = F. If p 1 = T, p 2 = F , p 3 = T,
then

g(T , F, T) = (T
= (T

,.._,p

(T A ,..._,p A ,....,p)
(T A T A F) = T v F

A T) V

A T) V

T.

If p 1 = T, p 2 = F, p 3 = P, then

g(T, F, F)

=
=

EXAMPLE 5.

f! is defined by

g(p1, P2>p3} = {P1

(T A ,_,p A F) V (T A ,....,p A ,..._,p)

(T A T A F) V (T A T A T) = F V T

= T.

Hence, if/(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) = T, then also g(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) = T . Now suppose

that g(p 1 , p 2 , p 3 ) = T. By the truth table for v, either
P1 A -P2 A p3 = T

or P1 A -P2 A -p3

f (p , q)

T
F
T
F

T
T
F
F

F
T
T
F

To f t here corresponds every formula (,_,p

P and Q are distinct prime formulas.

Then the disjunction

{P1 A

T.

Q) v {P /\ ,_,Q ), where

f is defined by
p

f(p, q)

T
F

F
F

~F

..

Let P and Q be distinct prime formulas . Then a formula with the

same truth table asf is ,.._,p A P A Q, which always takes the value F
beca.use ,.._,p A P always takes the value F.

(The operational completeness of the statement calculus).

Let f be an n-place truth value operation. Then there is a formula with
exactly n distinct prime constituents whose corresponding truth value
operation is f .

THEOREM 6

Proof. Let P 1 , . , P n be distinct prime formulas. If every value

off is F, then we use ,.._,p 1 A P 1 A P 2 A A Pn, for -p 1 A p 1 /\
p 2 A A Pn always takes the value F . So suppose that f takes the

98

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

20)
NORMAL FORMS

value

at

least once. Let (P 1 v ... , p 1 ,,), (p 21 , , P2n), ... ,

(Pki, ... , Pkn) be the k different ordered n-tuples of truth values to which
f assigns the value T. For 1 ~ i ~ k and 1 ~ j ~ n we define P1 by
P 11 = P 1 if P1J = T, and P; = ,.._,pi if Pti = F. Let P be the formula
(P 11 /\ /\ P 1,J V V (Pk 1 /\ /\ Pk,,). We show that f is the
truth value operation corresponding to P. Suppose that f (p 1 , . , p,,)
= T. Then for some i (1 ~ i ~ k), (p 1 , . . . , p,,) = (pn, ... , Ptnl
Assign Pn ... , Pin to P 1 , . . , P n P 1v ... , P;n all take the value T
by the definition of Pu: Then (P 11 /\ /\ P 1,,) takes the value T
by the truth table for /\ . Then P takes the value T by the truth
table for V. Now suppose that P takes the value T when p, ... , Pn
are assigned to P 1 , . . . , Pn. By the truth table for v, there is an
i (1 ~ i ~ k) such that (P11 /\ /\ P 1n) takes the value T. By the
truth table for /\, P 11 , , P;n. each take the value T. we show
that (p 1 , . . , Pn.) = (p 11 , , p 1,,), and hence f(p 1 , , p,,) = T. We
consider two cases. Suppose PtJ = T. Then P 1; = P 1 by the definition
of P 1. Since P takes the value T, P takes the value T, i.e., p 1 = T
= p 11 . Suppose pij = F. Then P 11 = ,._,pi by the definition of P jj.
Since P 11 takes the value T, P 1 takes the value F, i.e., p 1 = F = Pu

A set of statement connectives is operationally complete if and only if

for each truth value operation f there is a formula or an abbreviation
of a formula whose corresponding truth value operation is f and in
which the only statement connectives that explioitly appear ere those
in the given set. Theorem 6 shows that the set { /\ , v , ,...,_,}is operatiqnally complete. Since /\ and v can be defined in terms of-+ and ,...,.,, it
follows that {-+, ,.._,} is also operationally complete. Since p v q =
,.....,("-']! /\ ~), the set { /\, ........,} is operationally complete. Similarly,
the set { v , ,...,_,} is operationally complete.
A formula whose distinct prime constituents are P 1 ,
disjunctive normal form if and only if it has the form
(P 11

/\A

P 1 ,,) v (P 21

A A

where each Ptf is either P 1 or

P 2 ,,) v v (Pk 1

.. ,

EXAMPLE 8.

table for P is

Let P be (A(x) v B(y)) /\ "-'(A(x) /\ B(y)).

(A(x)

B(y))

/\

,.....,

(A(x)

/\

B(y))

T
T
T
F

T
T

T
T
F

T
T
T

T
F
F
F

T
T

T
F

F
F

The truth value operation f

T
F

The truth

F
F
corresponding to Pis defined by

P1

P2

f (p1, P2)

T
F
T

T
T
F

T
T

.:._p

Then by Theorem 7, Pis equivalent to

(,.....,A(x) /\ B(y))

v (A(x) /\ ,.....,B(y))

A formula whose distinct prime constituents are P 1 ,

conjunctive normal form if and only if it has the form
(P 11 V V P 1 ,,)

Pk,,)

........,~.

Every formula that is not a contradiction is equivalent to a

formula in disjunctive normal form.

THEOREM 7.

Proof. Let P be a formula that is not a contradiction, and let

P 1 , . . , P 11 be the prime constituents of P. Let f be the truth val u e
operation corresponding to P. The proof of Theorem 6 shows how to
construct a formula Q in disjunctive normal form whose prime
constituents are P 1 , . , P,, and whose truth value operation is f.
Since P and Q have the same truth value operation, every assignment
of truth values to P 1 , . , P,, results in the same truth value being
assigned to P and Q. Hence P +-+ Q is a tautology by the truth table
for +-+. Hence f-P +-+ Q, i.e., Pis equivalent to Q.

... ,

P,, is in

P n is in

/\. /\

99

/\

(P21 V V P 2 ,,)

/\ /\

(Pkl Y V Pkn)

where each Ptf is either Pi or ,..._,pf

THEOREM 9.
Every formula that is not a tautology is equivalent to a
formula in conjunctive normal f orm.

Proof. Let P be a formula that is nota tautology, and Iet P 1 , . . , P n

be the distinct prime constituents of P. Since P is not a tautology,

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

100

,....,p is not a contradiction.

Then by the proof of Theorem 7, ,......,p is

equivalent to a formula (P 11 /\ /\ Pin) V V (Pki /\ /\ Pkn)
in disjunctive normal form, where each P 1 is either P or ,....,pi By
the statement calculus, P is equivalent to
,......,((P11 " ... " Pin)

V ... V

(Pki " ... " Pkn))

By the statement calculus, the latter is equivalent to

NORMAL FORMS

20]

101

We show that every formula is equivalent to a formula in prenex

normal form, using the following theorem schemes of Section 19.
7.
14.
21.
23.
36.
37.

Vv,_,P <c-+ ,......,3vP

3v,_,p <c-+ --VvP
Vv(P--+ Q) <c-+ P--+ VvQ if v is
Vv(P--+ Q) <c-+ 3vP--+ Q if v is
3v(P--+ Q) <c-+ VvP--+ Q if vis
3v(P--+ Q) <c-+ P--+ 3vQ if vis

not
not
not
not

free
free
free
free

in P
in Q
in Q
in P

--(P11 " ... " Pin) " ... " ,....,(Pkl " ... " Pkn)
EXAMPLE 10'. Let P be the formula Vx(x ~ O)--+ 3y(y > 2) ofnumber
theory. By 36, P is equivalent to

By the statement calculus again, the latter is equivalent to

(,.._,P11

V V

,....,pin) /\ /\ (,....,Pki /\ /\ ,......,pkn)

If P 1 = P, then ,....,pti = ,.._,p If P 1 = ,....,p,, then ,....,pti

In the latter case ,....,pti is equivalent to P. Now in

(,....,P11

V ... V

,_,pin) /\ . .. /\ (,....,Pk1

V .. V

3x .X ~ --+ 3y(y > 2)

= ,....,,......,p,.

,....,pkn)

3x3y.x ~ 0--+y > 2

we replace every ,....,,....,pti by P; The resulting formula is equivalent

to P by the statement calculus and is in conjunctive normal form.
EXAMPLE 10. Let P be (A(x) V B(y)) /\ ,....,(A(x) /\ B(y)). From
Example 8, the truth value operation g corresponding to ,....,pis defined
by
Pi

P2

g(p1, P2)

T
T

F
F

Hence a disjunctive normal form of ,....,p is

(A(x) /\ B(y)) v (,_,A(x) /\ ,......,B(y))

Then a denial of ,....,p is (,......,A(x) v ,......,B(y)) /\ (A(x) V B(y)).
denial is equivalent to P and is in conjunctive normal form.

This

We move on to the predicate calculus. A formula P is in prenex

normal form if and only if it is of the form Zv 1 Zv 2 ZvnQ, where
each Z is V or 3, no quantifiers occur in Q, and n ~ O. (Briefly, al! the
quantifiers in P appear at the front.)

By 37, x ~ O--+ 3y(y > 2) is equivalent to 3y .x ~ O--+ y > 2.

by the equivalence theorem, (1) is equivalent to

(1)

Then
(2)

Hence Pis equivalent to (2), which is in prenex normal form.

THEOREM 11.
normal form.

Every formula is equivalent to a formula in prenex

Proof. Let P be a formula oran abbreviation of a formula in which

the only logical operators that explicitly occur are ,......,, --+, V, 3. The
proof is by induction on the number n of occurrences of ,......,, --+, V, or
3 in P.
Basis. If n = O, then P is an atomic formula and is already in
prenex normal form.
Induction step. Assume that every formula with n or fewer symbols
is equivalent to a formula in prenex normal form, and consider a
formula P with n + 1 symbols.
Case l. P is ,......,Q for sorne Q. By the induction hypothesis, Q is
equivalent to a formula Q' in prenex normal form. Then P is
equivalent to ,......,Q' by the equivalence theorem (or the statement
calculus). If no quantifiers appear in Q', then ,......,Q' is in prenex normal form. Suppose ,......,Q' is ,......,zv1 ZvkQ". Then k applications of
Theorem Schemes 7 and 14 of Section 19 (mixed as necessary) and the
equivalence theorem give a formula in prenex normal form that is
equivalent to P.

i"

102

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICA.TE C.ALCULUS

20]
NORMAL FORMS

Case 2. P is Q -+ R for sorne Q and R. By the induction hypothesis, Q and R are equivalent to formulas Q' and R' in prenex normal
form. Then P is equivalent to Q'-+ R ' . Suppose that Q' is 'VvQ".
Then Q' -+ R' is VvQ" -+ R ' . Then by Theorem Scheme 36 and the
equivalence theorem, P is equivalent to 3v(Q" -+ R'). If vis free in R ',
we change the bound variable v to a variable that does not occur in
VvQ" -+ R ' , and then apply 36. If Q' is 3vQ", we proceed in the same
way, using 23 instead of 36. k applications of 36 and 23 (mixed as
necessary) move ali the quantifiers in Q' to the front of the conditional.
Then similarly we use 37 and 21 to move all the quantifiers in R' to the
front of the conditional.
Case 3. Pis VvQ for sorne v and Q. By the induction hypothesis, Q
is equivalent to a formula Q' in prenex normal form. Then P is
equivalent to VvQ', which is in prenex normal form.
Case 4. P is 3vQ for sorne v and Q. This case is similar to case 3.
EXAMPLE 12. P is --3x(3x(x > 2)-+ x = 3). First we make a
change of bound variable to get ,.._,3x(3y(y > 2) -+ x = 3). Then we
apply Theorem Scheme 23 to 3y(y > 2)-+ x = 3 to get Vy( y > 2-+
x = 3). Hence P is equivalent to --3xVy( y > 2-+ x = 3). Then
we apply Theorem Schemes 7 and 14 in turn to get 'Vx3y,.....,(y > 2-+
X=

3).

l 03

EXERCISES

l. Show that there are exactly 2 2 distinct n-place truth value

operations.
2. Show that {A , V} is not operationally complete.
3. (a) The binary connective .J. is defined by

T
F
T

T
T
F

F
F
F
T

F F

Show that { .} } is operationally complete.

(b) Find another binary connective t such that { t
complete.

} is operationally

4. Reduce to disjunctive and conjunctive normal form.

(a) P-+ Q
(b) P-+ Q +-+ ,..._,R
(e) xy

O+.-+

=oV

y=

5. Let P 1 , P 2 , P 3 , be distinct prime formulas.

If Q+-+ R occurs in P, we replace it by (Q-+ R) /\ (R-+ Q). If /\ or

v occurs in P, we can either eliminate it and use Theorem 11 , or we
can lea.ve P L.'l abl:Jreviated form and use Thoorem Schemes 27,. 28. 31..
32, 41, 42, 44, 45. Theorem Schemes 26, 35, and 43 are helpful whenever
they apply.
EXAMPLE 13.

Find the simplest

formula that is equivalent to every formula whose prime constituents are P 1 , P 2 , P 3 and whose corresponding truth value
op~ration is .f.

P1 P2 Pa
T T T
F T T
T F T
F F T
T T F
F T F
T F F
F F F

P is

'</xVy'</z((x + y) + z = x + (y + z)) /\ VxVy(x + y

y + x)

An application of Theorem Scheme 26 gives

Vx.Vy'Vz((x

y) + z

= x

+ (y + z)) /\ Vy(x +y

y + x)

Another application of 26 gives

'</x'</y.'</z((x +y) + z

x + (y + z)) /\ x +y =y+ x

Then 27 gives
'</x"lyVz.(x

y)

(y

z) A x

+y =

+x

f (p, P2, Ps)

T
F

T
F

T
T
T
T

6. Reduce to prenex normal form.

(a) '</xVy .x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y )
(b) Vx'Vy3z(x + y = z)

'</x'VyVz'Vz (X

y = z

y =

Z-+

z =

Z )

l 04

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

21]

(e) Vx.3y(4y = x)-+ 3y(2y = x)

(d) Vx(x = 1) .-+. 3x(x > 2)-+ Vx(x > 3)
(e) 'v'x(x > 2-+ x > 1)-+ 3x(x > 2) /\ 3x(x > 1)

EQUALITY

El is an individual axiom.

105

E2 and E3 are axiom schemes.

We note that
VX1 Yx2 Yy1 Vy2(X1

= Y1

/\

X2

= Y2 .-+. X1 = X2 +-+ Y1 = Y2)

ANSWERS

Show that ,....., is not definable.

3. (a) "'P = p t p, and p V q = ,_,(p t q) = (p ,. q)
(b) Last column o truth table for t is F , T, T, T
~. (a) (P /\ Q) V (,.._,p /\ Q) V (,_,p /\ ~) ; ,..._,p V Q

is an axiom, being that instance of E2 in which G is =

2. Hint:

~ A

(b) (P A
(,.._,p

R)

V ~ V

(P A Q A ,.._,R)

,_,R) /\ (P

V ~

(p

q)
THEOREM

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

v ,.._,R) /\ (P V Q V ,.._,R)
/\ ('""-'P V Q V R )

0 V X =f. 0 V y =f. 0) /\ (xy = 0 V X = 0 V y =f. 0)

/\ (xy = 0 V X =f. 0 V y = 0) /\ (xy =f. 0 V X = 0 V y = 0)

6. (a) Vx'v'y3z.x <y-+ x < z A z <y

(b) Vx'v'y3zVz2 Vz1 (x + y = z ./\. x +y = z2
/\ X + y =
(e) 'v'x'v'y3z(4y = x-+ 2z = x) or Vx3y'v'z(4z = x-+ 2y
(e) 3x3y3z(x > 2-+X > 1.-+. y> 2 /\ z > 1)

Zl

-+
x)

Z2

Z )

We write the first 2-place predicate symbol as =, and for all terms r
and s, we write (r = 8) for = (r, s) and r =f. 8 for ,.._,(r = 8).
The predicate calculus with equality is the result o adjoining to the
predicate calculus the following axioms, which we call the equality
axioms.
'v'x(x = x)
VX Vxn 'v'y 'v'yn(X1

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Vx 1

y= y
y-+y

X=

Vx't/y(x

Vxn Vy 'v'yn(X

Y1 /\ /\ Xn = Yn
.-+. G(x 1 , , Xn) +-+ G(y, .. . , Yn) )
Y1 /\ _
/ \ Xn = Yn
-+ F(xi, ... , Xn) = F(y1 , , Yn)) .

(One axiom for each operation symbol F)

2.

= X2+--+ Y1 = Y2)

E2
spec
El
spec

se, 2, 4

=X

= y-+ y = x)

gen

1--VxVyVz(x = y /\ y = z-+ X = z)

Vx1 Yx2 Vy1 Vy2(X1 = Y1 /\

= y /\ Z = Z .-+. X =
Vx(x = x)
X

z == z
X = y /\ y

X2

= Y2 .-+. X1 = X2+-+ Y1 = Y2)

y = Z

Z +-+

E2
spec

El
spec

=Z
= z-+ x =

se, 2,4

Z-+ X

VxYyYz(x = y /\ y

z)

gen

Theorems 1 and 2 enable us to collapse any chain o equalities. In

proof outlines, we indicate by "= " one or more applications o El ,
Theorem 1, and Theorem 2.
EXAMPLE 3.

l.
2.

(One axiom for each predicate symbol G)

E3.

x)

Proof.

Equality

EL
E2.

Vx 1Yx2 Yy1Vy2(x1 = Y1 A X2 = Y2 .-+. Xi

y = y /\ X = y .-+. y = X+-+ y = y
Vx(x = x)

THEOREM

5. P 3 -+ P 1 .

1--VxVy(x = y-+ y

Proof.

(,.._,p A Q A ,.._,R)
v (,_,p /\ ~ A ,.._,R);

(e) (xy = O A x = O A y = O) v (xy = O /\ x =f. O A y = O)

V (xy = 0 /\ x = 0 /\ y =f. 0) V (xy =f. 0 /\ x =f. 0 /\ y =f. 0) ;
(xy

l.

X
Z

+ y =
=

Z /\ X

+ y = Z

The statement calculus applied to step 1 gives x + y = z and

y = z1 . Theorem 1 applied to x + y = z gives z = x + y.
Then Theorem 2 applied to z = x + y and x + y = z1 gives z = z1
x

106

[Ch. 2

THE PR.EDICATE CALCULUS

21]

EQUALITY

6. If 11
as in Theorem 5.

COR.OLLAR.Y

EXAMPLE 4.

l.

0+0=0+0

2. O+y=y+O
3. y'+ O= y+ O'
4. y + O' = (y + O)'
5. y + O' = (O + y)'
6. O + y' = (O + y)'
7. O+y'=y'+O

Proof.

f-

= 8,

then 11

f-

t,

= t,,

107

where r, s, t,, and t, are

Theorem 5 and modus ponens.

By Theorem 1, we can vary Corollary 6 by replacing 11 f- r = s by

f- 8 = r, or by replacing 11 f- t, = t, by /1 f- t, = t,.
We indicate an
a.pplication of Theorem 5 or Corollary 6 or one of its variants in proof
outlines by "sub."

/1

=, 6, 5, 3

Step 1 is an application of El, i.e., it is the result of applying spec to

Step 7 comes from steps 6, 5, and 3 by Theorems 1 and 2.
Theorem 1 applied to step 5 gives (O + y)' = y + O'. Then Theorem 2
applied to O + y' = (O + y)' {step 6) and (O + y)' = y + O' gives
O + y' = y + O'. Theorem 1 applied to step 3 gives y + O' = y' + O.
Then Theorem 2 applied to O + y' = y + O' and y + O' = y' + Ogives
O + y' = y' + O (step 7). Briefly, the chain O + y' = (O + y)' ,
y + O' = (O + y)', y' + O = y + O' of steps 6, 5, and 3 is collapsed to
give O + y' = y + O'.

El.

We now prove some substitution properties of equality.

THEOR.EM 5. t 1-r = 8-+ t, = t,, wherer, 8, t,, and t, are terms, r occu.r8 in
t,, and t, is the result of replacing one or more 8pecified occurrences (but
not necessarily all oc.currences) of r in t, by occurrenc% of e.

Proof. By induction on the number n of occurrences of operation

symbols in t,.
Basi8. If n = O, then t, is a variable or a constant symbol. In
either case, t, is r and t, is 8. Then r = 8 -+ r = 8 is a theorem because
it is a tautology.
lnduction step. Assume the theorem for every t, with n or fewer
symbols and consider t, with n + 1 symbols. Then t, is F(t 1 , , t"),
where F is an operation symbol and t 1 , , t" are terms with n or
fewer symbols. Then t, is F(t~, ... , tk), where each t; is the result of
replacing the specified occurrences of r in t1 by occurrences of 8. By the
induction hypothesis, f-r = 8 -+ t1 = t; for 1 ~ i ~ k. E3 and spec
give f-t 1 = t~ A A t" = tk-+ F(tv ... , t") = F(t~, ... , tk) Then the
statement calculus gives t-r = s-+ F(t 1 , , t") = F(ti., ... , t~).
tSee Addendum, page 201.

EXAMPLE 7.

l.
2.

y=z+l
(x(z + 1) + y) + (z + 1) = (xy + y ) + y

sub, l

is z + 1, tv is (xy + y ) + y , and tz+i is

Note that only two ofthe three occurrences
of y in t 11 are specified occurrences.
In this example r is y,

(x(z + 1) + y) + (z + 1).

THEOR.EM 8. t i-r = 8 .-+. P,~ P,, where P, and P, areformula8, r arul

s are terms, r occurs in P,, and P, is the result of replacing one or more
specified occurrences (but not necessarily all occurrences) of r in P, by
occurrences of 8, provided that no variable that occur8 in r or 8 is a bourul
variable of P,.

Proof. By induction on the number n of symbols in P,, counting

each occurrence of "" -+, or 'r/ as a symbol.
Basis. If n = O, then P, is an atomic formula G(t1 , , t"), where G
is a predicate symbol and t 1 , . . , tk are terms. Then P, is G(t~, . .. , t~ ),
where each t; is the result of replacing the specifi.ed occurrences of r in
t 1 by occurrences of s. By Theorem 5, i-r = s-+ t1 = t; for 1 ~ i ~ k.
E2 and spec give

1-t1 =

t~ /\ A t" = t~ .-+. G(t 1 ,

tk) ~ G(t~, ... , tk)

Then the statement calculus gives

1-r

8 .-+.

G(t 1 ,

. ,

tk} ~ G(t~, ... , t~)

Jnduction 8tep. Assume the theorem for every P, with n or fewer

symbols, and considera P, with n + 1 symbols.
t See Addendum, page 201.

108

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

Case l. Pr is ,..,_,Qr far sorne Qr. The induction hypothesis gives

1-r = s .-+. Qr +-t Q.. Then the statement calculus gives
1-r =

.-+. ,..,_,Qr +-t "'Qs

Case 2. Pr is Qr-+ Rr far sorne Qr and Rr. The induction hypothesis gives 1-r = s .-+. Qr +-t Q8 and 1-r = s .-+. Rr +-t R.. Then the
statement calculus gives 1-r = s .-+. Qr -+ Rr +-t Q. -+ R .
Case 3. Pr is VvQr far sorne v and Qr. Theinduction hypothesis gives
1-r = s .-+. Qr +-t Q5 Then gen gives 1-Vv(r = s .-+. Qr +-t Q.). Since v
is a bound variable of P" vis not free in r = s. Then Theorem Scheme
21 of Section 19 and the statement calculus give

21]

EQUALITY

be x, s be y+ 7, and Px be 3y(y = x + 2). Corollary 9 does not

apply because the variable y occurs in s and is bound in P x Observing
that P"' + 7 is 3y(y = (y + 7) + 2), we conclude that there is good
reason for the restriction. We can, however, go ahead with the
substitution after changing the bound variable y in P x to y 1 Then,
frorn /::,, 1- x = y + 7 and /::,, 1- 3y1 (y 1 = x + 2), we can conclude
6. 1- 3y1(Y1 = (y+ 7) + 2).
Staternents of the following forrns are very comrnon in mathematics:
There
There
There
There

1-r = s .-+. Vv(Qr +-t Q,)

is
is
is
is

3uP(u) /\ VuVv(P(u) /\ P(v)-+ u

1-r = s .-+. VvQr +-t VvQ,

Proof.

1-

P" then 6.

1-

P., where r, s, P"

By Theorem 1, we can vary Corollary 9 by replacing /::,, 1- r = s by

6. 1- s = r. We use" sub" again to indicate an application of Theorem
8 or Corollary 9 or its variant in proof outlines.
ExAMPLE 10.

< y /\ y <

9.

= Y1 +

14.

X < Y1

/\ y < z

(1)

sub, 9, 6

Here r is y, s is y 1 + y 2 , P Y is x < y /\ y < z, and P y 1 +y 2 is

x < y1 + y 2 /\ y < z. The first occurrence of y in P Y is the specified
occurrence.
EXAMPLE 11. In Corollary 9, the restriction that no variable bound in
Pr may occur in r or s can be circumvented by changes of bound
variables. Suppose 6. 1- x = y + 7 and 6. 1- 3y(y = x + 2). Let r

(2)

We have chosen v in (1) to be a specific variable to make sure that (2)

has a unique unabbreviation. In practice, v can be any variable such
that P(u) is similar to P(v). In (1), 3uP(u) says that there is at least
one u such that P(u), and VuVv(P(u) /\ P(v)-+ u = v) says that there
is at rnost one u such that P(u).

Proof.

Y2

+ Y2

v)

where P(v) is P(v/u), and vis the first variable in the alphabetic list of
variables that does not occur in P(u). Then we abbreviate (1) as

1-Vx3!y(y = x).

THEOREJII 12.
X

3!uP(u)

Theorem 8 and the statement calculus.

6.

one and only one u such that P(u)

exactly one u such that P(u)
a unique u such that P(u)
at least one u and at most one u such that P(u)

W e translate each of them as

Then Theorem 18.1 and the statement calculus give

CoROLLARY 9. If 6. 1- r = s and 6.
and P. are as in Theorem 8.

109

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

P(y) is y = x.
X= X

3y(y = x)

y= X
y= z
y =

X /\ Z

/\ Z

as
=, 3

= X-+ y

DT, 3-4

VyT/z(y = x /\ z = x-+ y
3!y(y = x)
Vx3!y(y = x)

= z)

gen
SC,2, 6
gen

A proof of 3!uP(u) breaks down into two parts, the existence part
3uP(u) and the uniqueness part VuVv(P(u) /\ P(v)-+ u = v). For the

.10

[Ch. 2

THE PREDICATE CALCULUS

21]

EQUALITY

miqueness part, u = v is deduced from the assumption P(u) /\ P(v),

md then the deduction theorem and gen give
'r/u'r/v(P(u) /\ P(v)--+ u

v)

ANSWERS

3. (a) 3u1 3u2 .P(u1 )

/\

(b) 'v'u1 'r/u2 'r/u3 .P(u1 )

~XA.."l\1PLE 13.

Abelian groups.

1-'r/x'r/y3!z(x

z)

U1

Proof.
l.

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

x+y=x+y
3z(x + y = z)

+y =Z
= Z1

/\ X

y =

3
as

= Z /\ X + y = Z --+ Z = z1
'r/z'r/z1 (x + y = z /\ x + y = z1 --+ z = z1 )

+y

3!z(x

+y

'r/x'r/y3 !z(x

z)

= z)

=, 3
DT, 3-4
gen
se, 2, 6
gen

n sorne formulations of abelian group theory, 'r/x'r/y3!z(x + y = z) is

.n axiom. There is no need for it, because informally it merely says
gain that + is a binary operation, and formally it can be proved.

EXERCISES

Prove: If P(u) is similar te P(i) , then

(a) 1-'r/u.P(u)+-+ 3v(v =u /\ P(v))
(b) 1--'r/u.P(u)+-+ 'v'v(v =U--+ P(v))

Prove (where vis the first variable that does not occur in P(u)):
(a) 1--3!uP(u) +-+ 3u'r/v(u = v +-+ P(v))
(b) 1--3!uP(u) +-+ 3u(P(u) /\ 'r/v(P(v)--+ u= v))
Translate the following into symbolic forro:
(a)
(b)
(e)
(d)

There
There
There
There

exist
exist
exist
exist

at least two u's such that P(u).

at most two u's such that P(u).
exactly two u's such that P(u).
exactly three u's such that P(u).

In number theory , prove

1-'r/x'v'y'r/z'r/y 1 (x

z /\ x

y 1 # z .--+.y =fa y 1 )

= U2

V U

P(u 2 )
/\

= U3

/\

P(u 2 )
V U2

u1 # u2
/\

P(u3 )-+

= U3.

(e) The conjunction of (a) and (b), or 3u1 3u2 .P(u1 ) /\ P(u2 ) /\
U # U2 /\ Vu3(P(u3) -+ U3 = U V U3 = U2}.
(d) 3u1 3u2 3u3 .P(u1 ) /\ P(u 2 ) /\ P(u3 } /\ u 1 # u 2 /\ u 1 # u 3 /\
U2 # U3 /\ Vu4(P(u4)-+ U4 = U1 V U4 = U2 V U4 = U3}.

lll

22)

3
FIRST ORDER
THEORIES

~2

Definition a.nd Examples

From now on the predicate calculus mea.ns the predicate calculus with
:quality, and 1- indicates a deduction in the predicate calculus. The
ogical axioms are the axioms of the predicate calculus, i.e., the instances
>f Al through A6, El and the instances of E2 and E3, together with
,he additional axioms given by Ax Gen. The proper symbols of the
>redicate calculus are ali the predicate, operation, and constant symbols.
A first order theory T is defined by a set 9 of proper symbols that
:ontains = and a set X of statements. 9 is called the set of proper
ymbols ofT; X is called the set of proper axiom.s of T. Theformula.s of
r are all the formulas constructible from 9, i.e., Pis a formula of T if
md only if every proper symbol that occurs in P is in the set 9.
r may be any set of statements of T.
Let t:,. be a finite set of formulas of T, and let Q be a formula of T.
l'hen . 1-T Q means that there is a finite sequence S 1 , . , S,. of formulas
1f T such that S,. is Q, and each S, (1 ~ i ~ n) is a logical axiom ora
112

DEFINITION .AND EXAMPLES

113

proper axiom or is inferred by modus ponens on S 1 and S1c for sorne j and
k less than i, or is in !::...
If !::.. is the empty set, we write 1-TQ and say that Q is a theorem of T.
The only difference between a deduction in the predicate calculus
and a deduction in T is tha.t certa.in statements that would be labeled
as assumptions in the predica.te calculus are labeled as proper axioms
in T.
l. Let T be a first order theory. 1-TQ if and only if there is a
finite set {P 1 , . , P 1c} of proper axioms of T such that P v ... , P 1c 1- Q
and euch step of the deduction is a formula of T.
Tln:OREM

Proof.

P 1,

Suppose

1-TQ.

Let S1 ,

S,. be a. proof of Q in T.

Let

P 1c be the steps that are la.beled as proper axioms. Relabel

ea.ch P 1 as a.n assumption. Then 8 1 , . , S,. is a deduction of Q from
{P1 , . . , P1c} in the predicate calculus, i.e., P 1 , . , P1c 1-Q. Now
suppose there is a finite set {P 1 , .. , P 1c} of proper axioma of T su ch
that P 1 , .. , P1c 1-Q. Let Sv ... , S,. be a deduction of Q from
{P 1 , : , P 1c} in the predi cate calculus. Relabel ea.ch P 1 as a proper
axiom. Then 8 1 , . . , S,. is a proof of Q in T, i.e., 1-~.
,

We give some examples of first order theories. With one exception,

ali the examples are from modern algebra. W e do not expect the
reader to be an expert in modern a.lgebra before or after he reads these
examples. He should read ali the examples, and return to a particular
one as the need e.rises.
EXAMPLE 2. (Compare Example 7.1.) The set of proper symbols of
the theory L of linearly ordered sets is { =, < }. The proper axioma of
L are

Ll.
L2.
L3.

'v'x--(x < x)
'v'x'v'y'v'z(x <y/\ y< z-+x < z)
'v'x'v'y(x < y v x = y v y < x)

Recall that = is the first 2-place predica.te symbol, i.e., r = s is an

abbreviation for a.##(r, s). < is the second 2-place predica.te symbol,
i.e., r < sisan abbreviation for a##l(r, s). Pis a formula of L if and
only if every proper symbol that occurs in P is in { = , < }. The
equality axioma of L are
El.
'v'x(x = x)
E2 = Vx1 Vx2'v'Y1 'v'y2(X1 = Y1 /\ X2 = Y2 .-+. X1 = X2 f-+ Y1 = Y2)
E2 < . Vx1Vx2Vy 1Vy2(x 1 = y 1 /\ x 2 = y 2 .-+. x 1 < x 2 f-+ y 1 < y 2)

114

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

22]
DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

(Compare Example 7.2.) The set of proper symbols of

the theory AG of abelian groups is { = , + , O}. The proper axioms of
AG are
ExAMPLE 3.

and n are the first two 2-place operation symbols.

ofLA are

Vx3y(x
VxVy(x

+y =
+y=

=x +

(y

LA~ ~~~~<YAY<Z-+X<zj

z))

LA3. VxVy(x ~ x u y /\ y ~ x U y)
LA4. VxVy(x n y ~ x A x n y ~ y)
LA.5. VxVyVz(x ~ z A y ~ z-+ x U y ~ z)
LA6. VxVyVz(z ~ x A z ~ y-+ z ~ x n y)

O)
y

x)

+ is the first 2-place operat ion sy mbol, i.e., r + s is an abbreviation

for f3# # (r, s). O is an abbreviation for the first constant sy mbol y .
P is a formula of AG if and only if every proper symbol that occurs in
P is in { = , + , O}. The equality axioms of AG are
=

El.

Vx(x

E2 = .
E3 +.

Vx 1Vx zVy 1Vy2 (X1 = Y1 A X2 = Y2 .-+. X1 = X2 ~ Y1 = Y2)

r ~ sis an abbreviation for r < s v r = s. r U s is called the least

upper bound of r and s. r n s is called the greatest lower bound of r and
s. The integers and the reals are lattices with the usual meaning of
= and <, with a u b being the larger of a and b, and a n b being the
smaller of a and b.

x)

Vx1'Vx2 'Vy1 Vyz (X1

Y1 /\ X2

The proper axioms

Vx,.....(x < x)

LAI.
VxVyVz((x + y )
Vx (x + O = x)

AGl.
AG2.
AG3.
AG4.

115

= Y2-+ X1 + X2 = Y1 + J/2)

The set of proper symbols of the theory G of groups is

EXAMPLE 6.

{=, , 1}, where is the first 2-place operation symbol and 1 is the first
constant symbol.

4. The set of proper sy mbols of the first order theory R of

rings is { = , + , , O}, where + is the first 2-place operation symbol, is
the second 2-place operation sy mbol, and O is the first constant symbol.
The proper axioms of R are

EXAMPLE

Rl. Vx'r/yVz((x + y) + z = x
R2. Vx(x + O = x)
R3. \'x 3y(x + y = O)
R4. VxVy(x + y = y + x )

R5.
R6.
R7.

(y

z))

+ z) =
+ z)x =

xy

VxVyVz( ( y

yx

+
+

Vx'r/yVz( (xy)z = x ( yz))

Vx(xl = x )
Vx3y(xy = 1)

;_ rs is an abbreviation for rs. Note that Gl through G3 are exactly the

"'' : ~ame as AGl through AG3 when both sets are unabbreviated. Hence
l"
. & g:-cup. :An
' 2;:,011a11
, ,.
. a. g.roi:;p m w.t:ucn
.. -t ever:y a h, e.:Ja.n
g.ron::; 1s
group 1s
-.-;~hE'. operation is commutative. The mathematicaI practice is to reserve
'tfV the additive notation + and O for abelian groups and to use the
e muJtiplicative notation and l for all groups, abelian or not.

Vx'Vy'Vz((xy)z = x(yz))
VxVy'Vz(x(y

Gl.
G2.
G3.

The proper axioms of G are

xz)
zx)

rs is an abbreviation for r s, and rs + rt is an abbreviation for

(rs) + (rt). The integers and the reals are rings with the usual meaning
of = , + , , and O. Note that R 1 through R4 are the same as AG 1
through AG4. Hence every ring is an abelian group. The theory of
commutative rings is the result of adjoining to R the proper axiom
VxVy(xy = yx). The equality axioms of R are El, E2= , E3+ ,
and E3.
EXAMPLE 5. The set of proper symbols of the theory LA of lattices is
{ =, <, u, n}, where < is the second 2-place predicate symbol and U

'

7. The set of proper symbols of the theory F of fields is

O, l ), where + and are the first two 2-place operation
:-'!; symbois and O and 1 are the first two constant symbols. As usual we
--lt. a.re rs for rs and rs + rt for (rs) + (rt). The proper axioms of F

~'{ "".',

EXAMPLE

+, ,

~ Write
-.

Yx't/yYz((x + y )
Yx(x + O= x)
Vx3y(x

+z=

y = O)

YxVy(x + y = y + x)
YxVyVz((xy)z = x(yz))
Vx(xl
x)

(y

z))

[Ch. 3

.16

22]

DEFINITION AND

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

F7.
F8.
F9.

FlO. O,: 1
fhe rationals, the reals, and the complex numbers are fields with the
usual meaning of = , +, , O, and l. The integers do not forro a field
because F7 fails. Fl through-F4 sta.te that a field is an abelian group
with + and O. F5 through F8 state that the nonzero elements of a
field are an abelian group with and 1. The theory of division rings
is the result of replacing F8 by VxVyVz((y + z)x = yx + zx).

EXAMPLE l O.

axioms Ll through L3 o the theory of linearly ordered sets, and the

following proper axioms:

OFL VxVyVz(x < y~ x + z < y + z}

OF2. VxVyVz(x < y /\ O < z-+ xz < yz)

.. times

integer n. Such fields are said to be of characteristic zero. In algebra

it is proved that if a field is not of characteristic zero, then there is a
prime p such that n = O if and only if n is a multiple of p. Such a
field is said to be of characteristic p. There exist fields of characteristic
p for every prime p. The theory Fi> of fields of characteristic pis the
result of adjoining to F the proper axiom p = O. The theory F of
fields of characteristic zero is the result of adjoining to F as proper

+ 1 "/: O,
1 b . ,.
'
' fiWM1.;: lf 1. ne :re,,,ul,
avge
raHXi.-1/.lf c;.osec.
1

T'rte tneory
..
A ('~
f
1 1

'

....,.v.J:i.
O
of adjoining to the theory of fields one proper axiom for each posi.ive
integer n that says that every polynomial of degree n has a root. For
.

n = 3, the axiom is
VyVy 1 Vy 2 Vy 3 (y3

"/:

O-+ 3x(y

+ y 1x +

y.x2

y 3x 3

The theory OF of ordered fields is the result of adjoining

to the theory o fields the 2-place predicate symbol < , the proper

EXAMPLE 8. In the theory F of fields , let n be an abbreviation for the

term 1 + 1 + . + l. In the familiar fields, n "/: O for every positive

~
~XAMPLE ~..

117

of all polynomials with rational coefficients is countable because the

set of rational numbers is countable, and every polynomial has only a
finite number of roots.

Vx(x "/: O-r3z(xz = 1))

VxVy(xy = yx)
VxVyVz(x(y + z) = xy + xz)

axioms all the statements p "/: O:

1 + 1 ,: O, 1 + 1 + 1 -:p O,

EXAM.PLES

O))

where xi< is an abbreviation for xX X.

~

/&:times

The field of complex numbers is algebraically closed. The fields

of rational and real numbers are not algebraically closed. The field of
algebraic numbers is algebraically closed. An algebraic number is a.
complex number that is a root of a polynomial with rational coefficients.
For example, Vz and i are algebraic numbers because Vz is a root of
x 2 - 2 and i is a root of x 2 + l. The set of complex numbers is
uncountable beca.use it includes the set of real numbers. The set of
algebraic numbers is countable. The idea of the proof is that the set

The rationals and reals are ordered fields with the usual meaning of < .
The field of complex numbers is not ordered because there is no way of
defining < so that all the proper a:rioms of OF hold. We sketch the
proof. x is positive means O < x. In an ordered field, the square of
every nonzero element is positive, and the sum of two positive elements
is positive. Suppose for contradication that the field of complex
numbers is ordered. Then 1 and -1 are positive because 1 is the
square of l and -1 is the square of i. Then l + ( -1) is positive, i.e.,
O < O. But ,..._,,(O < O) by LI.
EXAMPLE 11. The theory RCF of real closed fields is the result of
adjoining to the theory of ordered fields the following proper axiom :
RCFI.

Vx(O < x-+ 3y(y2

= x))

which sayF t.hQt every P ~sitive. eJ~mer1t has a E=!U3.re root: and ad j 0 ~~1~ :-~ g
for each odd positive integer n, the proper axiom that says that every
polynomial of degree n has a root. (See Example 9.) The field of real
numbers is a real closed field. The theory of real closed fields is roughly
that part of the theory of real numbers that is studied in high-school
algebra. The field of complex numbers is nota real closed field because
it is not ordered, and the field of rational numbers is not a real closed
field because RCFl fails. For example, the rational number 2 has no
rational square root.
,,; EXAMPLE 12. The theory DL of dense linearly ordered sets with neither
first nor last element is the result of adjoining to the proper axioms of L
(Example 2)

L4.
L5.
L6.

VxVy(x < y~ 3z(x < z /\ z < y))

Vx3y(y < x )
Vx3y(x < y)

[Ch. 3
ll8

22]

DEFINITION AND EXAMPLES

119

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

The rationals and the reals with the usual meaning of = and < are
dense linearly ordered sets with neither first nor last element.
ExAMPLE 13. The predicate calculus is a first order theory. Its
proper symbols are all the proper symbols, and it has no proper axioms.
ExAMPLE 14. The set of proper symbols of the theory BA of Boolean
algebras is {=,U, n, ',O, l}, where U and n are the first two 2-place
operation symbols, ' is the first 1-place operation symbol, and O and 1
are the first two constant symbols. The proper axioms of BA are

BAl.
BA2.
BA3.
BA4.
BA5.
BA6.

VxVyVz((x u y) U z = x u (y U z))
VxVyVz((x n y) n z = 'X n (y n z))

= y u x)
= y n x)
U (y n z) = (x U
n (y U z) = (x n
O = x)
1 = x)
x' = 1)
x' = O)

VxVy(x u
VxVy(x n
VxVyVz(x
VxVyVz(x

y
y

y) n (x u z))
y) U (x n z))

BA7.
Vx(x u
BA8.
Vx(x n
BA9.
Vx(x U
BAlO. Vx(x n
BAll. O# 1
Let A be any nonempty set, and let D be the set of all subsets of A.
Then D is a Boolean algebra with the following interpretations of =,
u, n, ', O, and l. = is equality of sets, U and n are union and intersection, B' is {x E A \ x 1$ B}, O is the empty set 0, and 1 is A.
A first order theory is finitely axiomatized if and only if its set of
proper axioms is finite.
A set X of statements is decidable if and only if there is an effective
procedure for deciding whether or not any given statement is in X.
Every finite set is decidable, and sorne infinite sets are decidable. For
example, the set of proper axioms of the theory of algebraically closed
fields is decidable.
A first order theory is formal if and only if its set of proper axioms is
decidable. All the examples above are formal theories. We are
really interested only in formal theories, because the notion of proof is
effective for a first order theory if and only if the theory is formal. We
need to consider theories that are not formal because they enter into
the proofs of the main theorems about first order theories.

What distinguishes a first order theory from a theory of higher order

is that in the intended interpretation, all the variables range over the
elements of a given domain. An example of a second order formula is
the following statement of mathematical induction:
VM .O E M /\ Vx(x

M-+ x

1 E M)-+ Vx(x

M)

Here the variable M ranges over sets of numbers. In practice, the

theory of groups for example deals not only with elements of a group,
but with sets of elements and sets of sets of elements. The formal
counterpart is a third order theory.
We restrict our attention to first order theories for three reasons.
First, more is known about first order theories than about higher order
theories. Second, higher order logic is essentially the same as first
order logic. That is, the fundamental procedure remains the removal
and insertion of quantifiers and the use of the statement calculus.
Third, anything that can be done in any mathematical theory can be
done in set theory, and set theory can be formulated as a first order
theory. Every mathematical entity (function, space, sequence,
number, etc.) can be construed in one way or another to be a set.
Therefore only one kind of variable is necessary, for a set of sets is
itself a set. Not only can set theory be formulated as a first order
theory, but as a finitely axiomatized theory. We give no details
because the formulation is meaningless without a lengthy development
which would take us too far afield.
Every n-place operation symbol of a first order theory can be
replaced by an n + 1-place predicate symbol, and every constant
symbol by a 1-place predicate symbol. We illustrate the procedure
with AG. Let G be the first 3-place predicate symbol and H be the
first 1-place predicate symbol. We replace + by G and O by H.
G(r, s, t) is interpreted as r + s = t, and H(r) is interpreted as r = O.
W e need the additional axioms
VxVy3!zG(x, y, z)
3!xH(x)

Axioms AG2 and AG3 translate into

AG2'.
AG3'.

VxVy(H(y)-+ G(x, y, x))

VxVz(H(z)-+ 3yG(x, y, z))

The translations of AG 1 and AG4 are left as exercises. The structure

of the predicate calculus and first order theories can be greatly

120

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

23]
DEDUCTION

simplified by discarding all the operation and constant symbols.

However, the resulting formulations of first order theories are rather
removed from the familiar formulations.

EXERCISES

1. Give the equality axioms for the theories R , F, LA, and BA.
2. Give axioms AGI' and AG4' corresponding to AGl and AG4, using
the predicate symbol G in place of + .
3. Give a formulation of R using the predicate symbols G, H, and K in
place of +, , and O.
4. We give below three definitions of "group" that appear in the
literature. Two are correct, and one is nonsense. State which is
nonsense and why, and formulate the other two as first order
theories.

THEOREM

l.
2.

:i

+y

= x)

AG2
3
as

+ y = x)
+ y = x)

4.

Vx(x
'v'x(x

5.

Y1 +Y= Y1

6.
7.
8.
9.

Y+ Y1 =Y

Vx(x

y1

/\ 'v'x(x

+ y1 = x )

se
spec

x)

so, 3
spec
AG4

y + x)
Y1 +Y= Y+ Y1
'v'x'v'y(x

'.
iU.

spe c
=, 7, 9, 5

= 'li1

11.

Vy'v'y 1 'v'x(x

12.

3!y'v'x(x

THEOREM 2 .

5. Prove that if a field is not of characteristic zero, then it is of

characteristic p for some prime p .
6. Let the first order theory T be finitely axiomatized, and let
P 1 , . . . , Pk be the proper axioms of T. Prove that 1-TQ if and only
if 1-P1 /\ /\ Pk-+Q, with each step a formula of T.

23

1-Aa3!yVx(x

'v'x(x + O = x )
3yVx(x + y
x)

3.

x ( yz).

2. There is an element. z of D such that

(i) xz = x for every x in D,
(ii) For every x in D there is a y in D such that xy = z.
(b) Same as (a) except that 2 is replaced by
2'. There 1S an elament z o]) such that xz = x for ever-~r x in D.
2. For every x in D there is a y in D su ch that xy = z. '
(c) Same as (a) except that 2 is replaced by
2*. For every x and y in D there is a z in D such that xz = y.
2**. For every x and y in D there is a z in D such that zx = y.

l.

Prooj. First we give an intuitive proof. By AG2 there is a y ,

namely O, such that 'v'x(x + y = x ). Suppose Vx (x + y = x ) and
'v'x(x + y 1 = x ). Then, in particular, y 1 + y = y 1 and y + y = y .
1
Then by the commutative law (AG4) we have y = y 1 . we transform
this intuitive proof into the following proof outline.

(a) A group is a nonempty set D together with a binary operation

on D (for which we use the ianguage of multiplication) such that
l. For ali x , y, z in D, (xy)z

121

theorems of AG. we recall that the proper axioms of AG are

AGI.
VxVyVz((x + y) + z = x + (y + z) )
AG2. Vx(x + O= x)
AG3. Vx3y(x + y = O)
AG4. Vx'iy(x + y = y + x)

+
y

x)

/\ Vx(x
x)

+ y1

= x)

-+y

=X

l-AaVxVzVz1(X

= Y1

Z1-+

z =

DT, 3-10, and gen

SO, 2, 11
Z )

Prooj. Suppose x + z = x + z 1 Then z + x = z 1 + x by the

commutative law. By AG3 there is a y such that x + y = O. Adding y to both sides and using the associative law (AGI ), we have
z + (x + y ) = z1 + (x + y). Then z + O = z1 + O, since x + y = O.
Then z = z1 by AG2.
l.
2.

Deduction

In this section we show how the deduction techniques of the predicate

calculus carry over to first order theories. We begin with some

x+z=x+~

~~~+Y=y+zj

3.

x+z=z+x

4.

x+~=~+x

as
AG4
spec
spec, 2

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

+X= Z1 +X
V:t3y(x + y = O)
3y(x +y= O)
x+y=O
(z + x) + y = (z 1

=, 3, 1,

VxVyVz((x

y)

x)

AG3
spec
Cy
sub, 5

+y
(y

z))

(z + x) + y = z + (x + y)
(z1 + x) + y = z1 + (x + y)
z + (x + y) = z1 + (x + y)
Z + 0 = z1 + 0
Vx(x +O= x)

z+O=z
Z1 + 0 = z1
Z = Z1
=

19.

20.

VxVzVz1 (x

CHEOREM 3.

+z

= x

1- AG V:t3 !y(x

+ z1 ~ z

= z1)

Suppose x

= X+
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

DEDUCTION

[Ch.3

FIRST O:B.DER THEORIES

122

AGl
apee
spec, 10
=' 11, 9, 12
sub, 8, 13
AG2
spec
spec, 15
=,16,14,17
e, 8
DT, 1-19, and gen

l.

2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

16.
17,

+ y = 0)

18.

Proof. Let x be fixed but arbitraIJ' By AG3 there is a y such that

: + y= O. Suppose x + y = O and x + y 1 = O. Then x +y =
; + y 1 , and Theorem 2 gives y = y 1
l. \fxjy(x + y = O)
2. 3y(x + y = O)
3.
X + y = o /\ X + Y1 = o
4.
X+ y= X+ Y1
5.
VxVzVz 1 (x + z = x + z1 ~z = z 1 )
6.
X + y = X + Y1 ~ y = Y1
7.
Y = Y1
8. VyVy1(x + y = O /\ x + y 1 = O~ Y = Y1)
9. 3!y(x + y = O)
10. Vx3!y(x + y = 0)
HEOREM 4.

l-AGVxVy3!z(x +

AG3
spec
as

=, 3
T2
spec
MP, 6, 4
DT, 3-7, and gen
SC,2, 8
gen

z = y)

Proof. Let x and y be fixed but arbitrary. By AG3 there is

y1 such that x + y1 = O. Then x + (Y1 + y) = (x + Y1) + Y =
+ y = y + O = y. Hence there is a z, namely y 1 + y, auch that

19.
20.

+ z =y

and x

z1 =y.

Vx3y(x + y = O)
3y(x +y= O)

X+ Y1

=o

't/xVyVz((x + y) + z = x
(x + '!/1) + '!/ = X + ('!/1
0 + '!f =X+ (y1 + '!/)
VxVy(x + y = y + x)

+ (y +
+ '!/)

z))

O+y=y+O
Vx(x +O= x)

y+O=y
X+ ('!/1 +y)='!/
3z(x + z = y)
3z(x + z = y)
X + Z = '!/ /\ X + z1 = '!J
X+ Z =X+ z1
VxVzVz1 (x + z = x + z1 ~z = z1)
X + Z = X + Z ~ Z = z1
Z = Z
VzVz 1 .x + z =y/\ x
VxVy3!z(x + z = y)

+ z1

= y~z = z1

123

Then z = z1 by

AG3
apee
Cy
AGl
apee
sub, 3, 5
AG4
spec
AG2
spec
=' 6, 8, 10
3

e,

as

=,

14

T2
spec

MP, 17, 15
DT, 14-18, and gen

se,

13, 19, and gen

Next we prove in L the trichotomy law, which states that for all x and
y, exactly one of the following holds: x <y, x = y, y< x. We need the
exclusive or. The binary connective vis defined as follows: P \i Q is an
abbreviation for P v Q /\ - (P /\ Q). \i is associative so it makes sense
to write P \i Q \i R. An examination of the truth table for P v Q v R
will reveal why it is not suitable for the trichotomy law. What we need
here is the ternary connective
defined as follows: (P, Q, R) is an
abbreviation for P v Q v R /\ - (P /\ Q) /\ - (P /\ R) /\ - (Q /\ R).
Recall that the proper axioms of L are

v,

Ll.
L2.
L3.

Vx,....,(x < x)
't/xVyVz(x < y /\ y < z ~ x < z)
V:i.,Vy(x < y v x = y v y < x)

The reason that L3 is taken as an axiom rather than the stronger

.... trichotomy law is that the latter can be proved from Ll through L3.

124

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER TREORIES

TREOREM 5.

t-i,VxVy\J(x <y,

y , y< x)

Proof. Let x a.nd y be fixed but arbitrary. By L3, at least one of

x < y, x =y, y < x holds. To show that at most one holds, we show
that any two together give a eontradietion. From x < y and x = y
we get x < x (or y < y) by sub, eontradieting Ll. From x < y and
y < x we get x < x (or y < y) by L2, eontradieting Ll. From x = y
and y < x we again get x < x (or y < y) by sub, eontradieting LI.
Henee \J(x<y, x
y , y<x).

23]

3.
4.

5.

L3
apee
as

VxVy(x < y V X
y V y < x)
x<yvx=yvy<x
X < y /\ X
y
x<y
x=y
X< X
x<yAx=y-x<x
vx.-.-(x < x)
.-..(x < x)
,...,(X < y /\ X
y)

se
se, a

sub, 5, 4
DT, 3-6
Ll
apee

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
=
11. Vx'rlyVz(x < y /\ y < z - x < z)
12. X<y/\y<X-X<X
13. .-.-(x < y /\ y < x)
14. "'(x = y /\ y < x)
15. \J ( x < y, :r = y , y< x )
16. Vx'rly\J(x <y, x = y , y< x )
_Next

Rl.
R2.
R3.
R4.

R5.
R6.
R7.

se,7, 9

L2
apee
se, 12, 9

similar to 3-1 O
se, 2, 10, rn, 14
gen

is a theorem of ring theory.

The proper axioma of R are

Vx'rlyVz((x + y) + z = x + (y
Vx(x + O = x)
Vx3y(x + y = O)
VxVy(x + y = y + x)
Vx'rlyVz((xy)z
x(yz))
VxVyVz(x(y + z) = xy + xz)
VxVyVz((y + z)x
yx + zx)

z))

Beeause Rl through R4 are the same as AGl through AG4, every

theorem of AG is also a theorem of R. Henee Theorems 1 through 4
are theorems of R.
THEOREM 6.

t-RVx(xO

O)

125

Prooj. xO + O = xO = x(O + O) = xO + xO by R2, R2, and R6.

Then Theorem 2 a.pplied to xO + xO = xO + O gives xO = O.
Vx(x + O = x)
xO +O= xO

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

l.
2.

DEDUCTION

VxVy'rlz(x(y + z) = xy
x(O + O) = xO + xO

R2
apee
R6
apee
apee, 1
sub, 5, 4

xz)

o+ o= o
+ xO
xO = xO

xO = xO
xO

VxVzVz1 (x
xO + xO
xO =O

9.
10.
11.

z
xO

=
+

O
x + z1 - z = z1 )
O - xO = O

=, 6, 2
T2
apee
MP, 9, 7
gen

Vx(xO = O)

Fina.lly we have some theorems of field theory.

of F are
VxVyVz((x + y) + z = x
Vx(x + O = x)
Vx3y(x + y = O)
VxVy(x + y = y + x)
VxVyVz((xy)z
x(yz))
Vx(xl = x)

Fl.
F2.
F3.

F4.
F5.

lfx(x

I'8.
F9.

= 'i;'X}
VxVy\fz(x(y + z)

FlO.

O i= 1

Prooj.

and Fs.

o- 3z(xz

i=

z))

= 1))

(y

= xy

t-FVx\fyVz((y

VxVy(xy

z)x

= x(y +

xy
(y
xz

= yx
+ z)x
= zx

xz)

z)x = yx

z) = xy

= yx)

2. (y + z}x = x(y + z)
3. Vx\fyVz(x(y + z) = xy
4. x(y + z} = xy + xz
5. (y + z)x = xy + xz
7.
8.

Vx'iy(;.,':J

TREOREM 7.

(y

F6.
F7.

l.

The proper axioms

= yx

xz

+ zx)
xz = yx

zx

FB

xz)

spee
F9
apee

=,

2, 4

spec, 1
sub, 6, 5
spee, 1

by

FS,

F9,

126

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

9.

10.

(y + z)x = yx + zx
VxVyVz((y + z)x = yx

sub, 8, 7
gen

yz)

We observe that every a>..iom of Risa theorem of F. Hence every

theorem of Risa theorem of F, i.e., every field is a ring.
THEOREM

8.

t-FVxVy(xy = 0 ~ x

0 V y

0)

Proof. Suppose xy = O and y =F O. Then by F7 there is a z such

that yz = l. Then x = x l = x(yz) = (xy)z = Oz = zO = O by F6,
sub, F5, sub, F8, and Theorem 6.
l.

2.
3.

4.
5.

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ll.

12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

NUMBER THEORY

se
se,

127

from 6. are not formulas of T. There is no real problem, because it is

easy to verify tha.t in the proof of the deduction theorem, eaoh step in
the deduction of P-+ Q from 6. is actually a formula of T.
Similarly, the possibility a.rises that a theorem of the predicate
calculus that is a formula of T may not be a theorem of T because a.
step in its proof is nota formula ofT. We show in Seotion 27 that this
never happens. In the meantime we justify the use of the theorem
schemes already proved in the predicate caloulus by the observation
that no proof of a formula P introduces a proper symbol that is not in
P, a.nd hence each step of the proof of Pis a formula of T whenever Pis
a formula of T.

as

xy = O /\ y =F O
xy = O
y =F o
Vx(x =F O~ 3z(xz = 1))
y =F O -+ 3z( yz = 1)
3z(yz = 1)
yz = 1
Vx{xl = x)
xl =X
x(yz) = x
VxVyVz{{xy)z = x(yz))
(xy)z = x(yz)
Oz = x(yz)
VxVy(xy = yx)
Oz = zO
Vx(xO = O)
zO = O
x=O
x=O

20. xy=O/\y=FO~x=O
21. xy=O~x=OVy=O
22. VxVy(xy = O~ x = O V y

24)

EXERCISES

F7
spec
MP, 5, 3
ez

F6
spec
sub, 7, 9
F5
spec
sub, 2, 12

FS
spec
T6
spec
=, 10, 13, 15, 17

l. Prove: t-A0 Vz.z = O +--+ Vx(x

2. Prove: (a) t-RVx(Ox = O)
(b)
3. Prove: (a)
(b)
(e)
(d)

'r-RV'xVy(x(y
'r-~ !yVx(xy

+ y)
= x)

z = x /\ 3y(x

= (x

y = z))

x)y)

'r-FV'xVzVz1{X .: o.-+. xz = XZ-+ z

t-FVx(x :F O~ 3ty(xy = 1))
'r-FVxVy(x =F O-+ 3!z(xz = y))
(e) 'r-FVxVy(x2 = y 2 -+ x = y v x + y
viation for r r.)

Z )

O) (r 2 is an abbre-

4. Let AG' be the result of adjoining to AG the !-place operation

symbol - , and. replacir:. axiom AG3 by AG3 ' : 'o\;(x + : - :.'') =.: e:~ .
Preve 'r-Aa'vx'Vy(-x = y~x +y= O)

5. Prove
(a) 'r-LAVxVyVz(x U y = z ~ x

z /\ y ~ z
/\ Vz1 {x ~ z1 /\y ~ z1 -+Z ~ z1 ))

(b) 'r-LAVxVy3!z(x ~ z /\ y ~ z /\ Vz1 {x ~ z1 /\ y ~ z1 -+ z ~ z1 ))

e, 1
0)

DT, 1-19

24

se

In this section we give a formulation N of formal number theory.

The set of proper symbols of N is { =, ', +, , O}, where ' is the first
1-place opera.tion symbol, + and are the first two 2-place operation
symbols, and O is the first constant symbol. r' is called .the successor
of r; intuitively, r' is the number that immediately follows r, i.e., r + l.
In stating the proper axioms and theorems of N, we omit the sign of
multiplication and many parentheses in accordance with the usual
conventions of number theory.

gen

Sorne verification is necessary in transferring a metatheorem of the

predicate calculus to a first order theory. For example, suppose that
l, P t-T Q, where T is a first order theory, P and Q are formulas of T,
i.nd is a finite set of formulas of T. Then t-T P ~ Q by the
ieduction theorem. The possibility arises that the deduction theorem
loes not apply because sorne of the steps in the deduction of P ~ Q

Number Theory

.28

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

The proper axioms of N are

VxVy(x' = y' ~ x = y)
Vx(x' ,,. O)

NI.
N2.
N3.
N4.
N5.
N6.
N7.

Vx(x + O = x)
VxVy(x + y' = (x +y)')
Vx(xO = O)
VxVy(xy' = xy + x)
For each formula P(v), the closure of
P(O /v) /\ Vv(P(v) ~ P(v' /v)) ~ VvP(v)

Nl and N2 state the fundamental properties of the successor

operation. N3 and N4 serve to define addition in terms of the successor operation. N5 and N6 serve to define multiplication in terms of
addition. N7 is the axiom scheme of mathematical induction. The
equality axioms ofN are El, E2=, E3' , E3+, and E3.
In using the axioms and theorems of N in proof outlines, we shall
omit the spec steps. For example, we justify the step (x + y)' #- O by
N2. We shall omit sorne gen steps at the end of proof outlines. We
shall use N7 as a derived rule of inference in the following way: If
step j is P(O /v) and step k is Vv(P(v) ~ P(v' /v)), we write the step
VvP(v) (or sometimes P(v)) with analysis "ind, j, k." We shall write 1instead of 1-N. 1 is an abbreviation for O'.
W e begin with sorne properties of addition.
THEOREM l.

THEOREM 3.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.

N4
N3
sub, 2, 1
same as 3

O)'

x +O'= x'
X+ 1 = X 1

10.

11.
12.

1-'v'x't/yVz .(x + y) + z =

x'

l.
2.
3.

Induction on z.

(x + y) + 0 = X
y+ o= y
(x + y) + O = x

(y

O)

y'

P(y) is x'

+y =

x + y'

O= x'

N3
N3
sub, 2
N4
=, 1, 3, 4
as (ind. hyp.)
N4
sub, 6, 7
N4
=, 8, 9
DT, 6-10, andgen
ind, 5, 11

1-VxVy.x + y =y + x

+ (y + z)

P(z) is (x + y) + z = x + (y + z).

+y

DT, 4-10, and gen

ind, 3, 11

(x + O)' = x'
x + O' = (x + O)'
x' + O= x + O'
X 1 +y= X+ y'
x' + y' = (x' + y)'
x' + y' = (x + y')'
X + (y')' = (x + y')'
X 1 + y' = X + (y')'
Vy.x' +y= x +y' ~x' +y'= x +(y')'
Vy .x' + y = x + y'

Proof.
Proof.

as (ind. hyp.)
sub, 4
N4
N4
=, 6, 5, 7
N4
sub, 9, 8

X+ =X

THEOREM 4.
THEOREM 2.

1-VxVy .x' + y

Induction on y.

Proof.

8.

129

Step 4 above is the induction hypothesis for use with N7. Theorem
2 is the associative law of addition. Theorem 3 prepares the way for
the commutative law of addition which is Theorem 4.

9.

x + O' = (x
X+ 0 =X

NUMBER THEORY

4.
(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
5.
((x + y) + z)' = (x + (y + z))'
6.
(x + y) + z' = ((x + y) + z)'
7.
x + (y + z)' = (x + (y + z))'
8.
(x + y) + z' = x + (y + z)'
9.
y + z' = (y + z)'
10.
(x + y) + z' = x + (y + z')
11. Vz.(x +y) + z = x + (y + z) ~
(x +y) + z' = x + (y+ z')
12. Vz.(x + y) + z = x + (y + z)

6.
7.

1-'v'x(x + 1 = x')

Proof.

l.
2.
3.
4.

24]

N3
N3
sub, 2, 1

O+ y
l.
2.
3.

Induction on x. P(x) is x + y
y + O by induction on y.

y + x

First we prove

O+O = O+O

o+
y'

y= y+ o
O = y + O'

as (ind. hyp.)
T3

30

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

4.
y + O' = (y + O)'
5.
y + O' = {O + y)'
6.
O + y' = (O + y)'
7.
o+ y'= y'+ o
8. Vy .O + y = y + O -r O + y' = y' + O
9. O+y=y+O
10.
x+y=y+x
11.
X 1 +y= X+ y'
12.
X + y' = (x + y)'
13.
X + y' = (y + x)'
14.
y + x' = (y + x)'
15.
x' +y= y+ x'
16. Vx .x + y = y + x -r x' + y = y + x'
17. x+y=y+x
EIEOREM

Proof.

5.

1-VxVyVz.x

Induction on x.

+ y=

N4
sub, 2, 4
N4
=, 6, 5, 3
DT, 2-7, and gen
ind, 1, 8
as (ind. hyp.)
T3
N4
sub, 10, 12
N4
=, 11, 13, 14
DT, 10-15, and gen
ind, 9, 16

+ z -r y = z

P(x) is x

+ y = x + z -r y

l.
O+y=O+z
2.
y+O=O+y
3.
O+z=z+O
4.
y+O=y
5.
z+O=z
6.
y=z
7. O+y=O+z-ry=z
8.
x+y=x+z-ry=z
9.
x' +y= x' + z
10.
x' +y= X+ y'
ll.
x' + z = x + z'
12.
X + y' = (X + y)'
13.
x + z' = (x + z)'
14.
(x + y)' = (x + z)'
15.
(x + y)' = (x + z)' -r
x+y=x+z
16.
y=z
17.
x' + y = x' + z -r y = z
18. Vx(x + y = x + z -r y = z .-r.
x' + y = x' + z -r y = z)
19. x+y=x+z-ry=z

= z

as
T4
T4
N3
Ns
=' ~: 2, l , 3, 5
DT, 1-6
as (ind. hyp.)
as
T3
T3
N4
N4
=' 12, 10, 9, ll, 13
Nl

se, 15, 14, 8

24]
NU"MBER TlIEORY
THEOREM

Proof.

oV

1-Vx.x =

Induction on x.

l.

o= o

2.

3.

x' = x'
3y(x' = y')

4.

~,,.

6.

O V 3y(O

3y(x =y')
P(x) is x = O

3y(x

= y')

y')

se
=

x = O V 3y(x = y') -r x' = O V 3y(x' = y')

Vx.x = O v 3y(x =y') -r x' = O v 3y(x' =y')
Vx.x =O v 3y(x =y')

5.

6.
7.

131

se
gen
ind, 2, 6

Order is defined in terms of addition. r ~ 8 is an abbreviation for

+ v = 8), where r and 8 are terms and vis the first variable that
does not occur in r or 8 . (vis chosen in this way to make r ~ s ha.ve a
unique unabbreviation. In practice any variable u such that r + v = s
is similar to r + u = 8 may be used.)
3v(r

THEOREM

7.

1-Vx(x ~ x)

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

x+O=x
3y(x +y= x)
X~ X

THEOREM

8.

N3

3
same as 2

1-Vx.O ~ x

Proof.
l.
2.

3.
4.
5.

x+O=x
O+x=x+o
O+x=x
3y(O +y= x)
~X

THEOREM

DT, 9-16

Proof.

DT, 8-17, and gen

ind, 7, 18

2.

l.
3.

9.

N3
T4

=, 2, l
3
same as 4

1-Vx .x ~ x'

X+ 1 = x'
3y(x + y = x')
X~ x'

TI
3
same as 2

132

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

f-\:/x'r/y'r/z.x :::;; y /\ y :::;; z-+ X :::;; z

THEOREM 10.
Proof.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.

as

x:s;;yAy:s;;z
X::;; y

y :::;;

se
se, 1

+ z = y)
3x 1 (y + x 1 =

3z(x

X+

z)
=y

+ X = Z
(X + Z1) + X1 = Z
(x + Z1) + X1 = X +
X + (z1 + X1) = Z
3x 1(x + x 1 = z)

(z1

::;;

e,
e,

::;; Z

x:s;;y/\y:s;;z-+x:s;;z

THEOREM ll.

same as 11
7
6
DT, 1-14

X ::;; Z

X1)

same as 2
same as 3
Cz1 , 4
Cx 1, 5
sub, 6, 7
T2
=, 9, 8

f-\:/x'r/y .X ::;; y V y' ::;; X

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

o:::;;

y
0 ::;;y V y' ::;; 0
X::;; X1
y' :::;; x /\ x :::;; x' -+ y' :::;; x'
y' ::;; X -+ y' ::;; x'
x = y .-+. x' :::;; x' +-t y' :::;; x'
x':::;; x'
X= y-+y' ::;; X1
x:s;;y/\x:f.y
X::;; y
x#y
3z(x + z =y)
x+z=y
z = o.-+. X+ z = Y+-tX

NUMBER THEORY

15.
z=O-+x+O=y
16.
x+O=x
17.
Z=0-+x=y
18.
z :. o
19.
z = 0 V 3y(z = y')
20.
3y(z = y')
21.
z = x{
22.
X+ X~ =y
23.
X1 + X1 =X+ X~
24.
X1 + X1 =y
25.
3z(x' + z =y)
26.
x':::;; y
27.
x':::;; y
28.
x':::;; y
29. X ::;; y /\ X :f. y -+ X1 ::;; y
30. Vx .x :::;; y v y' :::;; x -+ x' :::;; y V y' :::;; x'
31. X ::;;y V y' ::;;X
THEOREM 12.
Proof.

Proof. Induction on x. P(x) is x :::;; y v y' :::;; x. The induction

step is proved by cases. We prove y' :::;; x-+ y' :::;; x', x =y-+ y' :::;; x',
and x :::;; y /\ x :. y-+ x' :::;; y. Then the statement calculus gives
X :::;; y V y' :::;; X -+ x' :::;; y V y' :::;; x'.

l.
2.
3.

24]

T8

se
T9
TlO

se, 3, 4

sub
T7

se, 6, 7

as

se
se, 9

+ o =y

same as 10
Cz
sub

l.

f-\:/x\:/y .X

Induction on y.

y = 0-+ X
P(y) is x

se,

13, 14
N3
sub, 16, 15
11, 17
T6
18, 19

se,

se,

Cx1

sub, 21, 13
T3
=, 23, 22
3

same as 25
21
13
DT, 9-28
5, 8, 29, and gen
ind, 2, 30

e,
e,

se,

y = O-+ x = O

5.
6.

x+0=0-+x+0=0
X+ 0 =X
X + = -+ X =
X + y' = (x + y)'
(x +y)' #- O
X+ y'#- 0

7.
8.

Vy(x +y= 0-+x = 0.-+.x +y'= 0-+x =O)

\:/y .X + y = -+ X = 0

2.
3.
4.

THEOREM 13.

133

f-'</x\:/y .x :::;; y /\ y :::;; x-+ x

taut
N3
sub, 2, 1
N4
N2
sub, 4, 5
and gen
ind, 3, 7

se

Proof.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

x:s;;y/\y:s;;x
X::;; y
3z(x + z = y)
y::;; X
3z(y

X+

as

se
same as 2
1
same as 4

se,

x)

=y

Z1 =

ez, 3
ez 1 , 5

l34

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

8.
9.
10.
ll.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.

(x
(x

+
+

X+
X
X
Z
Z

X=
X=
X ~

rHEOREM

=
=

x
x

(z

sub, ~' 7
T2

z1 )

+ (z + z1 ) = X + 0
+ (z + z1 ) = X + -+ Z +
+ Z1 = 0
+ z1 = 0-+ Z = 0

Z1

= o

X+

0 =y

X=

NUMBE.R TREORY
THEOREM

N3
=' 9, 8, 10
T5

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.

MP, 12, 11
Tl2
MP, 14, 13
sub, 15,6
= , 10,16

X-+ X

4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

y -+ y

se

se, 1
Tll

l'HEOREM

x' -+y
15.

x v y

sanie as l

ey

N2

se,

3, 4
3
DT, 1-6

e,

1-YxYy.x <y' - x :r:; y

(x

3z((x

z)'

= y' +-7 x +

sub
N1

=y

z)' = y')<--+ 3z(x

< y'<--+ X ~ y

z = y)

se, 3,4

x'

Tl3
5, 6
DT, 1-7

1-VxVyVz.y ~ Z+-7

y ~

1-Yx(x < x')

l.
2.
3.

<

X 1 <--+ X

::;; X

X::;; X

X<

T17
T7

x'

se, 1, 2

Proof.
l.
2.
3.
4.
5.

6.
7.

se,

l, 2
equiv, 3
same as 4

Proo,f.

se

= x'

18.

THEOREM

se, 2,

y~ x' /\ ,-....;( y~ x}~'lf' = x'

17.

+
+

= Z-+ X + (y + x 1 ) = X +
(y + X1) =X + Z-+ y + X1 =

Z
X
Z
y+x 1 =z+-7x+(y+x 1 )=x+z
(x + y) + X1 = X + (y + X1)
y + X 1 = Z +-7 (X + y) + X 1 = X + Z
3x1 (y + x 1 = z) ~--+ 3x1 ((x + y) + x 1 = x
y~z+-7x+y~x+z

sub

r < sisan abbreviation for 3v((r

v)'

T5

+ z)

se, i , 2

Prooj.

T2
sub, 4, 3
equiv, 5
same as 6

l.
2.
3.

= s), where r and s are terms

md v is the first variable that does not occur in r or s.

THEOREM

4.

5.
6.

x'
x

19.

1-'VxYy .x' :r:; y<--+ x < y

z = x
z'

= (x +

z'

T3

z)'

+ z = (x + z)'
x' + z = y~ (x + z)' = y
3 z(x' + z = y) ~ 3 z( (x +

N4
=, 1, 2

x'

X'~ y~ X< y

135

as

y)' = O)

x + z = y-+ (x + z)' = y'

(x + z)' = y' -+ x + z = y

2.
3.
4.
5.

as

x' ~y

y ~ x' /\ x'
y= x'

Proof.
l.

y ~ x ' /\ "-'(Y ~ x)
y~ x'
,.._(y ~ x)
y ~X V x ' ~y

"-'(X < O)
,..._,(x < O)
x < O-+ --(x < O)
"-'(X < 0)

THEOREM

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

X<

se

y = x'

X V

1-\fx-.,(x < 0)

(x +y)' = O
(x +y)' :t: O

6.

DT, 1-19

1-Yx'Vy .y ~ x ' -+ y ~

16.

3y((x

7.
8.

e, '
e, 6

y /\ y :o;;

14.

z) + z1
z) + z1
0 =X

24]

z)'

= y)

sub, 3
equiv, 4
same as 5

l36

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

1-VxVy .y ~ x

20.

l'HEOREM

vx

24]
,,

1'HEOREM

Proof.
l.
2.
3.

x'

x' ~y
y-x <y

Tll
Tl9

se,

y~ X V X< y
~ X /\ X

< y

1, 2

as

y~ X

se
TlO
S0,2,4, 6
same as i

+ y = x)
X + Z =X
x' + z = x + z'
X+ 0 = X
X + z' = X + 0
x + z' = x + O-+ z' =

3y(x'

Cz

T3
N3
=' 10, 9, 11
T5
MP, 13 , 12

z' = O
z' :/; O

o =/= o
~ X /\ X

se,

e, 9
< y-+ 0 =/= 0

14, 15

DT, 4-17

o= o
~ X /\ X

20.

,..._,(y

21.

y~ X

se, 18, 19
se, 3, 20

< y)

V X< y
1-"tx'<y'Vz.y < z~x + y <

21.

X+;;

z~y-x+z~x+y

~y

vy

y <

'HEOREM

< z
+yV
X + y <

Z -

22.

X
X

+y
+Z

<

1-Vx'Vy .X ~ y V y ~

+z

Tl5
T20
T20

se,

1-3

~ 0 -+ X = 0

x~O/\O~x-+x=O

X=O
X~ 0-+x

X~

4.

X~

y~

y V y' ~X
y'
y' /\ y' ~ X -+ y

THEOREM

y V

y~ X

se,

24.

~ k-+ Q(z))

se,

Basis.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

1-Q(O)--+ Vz(z ~ O-+ Q(z))

Q()

as
as

z ~o
z~O-+z=O

T23
MP, 3, 2
sub, 4, 1

Z=O
Q(z)
z ~ 0-+ Q(z)
\fz(z ~ O-+ Q(z))
Q(O)--+ \fz(z ~ O--+ Q(z))

DT, 1-5
gen

DT, 1-7

We assume (1) and (recalling that k

1--Q(O) /\ Q(T) /\ /\ Q(k) /\ Q(k')-+ \fz(z

1-3

(1 )

Prooj. Let Q(z ) be a fixed but arbitrary formula. Then (1) is a

theorem scheme because it makes one assertion for each number k.
The proof is by induction on k in the metalanguage. We cannot use
induction in N because no single formula of N encompasses ali the
instances of (1).

l.

TlO

1-3

DT, 1-4

Por every number k,

1-Q(O) /\ Q(T) /\ /\ Q(k)-+ Vz(z

Tll
T9
~ X

For the next theorem we write k for the term consisting of Ofollowed
by k primes with appropriate parentheses. For example, 3 is an
abbreviation for ((O')')'. Note that k + l is (k)', which we write as k'.
We also write Q(k) for Q(k/v).

lnduction step.
that

l.
2.
3.

as
T8
TI3

~X

Proof.

x~o

5.

.l..

Proof.
l.
2.
3.
4.

l.

N2

0=1=0

'HEOREM

1-Vx .X

2.
3.
4.

x' ~ y /\ y ~ x-+ x' ~ x

X 1 ~X

23.

Proof.

y~ X V

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.

13 7

NUMBER THEORY

< y

2.
3.

\fz(z ~ k-+ Q(z)) /\ Q(k')

Vz(z ~ k-+ Q(z))
z ~ k-+ Q(z)

lis k') show

~ k'--+ Q(z))
as

se
spec

38

[Ch. 3

FIBST ORDER THEORIES

4.

Q(k')

se, 1

5.

.z " k' -+ z " k V z = k'

z = k' -+. Q(z) +-+ Q(k')

Tl4
sub

6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
ll.

z " k'-+ Q(z)

'v'z(z " k' -+ Q(z))
'v'z(z " k-+ Q(z)) A Q(k')-+ 'v'z(z " k'-+ Q(z))
Q(O) A Q(l) A A Q(k)-+ 'v'z(z " k-+ Q(z))
Q(O) A Q(l) A A Q(k) A Q(k')-+ Vz(z " k' -+Q(z))

We move on to multiplication.

NUMBER THEORY

se, 3-6
gen
DT, 1-8
(1)

SC,9,10

The first theorem is the distributive

,w.
HEOREM

Prooj.

l.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.

25.

f-'v'xVy'v'z.x(y

Induction on z.

z)

= xy +

P(z) is x(y

xz
z) = xy

y+O=y
x(y + O)= xy
xy+O=xy
x(y + O) = xy + O
xO = O
x(y + O) = xy + xO
x(y + z) = xy + xz
y + z' = (y + z)'
x(y + z') = x(y + z)'
x(y + z)' = x(y + z) + x
x(y + z') = x(y + z) + x
x(y + z') = (xy + xz) + x
(xy + xz) + x = xy + (xz + x)
x(y + z') = xy + (xz + x)
xz' = xz + x
x(y + z') = xy + xz'
'v'z.x(y + z) = xy + xz-+
x(y + z') = xy + xz'
'v'z.x(y + z) = xy + xz

iEOREM

26.

Proof.

Induction on y.

l.
2.

x'O
xO

f-'v'x'v'y .x'y

=O
=

= xy +

xz.

N3
sub, 1
N3
=, 2, 3
N5
sub, 5, 4
as (ind. hyp.)
N4
sub, 8
::t\6
=, 9, 10
sub, 7, 11
T2
=,12,13
N6
sub, 15, 14

3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

9.

xO + O = xO
x'O = xO +O
x'y = xy +y
x'y' = x'y + x'
x'y' = (xy + y) + x'
(xy + y) + x' = xy + (y
x'y' = xy + (y + x')
'!/ 1 +X= y+ X'
X+ y'= y'+ X
'!/ + x' =X+ y'
x'y' = xy + (x + y')

x')

l. Prove
(a) f-1 =f. O
(b) 1-Vx(x .,.
I

x'!

2. Prove
(a)
(b)

f-2 + 2 = 4
1-2.2 = 4

3. Without using Theorem 3, prove 1-Vx.x

prove Theorem 4.

(a) 1-'v'xVy.x "y+-+x <y V x =y

(b) 1-VxVy.x < y+-+ x "y A x #y

5. Prove in any order:

N5
N5

N3
=, 1-3
as (ind. hyp.)
N6
sub, 5, 6
T2
=, 7, 8
T3
T4
=, 10, 11
sub, 12, 9
T2
=,13,14
N6
sub, 16, 15
DT, 5-17, and gen
ind, 4, 18

10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
(xy + x) + y' = xy + (x + y')
15.
x'y' = (xy + x) + y'
16.
xy' = X'!J +X
17.
x'y' = xy' + y'
18. Vy.x'y = xy +y-+ x'y' = xy' +y'
19. Vy.x'y = xy +y

4. Prove

= xy + y.

139

EXERCISES

DT, 7-16, and gen

ind, 6, 17

P(y) is x'y

24]

(a) 1-Vx .x = O v 3y(x

(b) 1-vx,._,(x < x)

= y')

(e) f-\lxVyVz.x <y A y< Z-+X < z

(d) 1-VxVy .X < y V X = y V y < X

x, and then

140

[Ch. 3

FIBST ORDER THEORIES

y= O
xz-+ y = z
z +-t xy ~ xz)
z +-t xy < xz)
yz)
O
V

= s), where r and s are

terms and vis the fi.rst variable that does not occur in r or s. Prove

7 . r js (r divides s) is an abbreviation for 3v(rv

in any order:
(a) 1--Vx.xlx
(b) 1-Vx.xjO
(e) 1--VxVy .x\xy

xi

'-

# O

Vv(v js-+ v

=1

v v

= s)

where sis a term and v is the first variable that does not occur in s.
Prove the following:
(a) 1-Vx.l < x A Vy(l < y A y jx-+ x ~ y)-+ pr(x)

(b) 1-pr(2)

9. Prove that for every number k,

1--Vx(x = O v x = I v V x = k +-t x ~ k)

25

Theorem 1 allows us to say consisten t or inconsistent without qualification for first order theories.
Consistency makes sense and Theorem 1 holds for the statement
calculus.
2.

The statement calculus is consistent.

. T'_,o_,+- a t1'"
,?..,,..,,, .o.-f ~ :-. " <-t
A,- :., ., 1,,~
P rooJ,/. Th_e ~_ormula __;1. .rx ) rn
. ~O-~.~
..a.e-'.,-.~' ,on'
~--~,---~--"bec.:. u.se it is not a r.autology.

8. pr(s) (s is a prime) is an abbreviation for

1 < s

Proof. We proceed by contraposition. Suppose the theory T is negation inconsistent; i.e., there is a formula Q of T such that both Q and
,_Q are theorems of T. Let P be any formula of T. ,_Q .-+. Q-+ P
is a theorem of T since it is a tautology. Then by two applications
of modus ponens, P is a theorem of T. Since P is arbitrary , every
formula of T is a theorem ; i.e. , T is absolutely inconsistent. Now
suppose that T is absolutely inconsistent. Let Q be any formula of T.
,._,e is also a formula of T. Since every formula of T is a theorem , both
Q and ,._,e are theorems of T; i.e. , T is negation inconsistent.

THEOREM

(e) 1--VxVyVz.xjy A yjz-+ x \z

(f) 1-VxVy .y # O A
y-+ x ~ y A x
(g) 1--VxVy .1 < x ,A.. ,,y'-+ ,.._,z\ y

141

THEOREM l.
A firsi order theory is negation consistent if and only if it is
absolutely consistent.

6. Prove in any order:

(d) 1-Vx.Ojx+-t x

CONSISTENCY AND COMPLETENESS

A first order theory T is absolutely consistent if and only if there is at

least one formula of T that is not a theorem of T.

(e) 1--Vx(x < l +-t x = O)

(f) 1--VxVy .x + y = l -+ x = l V y = 1
(g) 1-0 < 1
(a) 1--VxVyVz.(xy)z = x(yz)
(b) 1--VxVy .xy = yx
(e) 1-Vx(lx = x)
(d) 1--VxVy.xy = 0-+x =O
(e) 1--VxVyVz.x # O A xy =
(f) 1--V:rNyVz(x # O .-+. y ~
(g} 1--VxVyVz(x # O .-+. y <
(h) 1--VxVy .y # O-+ 3z(x <
(i) 1--VxVyVz.x < yz -+ z =!:

25]

Consistency and Completeness

A first order theory T is negation consistent if and only if there is no

formula Q such that both Q and ,_,Q are theorems of T .

THEOREM

3.

The predicate calculus is consistent.

Proof. To each formula P we assign a formula P' , called the

transform of P, as follows. First, every occurrence of Vv, for every
variable v, is deleted. Then each occurrence of every term is replaced
by an occurrence of x. Finally each occurrence of x = x is replaced
by an occurrence of x = x -+ x = x . W e show below that the transform of every axiom of the predicate calculus is a tautology. Since
modus ponens applied to two tautologies always gives a tautology, the
transform of every theorem of the predicate calculus is a tautology.
A(x) is its own transform and is nota tautology. Hence A(x) is nota
theorem of the predicate calculus, and the predicate calculus is consistent. Every axiom has one of the following forros, preceded by a
finite number of universal quantifiers given by Ax Gen.

142

[Ch. 3

FIBST ORDER THEORIES

25]

Vx 1

6. Let T be a first order theory. Let P be a formula of T,

and Zet P* be the closure of P. Then ~ if and only if 1-.rP*.

THEOREM

Proof.

Vx,. Vy 1 Vyn(x 1

= y 1 /\ /\
x ,. = Yn-+ F(x1, .. , x,.) = F(y1, , Yn)l

The transforms are as follows:

P' -+. Q'-+ P '
A2'. S' -+. P'-+ Q' :-r: S' -+ P' .-+ . S' -+ Q'
A3'. ,..._,(Q')-+ ,.....,{P') .-+. P'-+ Q'
A4'. P' -+ Q' .-+. P' -+ Q'
A5'. P'-+ P'
A6'. P'-+ P'
El'. x=x-+x=x
E2'. t (x = x -+ x = x) /\ /\ (x = x-+ x = x)

Al'.

.-+. G(x, ... , x) ~ G(x, ... , x)

E3'.

(x

x -+ x

= x)

/\ /\ (x

= x -+ x = x)

-+ (x

'

x-+ x

= x)

We shall ust> the next three th~o:remE frequenny.

143

assumption. Then 8 1 , , Sn is a deduction in T of ,.._,p from P,

i.e., P 1-T ,..._,p_ Then 1-TP-+ ,.._,p by the deduction theorem. (P-+
,_,p)-+ ,.._,p is a tautology of T and hence a theorem of T. Then
modus ponens gives 1-T,...,p

P-r.Q-+P
s -+. p -+ Q :-+: s -+ p .-+. s -+ Q
-,(-+ ,.._,p .-.. p -+ Q
'Vv(P-+ Q) .-+. VvP-+ VvQ
VvP -+ P(t/v) if P admits t for v
P -+ 'VvP if v is not free in P
Vx(x = x)
E2. Vx 1 Vxn Vy 1 Vyn(x1 = Y1 /\ /\
Xn = Yn .-+. G(x1, ... , x,.) ~ G(y1, ... , y,.)}

AL
A2.
A3.
A4.
A5.
A6.
EL

E3.

CONSISTENCY AND COMPLETENESS

If 1-TP, then 1-TP* by gen.

If f-TP*, then 1-TP by apee.

A first order theory T is negation complete if and_only if for every

statement S of T, either Sor ,.._,sis a theorem of T.
In the definition a.hove, "statement" cannot be replaced by
"formula." Suppose, for example, that we demand of number theory
that either x < 2 or ,_,(x < 2) be a theorem. Then by gen, either
'Vx(x < 2) or Vx,....,,(x < 2) should be a theorem. But since Vx(x < 2)
and 'efx,.._,(x < 2) are both false, we do not desire or expect either of
them to be provable.
A first order theory T is absolutely complete if and only if for every
statement S of T that is not a theorem of T, the result of adjoining S to
T as a proper axiom is inconsistent.
An absolutely complete theory is like a balloon filled to capacity:
any attempt to enlarge it causes it to explode.
We note that an inconsistent theory is trivially negation complete
and -va.cuously ab R0] ~1 t~"~y ccr":ple.te.

A first order theory is negation complete if and only if it is

absolutely complete.

THEOREM 7.

A first order T is consistent if and only if there is no

formula Q such that Q /\ -,( is a theorem of T.

'THEOREM 4 .

Proof. Suppose that Q /\ -,( is a theorem of T. Let P be any

formula ofT. Q /\ ,.....,Q-+ Pis a theorem ofT because it is a tautology.
Then P is a theorem of T by modus ponens. Hence T is inconsistent.
Now suppose that T is inconsistent. Let Q be a formula of T. Then
Q /\ ,.....,Q is also a formula of T, and hence a theorem of T.
Let T be a first arder theory, and let P be a statement of T.
Let T' be the result of adjoining P to T as a proper axiom. If T' is
inconsistent, then ,.....,p is a theorem of T.

THEOREM 5.

Proof. Suppose that T' is inconsistent. Then 1-T,,.....,p_ Let

8 1 , . ., S be a proof of ,_,p in T'. Label each step that is P as an
11

tSee Addendum, page 201.

Proof. Let T be a first order theory. If T is inconsistent, then T is

both negation complete and absolutely complete. So suppose that T
is consistent. Suppose that T is negation complete. Let S be any
statement of T that is not a theorem of T, and let T' be the result of
adjoining S as a proper axiom to T. ,..._,sis a theorem of T beca.use T is
negation complete and Sis nota theorem of T. Then ,..._,sis a theorem
of T' since every theorem of T is a theorem of T'. Hence T' is inconsistent since Sis also a theorem of T'. Therefore T is absolutely
complete. For the converse, suppose that T is absolutely complete,
and let S be any statement of T. We show that Sor ,.._,sis a theorem
of T . If Sis a theorem of T, we are done. So suppose that Sis nota
theorem of T. Since T is absolutely complete, the result of adjoining

144

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

26]

TRUTH

S as a proper axiom to T is inconsistent. Hence ,...,s is a theorem of T

by Theorem 5. Therefore T is negation complete.

ANSWERS

2. This theory is absolutely inconsistent but vacuously negation

consistent. There is no conflict with Theorem 1 beca.use this theory
is not a first order theory.
4. This theory is negation inconsistent beca.use A(x) and ,_,A(x) are
theorems, but it is absolutely consistent beca.use A(x)-+ A(x) is not
a theorem.

Theorem 7 allows us to say complete or incomplete without qualification

for first order theories.
We observe that a theory is consistent if it does not have too many
theorems, and it is complete if it does not have too few theorems.
There are other useful definitions of consstency and completeness
besides the ones given above. The following definition is especially
applicable to the statement calculus and the predicate calculus.
Let T be a theory (first order or not ). Let X be a set of formulas of
T. T is consistent relative to X if and only if every theorem of T is in X .
T is complete relative to X if and only if every formula in X is a theorem
of T. For example, the statement calculus is consistent and complete
relative to the set of tautologies. Later we shall define valid f ormUla
and prove that the predicate calculus is consistent and complete relative
to the set of valid formulas.

26

l. Let T be a first order theory, and let P be a statement of T .

(a) Is this theory negation consistent? Why?

(b) Is it absolutely consistent ? Why ?
5. Let T be a first order theory whose proper axioms are an infinite
sequence P 1 , P 2 , of statements such that ...... p n-+ P"' if and only
if n ~ m. Prove that T is consistent.
6. Prove that neither the statement calculus nor the predicate calculus
is negation complete or absolutely complete.
7. Prove that a first order theory T is complete if and only if for all
statements P and Q of T, if 't-TP V Q, then ......Tp or ......TQ.

Truth

A domain is any nonempty set. An interpretation for a set X of

formulas is a domain D together with a rule that (i) assigns to each
n-place predicate symbol (that occurs in a formula) of X an n-place
predicate in D; (ii) assigns to each n-place operation symbol of X an
n-place operation in D; {iii) assigns to each constant symbol of X an
element of D; and (iv) assigns to = the identity predica.te = in D,
defined by : a = bis true if and only if a and b are the same.
A model for a set X of formulas is an interpretation M for X such that
every formula of X is true in M.
The notion of the truth of a formula in an interpretation is highly
intuitive. W e illustrate with two examples.

EXERCISES

Let T'
be the result o adjoining ,.._,p to T as a proper axiom. \ Prove that
T' is inconsistent if and only if P is a theorem of T.
2. For the formal theory of Exercise 3.4, suppose that the only Jogical
operators are-+ and V. D1scuss the consistency ofthis theory.
3. Prove that a first order theory T is consistent and complete if and
only if for every statement S of T, exactly one of the pair {S, ,.._,S} is
a theorem of T.
4. A certain theory has as its theorems precisely those formulas of the
predicate calculus that are neither tautologies nor contradictions.

145

t '
E xAm>:::,E 1.

J:.

4'

.AGL
AG2.
AG3.
AG4.

Vi7e e::hibit.

9.

:mocle! J.~f for th!2 set

VxVyVz((x + y) + z = x
Vx(x +O= x)
Vx3y(x + y = O)
VxVy(x + y = y + x)

(y

0f ;;r o:er

&.xiomo. e: /-. S:

z))

, The domain of M consists of the two elements a and b. M assigns to

+ the operation o in D defined below, and M assigns a to O.

I a

~~

,The statement (a o b) o a = a o (boa) is true in M because (a b) o a =

boa = b and a (boa) = a o b = b. In the same way ali eight
Btatements of the form (x y) z = x o (y o z) are true in M. Hence

146

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

Hence AGl is true in M.

ri o a = a and b o a = b are true in M.
Since a and b are the only
elements of D, Vx(x o a = x) is true. in M . . Hence AG2 is true in
M. Because a o a = a and b o b = a are true in M, 3y(a o y = a) and
:Jy(b y = a) are true in M. Because a and b are the only elements
)f D, Vx3y(x y = a) is true in M. Hence AG3 is true in M.
r/xVy(x o y = y x) is true in M because ali 4 statements a a = a a,
:i b = b a, b a = a b, b b = b b are true in M.
Hence AG4 is
;rue in M.
z = x (y z)) is true in M.

VxVyVz((x y)

~XA!>ll'LE

W e exhibit a model M for the set of proper axioms of L:

Ll.
L2.

L3.

2.

Vx ,...., (x < x)
VxVyVz(x < y /\ y < z -r x < z)
VxVy(x < y v x = y V y < x)

\gain the domain of Mis {a, b}, and M assigns to < the predicate <J
n D, defined by
<J

7J=:F
b

1F

T
F

since a <J a and b <J b are false in M, ,._,(a <J a) and ,._,(b <J b) are true
n M. Hence Vx ,.._, (x <l x) is true in M. R ene-e Ll is tn:e in J.1 .
~ <J b /\ b <l b -r a <l b is true in M because b <J b is false in M. In
he same way, ali eight statements of the form x <J y /\ y <J z -r x <l z
.re true in M. Hence VxVyVz(x <l y /\ y <l z -r x <J z) is true in M.
Ience L2 is true in M. a <la v a = a v a <Ja and b <J b v
= b V b <lb are true in M, because a = a and b = b are true in M.
: <J b v a = b v b <J a and b <l a v b = a v a <J b are true in M,
>ecause a <J b is true in M. Hence Vx'Vy(x <J y v x = y v x <J y) is
rue in M. Hence L3 is true in M.
The intuitive notion of truth is satisfactory fr many purposes, but
or the development of a theory of truth, a precise definition is essential.
\Te offer two examples to illustrate the ideas '\lnderlying the precise
lefinition.
~XAMPLE

3. Let P be the formula Vx'Vy(x < y -r 3z(x < z /\ z < y)).

-et I be the interpretation for P whose domain is the set R of real

26]
TRUTH

147

numbers, and which assigns to < the usual meaning of < in R.

Paralleling the construction of P, we assign to each subformula of P a
set ofpoints in R 3 We use R 3 because the three variables x , y, z occur
free in one or more subformulas of P. To the atomic formula x < z
we assign the set of ali points (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) such that a 1 < a 3 . This is
precisely what is called in analytic geometry the graph of x < z in
three-dimensional space. To the atomic formula z < y we assign the
set of all points (a1 , a2 , a 3 ) such that a 3 < a 2 To the formula
x < z /\ z < y we assign the intersection of the sets assigned to x < z
and z < y, i.e., the set of all points (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) such that a 1 < a 3 and
a3 < a2 . To the formula 3z(x < z /\ z < y) we assign the set of
all points (a1 , a2 , a3 ) such that (a1 , a2 , d) is in the set assigned to
x < z /\ z < y for sorne real number d. Hence (a1 , a 2 , a3 ) is in the set
assigned to 3z(x < z /\ z < y) and only there is a real number d
such that a 1 < d and d < a2 . Thus (1, 2, 3) is in this set because there
is a real number 1.5 such that 1 < 1.5 and 1.5 < 2. To the atomic
formula x < y we assign the set of all points (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) such that
a 1 < a2 . Recall that to a formula Q /\ R we assigned the intersection
of the sets assigned to Q and R. To a formula Q v R we assign the
union of the sets assigned to Q and R. To a formula ,.._,Q we assign the
complement of the set assigned to Q, i.e., the set of all points that are
not assigned to Q. Since Q-+ R is equivalent to "4J v R, we assign
,,. to Q-+ R the
~ complement of the set assigned to Q V:<i)n tLc: ,,r~:
assigne'j e.. .n. nen ~:e a 1;ciz~t is in the set assigned to Q-+ R and
only it is not in the set assigned to Q or is in the set assigned to R .
Hence to the formula x < Y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y) we assign the set of
all points (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) such that (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) is not in the set assigned to
x < y or is in the set assigned to 3z(x < z /\ z < y). Hence (a1 , a 2 , a 3 )
is in the set assigned to x < y -+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y) if and only if
a 1 < a2 is false or there is a d such that a 1 < d and d < a 2 Let
(a 1 , a 2 , a 3 ) be a point. Either a 2 ~ a 1 or a 1 < a 2 If a 2 ~ a , then
1
a1 < a2 is false. If a 1 < a2 , then there is a real number d, namely
(a1 + a2 )/2 such that a 1 < d and d < a 2 Hence every point is in the set
assigned to x < y-r 3z(x < z /\ z < y). To the formula Vy(x < y-r
3z(x < z /\ z < y)) we assign the set of all points (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) such that (a1 ,
d, a 3 ) is in the set assigned to x < Y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y) for every real
number d. Every point is in the set assigned to Vy(x < y-r 3z(x < z /\
z < y)) beca use every point is in the set assigned to x < y -r 3z(x < z /\
z < y). Finally, to the formula Vx'Vy(x < y-r 3z(x < z /\ z < y)) we
assign the set of all points (a1 , a2 , a 3 ) such that (d, a2 , a3 ) is in the set
',

"-

.........

148

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

26]
TRUTH

assigned to Vy{x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y)) for every real number d.
Again this is the set of ali points. Thus all points are assigned to P.
This is our criterion for truth. W e con elude that P is true in this
interpretation.

EXAMPLE 4. Again let p be the formula vxVy(x < y -+ 3z(x < z /\ z <
Let 1 be the interpretation for P whose domain D is the set of integers, and which assigns to < the usual meaning of < in D . Again we
assign to each subformula Q a set of points in D 3 , but we change the
wording a little. Instead of talking about the set assigned to Q, we
speak now of whether or not a point is in this set. Let p = (a 1 , a 2 , a 3 )
be an arbitrary point in D 3 . p satisfies Q means pis in the set assigned
to Q. p satisfies x < z if and only if a 1 < a 3 . p satsfies z < y if and
only if as < a 2 . Then p satisfies x < z /\ z < y if and only if p
satisfies x < z and z < y, i.e., a 1 < as and a 3 < a 2 . p satisfies
3z(x < z /\ z < y) if and only if there is an integer d such that (a 1 , a2 , d)
satisfies x < z A z < y, i.e., there is an integer d such that a 1 < d and
d < a2 p satisfies x < y if and only if a 1 < a 2 Then p satisfies
x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y) if and only if p does not satisfy x < y or p
satisfies 3z(x < z /\ z < y), i.e., a 1 < a 2 is false or there is ad such that
a 1 < d and d < a 2 Thus (1 , 2, 3) does not satisfy x < y-+ 3z(x <
z A z < y) becau se l < 2, anci t here is n o integH d such t hat 1 < ti
and d < 2. In the integers, a 1 < a 2 is false if and only if a 1 ~ 2
Hence p satisfies x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y) if and only if a 1 ~ a2 or
there is an integer d such that a 1 < d and d < a 2 p satisfies Vy(x <
y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y)) if and only if (a1 , d, as) satisfies x < y-+
3z(x < z /\ z < y) for every integer d. We know that (a1 , d, a 3 ) satisfies x < y-+ 3z{x < z /\ z < y) if and only if a 1 ~ d or there is an
integer e such that a 1 < e and e < d. Hence p satisfies Vy(x < Y-+
3z{x < z /\ z < y)) if and only if for every d, a 1 ~ d or there is an e su ch
that a 1 < e and e < d. No p satisfies Vy(x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z <
y)), for if d = a 1 + 1, then a 1 ~ d is false, and there is no integer e such
that a 1 < e and e < a 1 + l. Finally, p satisfies VxVy(x < y-+
3z(x < z /\ z < y)) if and only if (d , a 2 , as) satisfies Vy(x < y-+
3z(x < z /\ z < y)) for every integer d. No point satisfies VxVy(x <
y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y)) because no point satisfies Vy(x < y-+ 3z{x <
z /\ z < y)). Hence the empty set is assigned to P. This is our

criterion for falsehood.

interpretation.

y)).

,,~

We conclude that P

149

is false in this

We shall show that every statement is assigned all points or no

points, i.e., is true or false. A formula with free variables may be
neither true nor false. For example, in the standard interpretation in
R, the formula x < y is assigned the set of all points (a1 , a 2 ) such that
a 1 < a 2 . This set is neither all of R 2 nor the empty set. Note that in
dealing with the formula x < y alone we work in R 2 , but in dealing with
x < y as a subformula of VxVy(x < y-+ 3z(x < z /\ z < y)), we work
in R 3 because we know that we have to contend with a z-coordinate
eventually.

When interpreting a set of formulas simultaneously , the simplest

,, procedure is to work in the infinite dimensional space D"' consisting of
all infinite sequences (a 1 , a 2 , ) of elements of D. '\-Ve \Hite the
variables in alphabetic order as
X1

X2

X3

..

and correlate x 1 with the ith coordinate a1 of the point (a 1 , a 2 , ,

).
Each formula imposes a restriction only on those coordinates
corresponding to the free variables of the formula. For example, the
. point (a1 , a2 , ) satisfies x 7 < x 2 V x 2 < x 4 if and only if a7 < a2 or
;, ,,<L2 < 4

a1,

~ ~'

vVe now start in Gr:. th1" Prec:o;;e d-::fh!ltivr:. of truth. Let P be a

and let 1 be an inu;rpretation with domain D for P . From
P now on pis the point (a1 , a2 , ) of D> , and q is the point (b 1 , b2 , . )
.; of D"". Let d be an element of D . Then p(d/k) is the result of replacing the kth coordinate of p by d, i.e.,

E.~ormula,

p(d/k)

(a1, .. .,ak_ 1, d, ak+ 1, .. )

To each term t that occurs in P, p assigns an element p(t) of D as

follows. If t is the variable x 1, then p(x1) = a 1 If t is the constant
symbol e, then p(t) = d, where d is the element of D assigned to e by 1.
" Suppose that p(t 1 ) , , p(tm) ha ve been defined, and t is F(t1 , , tm),
where F is an m-place operation symbol. Let f be the operation
a.ssigned to F by l. Then p(F(t1 , . , tm)) = f (p(t 1 ), , p(tm)).
. EXAMPLE 5. t is {x7 + O) x 2 + Xs, and 1 assigns in the domain R the
usual meaning of +, ., and O. Then p(t) = (a7 + O) a2 + a 3 Thus
if p = (1, 3, 5, ... , 2n - 1, . .. ), then p(t) = (13 + O) 3 + 5 = 44.

150

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

26]

We define p satisfies Pin J.

Case l. Pisan atomic formula G(t1 , , tm), where Gis an m-place
predicate symbol and t 1 , . , tm are terms. Let g be the predicate
assigned to G by J. Then p satisfies P if and only if g(p(t 1 ) , . . . , p(tm ))
is true.
Suppose that p satisfies Q and p satisfies R have been defined.
Case 2. P is ,_{J. Then p satisfies P if and only if p does not
satisfy Q.
Case 3. P is Q-+ R . Then p satisfies P if and only if p <loes not
satisfy Q or p satisfies R .
Case 4. Pis VxkQ. Then p satisfies P if and only if p(d/k) satisfies
Q for every element d of D .

TRUTH
151
(b) Let p be a point. Suppose P -+ Q and P are true in J. Then p
satisfies P-+ Q and p satisfies P. Hence p satisfies Q by (a).
Since p is arbitrary, Q is true in 1.

(e) Suppose 'v'xkP is true in J. Then every point p satisfies 'v'xkP.

Then p(d/k) satisfies P for every din the domain. In particular
p = p(ak/k) satisfies P. Hence every point satisfies P , and Pis
true in J. Now suppose that Pis true in J. Then every point
satisfies P. Hence p (d/k) satisfies P for every point p and every
element
true in 1.d. Hence every point p satisfies YxkP. Hence 'v'xkP is

(d) Let 'v'x;, 'v'xi. P be the closure of P . Then Pis true in 1 if and
only if 'v'x11 'v'x1 P is true in 1 by n applications of (e).
(e ) ,...._,pis true in 1 if and only if every point satisfies ,..._,p_ Every
point satisfies ,...._,p if and only if no point satisfies P . l\o point
satisfies P if and only if P is false.

From the definitions of A , v , <-+, and 3 we have immediately: p

satisfies Q A R if and only if p satisfies Q and p satisfies R ; p satisfies
Q v R if and only if p satisfies Q or p sat isfies R ; p satisfies Q <-+ R if
and only if p satisfies both Q and R or p satisfies neither Q nor R ;
p satisfies 3x1cQ if and only if p(d/k) satisfies Q for sorne d in D.
The formula Pis true in the interpretation I if and only if every point
satisfies P . Pis false in I if and only if no point satisfies P .
We shall use the following theorem often, sometimes without explicit
mention.
THEOREM

6.

(f) Suppose P is both true and false in 1. Then every point satisfies
P and no point satisfies P. But this is impossible because the
domain is not empty and hence there is at 1east one point.
(g) Suppose P is a statement. Then P has no free variables. In
Lemma 7 below, let {xi1 , , xJ be the empty set . Then all
points p and q satisfy the hypotheses of Lemma 7. Hence by
Lemma 7, ali points satisfy Por no points satisfy P , i.e. , Pis
true in 1 or Pis false in J. Then use (e) and (f ).
(h) Sup!)OSe P and Q are statemea ts. Suppose P-+ Q is true in J .
Let p be a point. Then p satisfies P-+-Q. Hence p does not
satisfy Por p satisfies Q. If p does not satisfy P , then Pis not
true in I , and hence Pis false in 1 by (g). If p satisfies Q, then Q
is not false in 1, and hence Q is true in 1 by (g). Now suppose
that P is false in 1 or Q is true in I. If P is false in 1, then no
point satisfies P, and hence every point satisfies P-+ Q. If Q is
true in J, then every point satisfies Q, and hence every point
satisfies P --+- Q. Hence P-+ Q is true in 1.

Let I be an interpretation Jor the formulas P and Q.

If p satisfies P -r Q and p satisfie::: P . then p satises Q.

If P-+ Q is true in I and Pis true in J , then Q is true in J.
Pis true in I if and only if VxkP is true in J.
Pis true in I if and only if the closure of Pis true in l.
,...._,pis true in I if and only if Pis false in J.
P is not both true and false in J.
If Pis a statement, then exactly one of the pair {P, ,...._,p} is true
in I and the other is false in J.
(h) If P and Q are statements, then P -r Q is true in I if and only if
Pis false in I or Q is true in J.
(i) If P and Q are statements, then P-+ Q is false in I if and only if P
is true in I and Q is false in I.

(a)
(b)
(e)
{d)
(e)
(f)
(g)

Suppose that P and Q are statements. Then P--+- Q is also a

statement. Hence by (g) , P-+ Q is false in 1 if and only if
P -+-Q is not true in J. By (g) and (h) , P-+ Q is not true in 1 if
and only if P is true in 1 and Q is false in 1.

Proof.

(a) If p satisfies P-+ Q, then p does not satisfy P or p satisfies Q.

Hence if p satisfies P , then p satisfies Q.

We shall try to take the mystery out of the next lemma with an
example. Let P be the formula x 1 + x 2 < x 3 . Let I be the interprettion for P who,e domain;. R, and which a.sigo' the mua! meaning
~L.

152

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

TRUTH

to + and <. Let p = (1, 3, 5, ... , 2n - 1, ... ). p assigns to the

term x 1 + x 2 the real number 4 ( = 1 + 3), and assigns to x3 the real
number 5. Hence p acting on P determines the statement 4 < 5 of
real numbers. Now let q be any point whose first three coordinates are
1, 3, 5. Then q acting on P determines the same statement 4 < 5.

An interpretation 1 with domain D is finite (or countable) if and only

if D is finite (or countable).

Let, 1 be an interpref,ation for the formula P. Let every

variable free in P occur in the list x 1,, , x;.. Let, p and q be points such
LEMMA 7.

that a1

= b11 for 1

k.

'>

Then p satisfies P if and only ij q satisfies P.

Proof. First we show that if Pisan atomic formula , then p(t) = q(t )
for every term t of P. If t is a variable, then t is X1 with 1 ~ j ::;; k.
Then p(t) = p(x;1 ) = a1 = b;, = q(x1 ) = q(t). If t is a constant.
symbol e, then p(t) = p(c) = d = q(c) = q(t), where d is the element of
the domain assigned to e by J. Suppose that p(t 1 ) = q(t 1 ), . , p(tm) =
q(tm), and t is F(t1 , .. tm) where F is an m-place operation symbol.
Let j be the operation assigned to F by J. Then
p(t)

If the interpretation 1 for the formula P is finite, then there is an

effective procedure for deciding if Pis true in J, based on the following
two observations. First, every predicate and operation in D is defined
by a finite table. Second, if exactly n variables occur in P, then we
can just as well use n-tuples for points instead of ininite sequences, and
the number of n-tuples in a finite domain is finite.
EXAMPLE 8. Let P be the formula Vx 1 (x 1 ;" O-+ 3x2 (x 1 x 2 = l)).
Let the domain of the interpretation 1 be {O, 1, 2}. Let 1 assign O to O,
1 to 1, and the operation to as defined below.

p(F(t1 , ... , tm)) = (p(t1), ... , p (tm) )

, q(tm)) = q(F(t , . .. , tm)) = q(t)

= j(q(t 1 ) ,

Now we prove the lemma by induction on the number n of symbols

in P, counting each occurrence of ,......,, -+, or V as a symbol.
Basis. If 1i :-: O} then Pis an a.tomic formula G/:, . ~ . : t:-nL ,,~he.re t;.
is an m-place predicate symbol and tv ... , tm are terms. Let g be the
predicate assigned to G by l. psatisfiesPif andonlyif g(p(t 1), ... ,p(tmll
is true, and q satisfies P if and only if g(q(t 1 ), , q(tm)) is true.
Since p(t 1 ) = q(t 1 ), , p(tm) = q(tm), p satisfies P if and only if q
satisfies P.
lnduction step. Assume the lemma holds for every formula with n
or fewer symbols, and consider P with n + 1 symbols. In cases 2 and
3 the proof is immediate by the induction hypothesis and the definition
of satisfaction.
Case 2. P is ,.._,Q for some Q.
Case 3. Pis Q-+ R for sorne Q and R.
Case 4. Pis YxmQ for sorne m and Q. Suppose p satisfies P. Let
d be an element of the domain. Then p(d/m) satisfies Q. Then
whether or not xm is one of x 1,, , x 1., the iith coordinate of q(d/m) is
the same as the iith coordinate of p(d/m), since a;1 = b11 for 1 ::;; j ::;; k.

153

Hence q(d/m) satisfies Q by the induction hypothesis. Then q satisfies

P because d is arbitrary. Similarly, if q satisfies P , then p satis:fies P.

t. p be a. lJGlil':. '~'her-e are in.5.nif.e)y :nany points, out on}y nine

-~'jdistinct cases to consider, because only a 1 and a2 enter into the analysis,
and D has exactly three elements. In this example, the nine cases
collapse to three. Let Q be the subformula x 1 # O-+ 3x2 (x1 x 2 = 1).
If a1 is O, then p does not satisfy x 1 # O, and hence satisfies Q. If a 1
is 1, then p satisfies 3x 2 (x 1 x 2 = 1) and hence Q, because the point
(1, 1, a 3 , a 4 , ) satisfies x 1 x 2 = l. If a 1 is 2, then again p satisfies
3x2 (x 1 x 2 = 1) and hence Q, because the point (2, 2, a3 , a 4 , . )
satisfies x 1 x 2 = l. Hence every point satisfies Q, i.e., Q is true in J.
Hence Pis true in 1 by Theorem 6(c).

i.l

L,

A formula P is valid if and only if P is true in every interpretation.

A valid formula is logically true, i.e., the way that ........,, -+, V, and =
enter into its construction makes it true regardless of how its proper
symbols are interpreted.

. We show that every theorem of the predicate calculus is valid.

154

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

TRUTH
LEMMA

9.

Every tautology is valid.

Let s and t be terms. Let s' be the result oj replacing each

occurrence of xk in s by an occurrence of t. Let p be a point, and let
p' = p(p(t)/k). Then p(s') = p'(s).

Proof. Let P 1 , . , Pn be the distinct prime constituents of P .

Let p be a point. Then for each i, p satisfies P or p does not satisfy
P. We make out the truth table for P, but instead of T and F , we
write Y es for p aatisfies and No for p does not satisfy. By the definition
of satisfaction, this table is exactly like the truth table for P except
that T and F are replaced throughout by Y e.s and No. If P is a
tautology, then only Yes appears in the column for P, i.e., p always
satisfies P.
EXAMPLE

Prooj. Suppose s is X, \Vith i #- k. Then s ' = s = x 1 Hence

p(s' ) = p(x1) = a 1, and p'(s) = p'(x1) = a.. Suppose s is xk. Then
a' = t. Hence p (s') = p(t), and p'(s ) = p'(xk) = p (t), since the kth
coordinate o p' is p (t ). Suppose s is the constant symbol c. Then

s' = s = c. Let d be the element o t he domain assigned to e by the

interpretation. Then p(s') = p (c) = d, and p '(s) = p'(c) = d. Now
suppose the lemma holds for s 1 , . . . , sm, and s is F (s 1 , , sm ), where
"', F is an m-place operation symbol. Let J be the operation assigned
'\' ~ to F . s I.IS F(s 1I , . . . , smI ). H ence

~~

10
(,_,

_,.

,_,

P)

_,.

(P

_,.

Q)

No Yes Yes No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes

No Yes Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Yes
Yes No No No Yes Yes Yes No Ko
Yes No Yes Yes No Yes No Yes Ko
LEMMA 11.

Vxk(P _,. Q) ._,.. VxkP _,. VxkQ

LEMMA

12.

P _,. T/xkP

p(s' )

is valid if xk is not free in P.

Proof. Let p be a point. It suffices to show that if p satisfies P,

then p satisfies VxkP. Suppose p satisfies P, and xk is not free in P.
Let X; 1 , , x 1 be the free variables of P. xk is not one of them. Let
d be an element of the domain. Then p(d/k) agrees with p in the
coordinates i 1 , . . , in. Hence p(d/k) satisfies P by Lemma 7. Since
d is arbitrary, P satisfies VxkP.

Lemmas 9, 11, and 12 show that every instance of Axiom Schemes

Al through A4 and A6 is valid. For A5 we need two preliminary
lemmas.

= p(F(s~ , .. . , s~))

= f (p
LEMMA

14.

'(s 1 ), . ,

= f (p (si), . . . , p (s;,,))

p ' (sm)) = p '( F (s 1 ,

sm )) = p '(s)

Let P admit the term t for x k. Let p be a point, and let

Then p satisfies P (t/xk) if and only if p ' satisfies P.

:,. p' = p(p(t)/k).

is valid.

Proof. Let p be a point. It suffices to show that if p satisfies

'r:/xk(P _,. Q) and p satisfies VxkP, then p satisfies VxkQ, for in all other
cases p satisfies T/xk(P _,. Q) ._,.. T/xkP _,. VxkQ by the definition of
satisfaction. Suppose p satisfies Vx1c(P _,. Q) and p satisfies 'rfx;:P.
Let d be an elemem of the dom&in. Then p(ak) satisfies P _,. Q and
p(d/k) satisfies P. Then p (d /k) satisfies Q by Theorem 6(a). Since d is
arbitrary, p satisfies VxkQ .

155

Prooj. The proof is by induction on t he number n o sym bols in P ,

: counting each occurrence of "', ....,., or V as a symbol.

If n = O, then P is an atomic formula G (sv .. . , sm), where

is an m-place predicate symbol and s1 , . , sm are terms. Let
..S; (l :::; i ::;:;; m) be t-h.e result cf renlacing each occur-r,::ince of xk in s1 by an
of t. Then P (t/x1c) is.
. .. ,
Let g be the predicate
~igned to G by the interpretation. p sat isfies P (t /x1c ) if and only if
("'g (p(si ), ... ,
is true. p' satisfies P if and only if g(p'(s 1 ) , ,
p'(sm)) is true. By Lemma 13, p (s;) = p '(s1) for 1 ::;:;; i :::; m . Hence p
satisfies P(t/xk) if and only if p' satisfies P.

t~P.

Basis.

,~ ,
,"~,~~currence

G(s;,~ s~).

p(s~))

Assume the lemma holds for every formula with n or

fewer symbols, and consider P with n + 1 symbols.
,~.. Case l. Pis ,..._,Q for some Q. Then P (t/x k) is "-'Q(t/x k), and Q admits
t for xk. p satisfies P (t/x 1c) if and only if p does not satisfy Q(t/x k). By
.the induction hypothesis, p does not satisy Q(t/xk) i and only if p ' does
not satisfy Q. p ' does not satisy Q if and only if p ' satisfies P .
Case 2. P is Q _,. R for some Q and R. Then P (t/xk) is Q(t/xk) -+
,. R(tfx1c), and Q and R admit t for x". As in case 1, the proof is immediate
' by the induction hypothesis and the definit ion o satisfaction.
Case 3. Pis VxjQ for sorne j and Q. Then P(tfx 1c) is T/x jQ(t/x k), and
Q admits t for xk. Let (p (dfj))' be the result ofreplacing the kth term
, lnduction step.

ff'

156

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

of p(d/j) by the element o D a.ssigned to t by p(d/j ), and let p'(d/j) be

the result of replacing the jth term of p ' by d. Suppose xk is free
in P and j # k. p satisfies P(t/x1c) i and only if p(d/j) satisfies Q(t/xk )
for every element d o the domain. By the induction hypothesis,
p(d/j) satisfies Q(t/x1c) if and only if (p(d/j))' satisfies Q. Since P admits
t for xk, x1 does not occur in t. Therefore the element assigned to t by
a point does not depend on the jth coordinate o the point. Hence
(p(d/j ))' = p'(d/j) for every d. p ' satisfies P if and only if p'(d/j) satisfies Q for every d. Hence p satisfies P(tx1c) if and only if p' satisfies P .
lf X1c is not free in P, then P(t/xk) is P . By Lemma 7, p satisfies P
if and only if p' satisfies P , since p' differs from p only in the kth
coordinate. In particular, if j = k, then xk is not free in P .
LEMMA

15. Vx1cP--+ P(t/x1c)

26]

EXERCISES

l. Let 1 be the interpretation for AG whose doma.in consists of t he

single element a, and which assigns to + the operation defined by
a a = a, and assigns a to O. Show that I is a model for the proper

axioms of AG.

2. Let I be the interpretation for the theory F of fields whose doma.in is

{O, l}, and which assigns O t o O and 1 to 1, and the operations
and to + and

is valid if P admits the term t for xk.

Proof. I t suffices to show that if p satisfies VxkP , then p satises

P(t/x1<) Suppose p satisfies Vx1cP. Then p (d/k) satisfies P for every d
in the domain. In particular p (p (t)/k) satisfies P . Then p satisfies
P(t/xk) by Lemma 14.

; 1 ~1:
1

LEMMA

16.

Every equality axiom is valid.

Let 1 be an interpretation, and let p be a point. El is

\1x 1 (x 1 = x 1 ). p satisfies x 1 = x 1 beca.use a 1 = a 1 (is true). Since pis
arbitrary, x 1 = x 1 is true in J. Then El is true in 1 by Theorem 6(c).
Let V'x 1 \1xn Vxn+l Vxn+nQ be an instance of E2, where Q is

Proof.

X1

Xn + 1

/\ ' ' ' /\

= Xn + 1
Xn

/\

Let g be the predicate assigned to G by J. If a1 # an+i for some i ,

then p does not satisfy x 1 = xn+I> and hence p satisfies Q. If a1 = an+1
for every i, then g(a 1 , , an) is the same as g(an+l> .. ., an+nl Then p
satisfies G(x1, .. .,xn)-G(xn+l>Xn+n), and hence p satisfies Q.
Since pis arbitrary, Q is true in l. Then Vx 1 VxnVXn+l Vxn+nQ is
true in I by Theorem 6(c). Similarly, every instance of E3 is true in l.
Since I is arbitrary, every equality axiom is valid.
THEOREM

17.

lo

Every theorem of the predicate calculus is val id.

Proof. Every instance o Al through A6 is valid by Lemmas 9, 11,

12, and 15. Every equality axiom is valid by Lemma 16. Every

~~1;

~/

Show that I is a model for the proper axioma of F.

3. Show that p satisfies 3xkP if and only if p(d/k) satisfies P for some
element d of the domain.
4. Disprove the following : If 1 is an interpretatfon for the fo:-mulcts P
and Q, then P --;. Q is true in I if and only if Pis false in I or Q is true
in l.

' /\

Xn+n .--+. G(x1, .. . ' Xn)- G(xn +l >... ' Xn +n)

l.57

TRUTH

axiom that is given by Ax Gen is valid by Theorem 6(c). Therefore

every axiom of the predicate calculus is valid. If P--+ Q and P are
va.lid, then Q is valid by Theorem 6(b ). Hence every theorem of the
predica.te calculus is '\'alid. (Compare the proof of Theorem 15.5.)

5. A formula P is satis.fiable if and only if there is a point that satisfies

P . Let v1 , , vn be the free variables of P. Show that P is

satisfiable if and only if 3v1 3vnP is satisfiable.
6. Prove that each of the following formulas is valid or give a counterexample to show that it is invalid. Do not use Theorem 17 or its
lemmas.
(a) 'tx 1 A(x1 ) V Vx1 B(x 1 )--+ Vx 1 (A(x 1 )
(b) 3x1 A(x1 ) /\ 3x1 B(x 1 )-+ 3x1 (A(x 1 )
(c) Vx 1 A(x1 )--+ A(x2 )
(d) A(x2 )-+ Vx 1 A(x1 )

(e)
(f)
(g)
{h)

3x2 Vx 1 B(x1 , x 2 )--+ Vx 1 3x2 B(x1 , x 2 )

Vx 1 3x2 B(x1 , x 2 )--+ 3x2 Vx 1 B(x, x 2 )
Vx 1 A(x1 )--+ Vx 2 A(x2 )
A(x1 )-+ A(x2 )

v B(xi))
/\ B(x ))
1

l58

[Ch. 3
FIRST ORDER THEORIES

THE COMPLE TENESS THEOREM

THEOREM 3. The following sets are countable : the set of formulas of

T , the set of statements of T, the set of statements of T that begin with
a universal quantifier, and the set of closed terms of T.

(o) P(t/xk)-+ 3x1cP if P admits t for X1c

AG is valid.

S. Show that P /\ Q is true in I if and only if P is true in I and Q is

Proof.

The formal symbols of the predicate calculus are

,......, -+

true in J.

l7

The Completeness Theorem

From now on T (perhaps with subscripts or primes)

stands for a

irst order t heory.

A model for T is a model for the set of theorems of T .
rHEOREM l.

Th e interpretation M f or T is a m od el for T if and only if

mery prop er axiom of T is true in M .

Proof. Suppose every proper axiom of T is true in M . Every
ogical axiom of T is true in M because every logical axiom is valid by
Cheorem 26.17. Hence every axiom of T is true in M. Then every
heorem of T is t rue in 1Y1 beca.use modus ponens preserves tru;,,:,
1y Theorem 26.6(b). Conversely, if M is a model for T, then every
heorem of T is true in M and hence every proper axiom of T is true

nM.
~HEOREM 2. lf T has a model , then T is consistent.

radicting Theorem 26.6(g) .

We now begin the proof ofthe completeness theorem: Every consistent
trst order theory has a countable model.
T' is an extension of T if and only if every theorem of T is a theorem

'ef

( ; )

f3

(We temporarily replace the comma by the semicolon to prevent

confusion with commas in t he metalanguage.) We regard these
symbols as the letters of an alphabet, with the order above being the
alphabetic order. Thus ,......, is the first letter of the alphabet, -+is the
second letter, etc. We regard each string as a word. We enumerate
the strings as follows. First we enumerate all the 1-let ter words in
dictionary order : ,.....,, -+, 'V, ... , #; then ali the 2-letter words in
dictionary order

,.......,,.._,,

~ .

.. : ,.......,#, -+,.....,, -+-+, -+'V, . . . ' -+#, "/,.......,, .. . '##

then all the 3-letter words in dictionary order, and so on, with all the
n-letter words following in dictiona.::-y c der e.11 t he w0rds ,,.; . . :: fr,,v2 r
thr.n n btwrs. Ev)ry stril!g has a definite position in this sequence.
Hence the set of all strings of the predicate calculus is countable.
Every formula of T is a string of the predicate calculus. Then by
Theorem 2.4, the set of all formulas of T is countable. Similarly,
the statements of T , the statements of T that begin with a universal
quantifier, and the closed terms of T are ali countable sets.
Let T be consistent. Then T has a consistent and complete
extension with the same formulas as T.
THEOREM

Proof. Suppose M is a model for T . Suppose for contradiction

bat T is inconsistent. Let S be a statement of T . Then both S and
.....,s are theorems of T. Then both S and ,......,s are true in M, con-

if T'.

159

W e note that if T' is an extension of T, then every model for T' is also
a model for T. For example, F is an extension of AG, and hence every
:field is an abelian group.
A term is closed if and only if no variables occur in it.

(i) A(x 2 )-+ 3x 1 A(x1 )

(j) 3x 1A (x 1 )-+ A(x2 )
(k) 'Vxk(P-+ Q) .-+. 3xkP-+ 3xkQ
(l) 'VxkP-+ 'VxkQ .-+. 'Vxk(P-+ Q)
(ro) 3xk(P-+ Q) .-+. 'VxkP-+ Q if xk is not free in Q
(n) Vxk(P-+ Q) .-+. P-+ 'VxkQ if xk is not free in P
1. Show that no proper axiom of

27]

4.

Proof. Let R 1 , R 2 , R 3 , be an enumeration of the statements of

T. We define by induction an infinite sequence T 0 , T 1 , T 2 , of
first order theories. T 0 is T. Suppose that T 0 , T 1 , , T,,_ 1 have
been defined. Then T,, is the result of adjoining R,, to T,,_ 1 as a proper
axiom if the result is consistent; otherwise, T,, is T,, _ 1 . Thus for every
n, T" is a consistent extension of T" _ 1. Let T' be the first order theory

l 60

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

27]

[Ch. 3

THE COMPLETENESS THEOREM

161

of ui (I ~ i ~ n and 1 ~ j ~ m). We show below that S~, ... , S~

is a proof in T. Since S~ is Q' /\ ,_,Q' , and Q' is a formula of T. T is
inconsistent by Theorem 25.4.
We show that S~, ... , S~ is a proof in T by induction on n , but we
omit the induction framework and give only the various cases that arise.
Case l. S 1 is a logical axiom that is notan equality axiom. Then
s; is also a logical axiom, because axiom schemes Al through A6 are not
sensitive to replacing a constant symbol by a new variable.
Case 2. S 1 is a proper axiom or an equality axiom. Then s; is S 1,
because the proper and equality axioms of T' are exactly those of T.
Case 3. Si is inferred from S; and S ; --r S ; by modus ponens. Then
s; is inferred from s; and (S; --r S;)' by modus poneos, because
(S; ---+ 8 1)' is Sj--r s;.

.vhose proper axioms are all the proper axioms of all the Tn's. That is,
Pis a proper axiom of T' if and only if Pis a proper axiom of sorne T" .
r is an extension of every Tn, and T' has the same formulas as T and
ivery Tr.. V\1e show that T' is consistent and complete. Suppose, for
:ontradiction, that T ' is not consistent. Then r-T.Q /\ --Q for sorne
ormula Q. Let S 1 , . . . , Bm be a proof of Q A ,._,Q in T ', and let
0 1 , . . , P i be all the distinct steps in the proof that are labeled as
iroper axioms. By t he definition of T ' , each P is a proper axiom of
orne T1c, Let n be the largest of tbe numbers k 1 , k 2 , .. , ki. By the
onstruction of the sequence T 0 , T 1 , T 2 , . , each Pi is a proper axiom
f T n Hence S 1 , , Sm is a proof of Q , ~ in T n contradict ing t he
onsist ency of Tn. Now let S be a statement of T ' . We show that S
r
is a theorem of T' . Sin ce S is a statement of T, S is P n for sorne
Suppose T n is the result of adjoining P n to T n _ 1 as a proper axiom.
'hen P n is a proper axiom of T ', and hence a theorem of T'. Suppose
'n is T n _ 1. Then the result of adjoining P n to T " _ 1 is inconsistent.
hen by Theorern 25 .5 , 1-Tn _, ,._,p n Then 1-T.,...,p"' since T ' is an

,....,s

Let Vv Q be a statemen t of T, and let e be a con stant symbol

of T that do es not occur i n a proper axiom of T. L et T' be the resitlt of
adjoini ng Q ( c/ v) - VvQ as a p roper axiom. t o T. If T is consistent,
then so is T'.

LEMMA 6.

dension of Tn_ 1 .

Proof. We proceed by contraposition. Suppose that T ' is inconsistent. Then by Theorem 25.5, ;-T"-'(Q(c/v) --r VvQ ). Then by
the statement calculus, ;-TQ(c/v) and '""T""VvQ. Let S1, ... ' sn be a
proof of Q(c/v) in T. Let u be a variable other than v that does not
occur in this proof. Then Q<u./v) is simil:Lr : :e (1. Fo j :( i ::.;; n , le-v
s; be the result of replacing each occurrence of e in S 1 by an occurrence
of u . Then as in the proof of Lemma 5, S~, .. ., S~ is a proof of Q(u/v)
in T. Then gen gives ;-TVuQ(u/v), and a change of bound variable
gives ;-T"JvQ. Since r-T,._,VvQ , T is inconsistent.

The reason we must contend with fi.rst order theories that are not
rmal is that the proof of Theorem 4 is not constructive: The set of
~oper axioms of the consistent and complete extension is not effectively
ven. The set may or may not be decidable.
We may assume t hat t h l': re ;Ge inf:iitely many c:ir. ~ts,nt ;;ymbols
lBt are not proper symbols of T . For even if T requires an infinite list
constant symbols, we may use the odd-numbered ones, so that the
en-numbered ones are not proper symbols of T.

~:MMA

T is closed if and only if (i) T has at least one closed term, and (ii) for
every statement YvQ of T that begins with a universal quantifier, VvQ
is a theorem of T whenever Q(t/v) is a theorem of T for every closed
term t of T.

Let b 1 , b 2 , . . . be an infinite sequence of constant symbols

it are not proper symbols of T. Let T ' be the result of adjoining
, b2 , . to the set of proper symbols of T. lf T is consistent, then
5.

is T'.
7. Every consistent first order theory has a consistent , complete,
and closed extension.

THEORE111

Proof. \\7e proceed by contraposition. Suppose T ' is inconsistent.

ten by Theorem 25.4 there is a formula Q such that 1-T.Q /\ ,.._,Q.
t S 1 , .. ., Sn be a proof of Q A ,.._,Q in T' . Let b1 , .. ., bm be
the distinct new constant symbols that occur in this proof. Let
, ... , um be distinct variables that do not occur in this proof. Let s;
the result of replacing each occurrence of bi in Si by an occurrence

Proof. Let T be consistent. Let T 0 be the result of adjoining to T

an infinite sequence b1 , b2 , of new constant symbols. T 0 is
consistent by Lemma 5. Let (VvQ) , (VvQh, . . . be the enumeration

162

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

given by Theorem 3 of the statements of T 0 that begin with a universal

quantifier. For each n, only a finite number of new constant symbols
lccur in the set {(VvQ)i, ('v'vQb, ... , (VvQ)n} Hence there is a new
~onstant symbol, call it bn, that <loes not ccur in this set. We define
by induction an infinite sequence T 0 , T 1 , of first order theories
with the same formulas as T 0 . Assuming that Tn-l has been defined,
;hen T,. is the result of adjoining Q(bn/v) ..-.. ('v'vQ ),. as a proper axiom to
rn_ 1 . Then by induction each T,. is consistent, for T 0 is consistent,
md if Tn-l is consistent, then Tn is consistent by Lemma 6.
Let T' be the theory whose proper axioms are ali the proper axioms
)f all the Tn's. Then exactly as in the proof of Theorem 4, T ' is con;istent. Then by Theorem 4, T ' has a consistent and complete extension
r" with the same formulas as T'. we note that T", T', and each Tn
iave exactly the same formulas. We show that T" is closed. Let
fvQ be a statement of T " that begins with a universal quantitier, and
:uppose that Q(t/v ) is a theorem of T" for every closed term t. 'v'vQ is
'v'vQ),. for some n. Q(bn/v)-+ (VvQ)n is an axiom of T" because it is
.n axiom of Tn and hence of T'. Since b"- is a closed term, Q(b"-/v) is a
heorem of T" by hypothesis. Then ('v'vQ),. is a theorem ofT" by modus
>onens. Hence T" is a consistent, complete, and closed extension of T.

Every consistent, complete, and closed first order theory has

countable model.

CHEOREM

8.

Proof. Let T be consistent, complete. and clm;ed. Li;t a be a closed

erm of T. Let [a) be the set of ali closed terms b of T such that
--rtl = b. Let M be the interpretation for T defined as follows. The
lomain D of M consists of ali the sets [a]. M is countable, for by
~heorem 3, the closed terms of T can be enumerated a 1 , a 2 , . . . . Then
he elements of D can be enumerated [a1 ], [a 2 ] , . . . . M assigns to the
ri-place predicate symbol G of T the predicate g, defined by:
g([a1 ), . , [amJ)

is true if and only if

1-TG(a1 ,

am)

"'1 assigns to the m-place operation symbol F of T the operation J,

.efined by:f([a1 ], , [am]) is [F(a 1 , , am)J. M assigns to theconstant
ymbol e of T the element [e) of D. Before we go on, we must show
hat the definitions of g andf make sense. Consider g. Suppose that
:i1] = [b 1] for 1 ~ i ~ m.
Then g([a1 ], . . , [amJ) is the same as
([b 1 ], . . . , [bmJ). Then we must show that 1-TG(a1 , . . . , am) if and only
: 1-TG(b 1 , , bm). bt is in [b] because 1-~1 = b1 Then bt is in [a]

27]

THE COM:PLETENESS THEOREM

163

since [a] = [b 1] . Hence t--rtl1 = b1 E2 gives t--rtl1 = b1 11 . . 11

am = bm .-+. G(a1 , , am) ~ G(b 1 , , bm) Then the statement calculus gives 1-TG(a1 , , am) ~ G(b 1 , , bm). Then by the statement
calculus again, 1-TG(a1 , . . , am) if and only if 1-TG(bv ... , bml Hence
the definition of g makes sense. Similarly, using E3 in place of E2,
the definition off makes sense.
Let P be a statement of T, and Jet n be the number of symbols in P ,
counting each occurrence of ,....,, -+, or V as a symbol. We prove by
induction on n that Pis true in M if and only if 1-TP. Then Mis a
model for T. For if Q is a theorem of T, then so is its closure, and Q is
true in M if and only if its closure is true in M .
Basis. If n = O, then Pisan atomic statement G(a1 , . , am) where
G is an m-place predicate symbol and a 1 , , am are closed terms.
First we show that p (a ) = [a] for every point p and every closed terma.
If a is a constant symbol, then p(a) = [a] by the definition of M.
Suppose p (a1 ) = [ai], ... , p (ak) = [ak], anda is F(a1 , , ak), where F
is an operation symbol. Then
p(a)

= p(F(a1 , . , ak)) = f (p(a1 ) , . , p (ak})

= f([a 1 ] , , [ak]) = (by the definition of M ) [F(a 1 , , ak)]

= [a]

We prove the basis step. Suppose 1-TP. Then g([ai], . .. , [amJ) is

true by the definition of M. Let p be a point. p satisfies P if and
only if g(p(a1 }, , p (am)) = g([a1 ], , [am]) is true. Hence every
point satisfies P, and Pis true in M. If Pis nota theorem of T , then
g([aJ, .. . , [cm]) is false , and h encc o point satisfies P, i.e., Pis fc.,lse
inM.
Induction step. Assume that Pis true in M if and only if 1-TP for
every statement P with n or fewer symbols, and considera st atement P
with n + 1 symbols.
Case l. Pis --Q for sorne Q. Suppose Pis true in M. Then Q is
false in M. Then Q is nota theorem of T by the induction hypothesis.
Then 1-T""'Q because T is complete. Suppose that P is false in M.
Then Q is true in M. Then 1-TQ by the induction hypothesis. Then
,_,Q is not a theorem of T because T is consistent .
Case 2. Pis Q ..-.. R for sorne Q and R. Suppose that Pis true in M.
Then Q is false in Mor R is true in M. By the induction hypothesis,
Q is not a theorem of T or R is a theorem of T. Suppose that Q is not a
theorem of T. Then 1-T--Q because T is complete. "-'<J..-.. (Q ..-.. R )
is a theorem of T because it is a tautology. Then 1-TQ-+ R by modus
ponens. Suppose that Risa theorem of T. R-+ (Q-+ R ) is a theorem

64

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

27]
THE COMPLETENESS THEOREM

f T beca.use it is a tautology. Then 1-TQ-.. R by modus ponens.

Ience if Pis true in M , then 1-TP. Now suppose that Pis false in M.
'hen Q is true in M and R is false in M. By the induction hypothesis,
1 is a theorem of T and R is not a theorem of T.
Then ,...._, R is a theorem
f T because T is complete. Q -.._ ,..._,R -.. ,..._,(Q -.. R) is a theorem of T
ecause it is a tautology. Then two applications of modus ponens
ive 1-T,..._,(Q -.. R). Then Q __,.. R is not a theorem of T because T is
onsistent.
Ca.se 3. Pis '</xkQ for sorne k and Q. Let a be a closed term of T.
admits a for xk. Suppose Pis true in M. '</x1cQ-.. Q(a jxk) is true in
1 because it is valid by Lemma 26.15. Then Q(a/xk) is true in M
ecause modus ponens preserves truth. Then 1-TQ(a/xk) by the
1duction hypothesis. Then 1-T'Vx1cQ because T is closed and a is
rbitrary. Suppose 1-TP. Then 1-TQ(a/xk) by spec. Then Q(a/xk )
true in M by the induction hypothesis. Let p be a point. Then p
~tisfies Q(a/xk).
Let p' = p(p(a) /k). Then p' satisfies Q by Lemma
B. 14. We have shown that p (a) = [a].
Hence p' = p([a] /k).
'herefore p([a]/k ) satisfies Q. Since [a] is an arbitrary element of t he
omain, p satisfies VxkQ. Since p is arbitrary , Vx1cQ is true in M.
HEOREJ\I 9.
(The completeness theorem .) Every consistent first order
:eory has a countable model.

Proof. Let T be consistent. Then T has a consistent, complete,

1d closed. ext ension T' by Theo~e:::n i. T' has a count a.11e model .J.~!
y- Theorem 8. M is a model for T because T' is an extension of T.
HEOREJ\1

10.

A first order theory is consistent if and only if it has a

165
enough: Every first arder theory is complete relative to its set of
formulas true in every model.
THEOREM 11. Let Q be a formula of T.
T, then Q is a theorem of T.

If Q is true in every model f or

Proof. Suppose that Q is true in every model for T. First suppose Q is a statement. Let T' be the result of adjoining "-'Q to T as a
proper axiom. If .J.11. is a model for T', then both Q and "-'Q are true
in M, which is impossible. Therefore T' has no model. Then T' is
inconsistent by the completeness theorem. Hence 1-.r-.,'"'-'Q by
Theorem 25.5 Then 1-TQ by the statement calculus. If Q is not a
statement, then the closure Q* of Q is true in every model for T by
Theorem 26.6(c). Hence 1-TQ* since Q* is a statement. Therefore
1-TQ by spec.
THEOREJ\1

12.

Every valid formula is a theorem of the predicate calculus.

Proof. Suppose Q is valid. Then Q is true in every model for the

predicate calculus. The predicate calculus is a first arder theory.
Hence 1-Q by Theorem 11.

Theorem 12 says that the predicate calculus is complete relative to

the set of valid formulas. The completeness theorem, which apparently
says nothing about. comp1eten eu:, be<. : -~ tLa: name because I 'heorems
l l and 12, whic.h are completeness theorems, follow immediately from it.
THEOREJ\1 13. A formula is valid if and only if it is a theorem of the
predicate calculus.

odel.
Proof.
Proof.

Theorem 12 and Theorem 26.17.

Theorem 2 and the completeness theorem.

Recall that T is complete relative to the set X of formulas of T if and

1ly if 1-TQ for every formula Q of X. A significant choice of X is the set
formulas true in every model for T. For example, if Q is a formula
AG that is true in every abelian group, then we expect Q to be a
teorem of AG. Indeed, if Q were nota theorem of AG, we would be
1mpelled to strengthen the predicate calculus to make it a theorem of
G. The theorem below states that the predicate calculus is strong

THEOREM 14. If Q is a formula of T that is a theorem of the predicate

calcmus, then Q is a theorem of T.

Proof. Suppose Q is a formula of T that is a theorem of the predica te

calculus. Then Q is valid by Theorem 13. Hence Q is true in every
model for T. Then Q is a theorem of T by Theorem 11.

Theorem 14 says that every first arder theory is self-contained with

respect to the predicate calculus.

166

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

15 (The LOwenheim-Skolem theorem).

then T has a cmmtahle model.

THEOREM

lf

28]

T has a model,

3.
Proof.

Theorem 2 and the completeness theorem.

16 (The compactness theorem). lf every finite set of proper

axioms of T has a model, then T has a model.

TREOREM

4.

5.

Proof. The proof is by contraposition. Suppose T has no model.

Then T is inconsistent by the completeness theorem. Hence there is a
formula Q such that 1-TQ A ,_,(J. By Theorem 22 .1 there is a finite set
{Pi, ... , Pk} of proper axioms of T such that P 1 , , Pk1-Q A ,_,(J.
Let {Pi, ... , Pk} be the set of proper axioms of T '. Then 1-T.Q A
,..._,(J by Theorem 22.1. Hence T' is inconsistent. Therefore T ' has no
model by Theorem 2. Hence {P1 , . . . , Pk} has no model by Theorem l.

6.
7.
8.
9.

For each positive integer n

3x13X2 . 3xn(X1 #X1

#-

Xz

2, let 3n be the statement

10.

A Xi -:/ X3 A . .. /\

Xn /\ Xz -:/ X3 A A X2 -:/ Xn A A Xn - i

#-

Xn )

For example, 33 is 3x 1 3x 2 3x3 (x 1 -:/ x 2 A x 1 -:/ x 3 /\ x 2 -:/ x 3 ) . 3n is

t,rue in an interpretation 1 if and only if the domain of 1 has at least n
~lements . If n ~ k, then 1-3n-+ 3k.

11 .

12.
17. Suppose that for cve:ry p0c0i t i vf i ntcger n , T has a mo.'el
vith at least n elements. Then T has an infinite model.

rREOREM

Proof. Let T' be the result of adjoining all the 3n statements as

>roper axioms to T. Let X be any finite set of proper axioms of T'.
3ecause X is finite, there is a greatest positive integer n such that 3n
s in X. Let M be a model for T with at least n elements. Then Mis a
nodel for X. Then T' has a model M' by the compactness theorem.
II' is a model for T , and M' is infinite because every statement 3n is
rue in M'.

EXERCISES

13.

14.

INDEPENDENCE

167

State why the usual dictionary ordering does not yield a proof of
Theorem 3.
Let M be a model for T. Let the theorems of T' be precisely the
formulas of T that are true in M. Show that T' is a consistent and
complete extension of T.
Prove that a formula Q of T is a theorem of T if and only if Q is a
theorem of every consistent and complete extension of T.
Let T be consistent and complete, and let M be a model for T.
without using the completeness theorem, prove that a formula Q
of T is a theorem of T if and only if it is true in M.
Show that AG is not closed.
Prove that if a formula Q of T is true in every countable model for
T, then 1-TQ.
Derive the completeness theorem from Theorem 11 and the
LOwenheim-Skolem theorem.
Derive the completeness theorem for finitely axiomatized theories
from Theorems 12 and 14 and the Lowenheim-Skolem theorem.
Derive the completeness theorem from the compactness theorem ,
the Lowenheim-Skolem theorem, and the completeness theorem for
finitely axiomatized theories.
Let T be finitely axiomatized, and let P 1 , . . . , P k be the proper
axioms of T. Prove that 1-TQ if and only if Pi /\ A Pk-+ Q is
valid.
Pro ve that 1-TQ if and only if there is a finite set {P 1 , . .. , P :'t of
pr oper axiom~ of T such 1at P 1 /\ 1, 1-' i -+ Q is va.lid.
Let P 1 , P 2 , be an infinite sequence of statements of T. Let T'
be the result of adjoining all the P's as proper axioms to T. Prove
that Q is true in every model for T' if and only if there is a finite
set {P 1 , , P J of P's such that P 1 A /\ P;1 -+ Q is true in
every model for T.
Prove that if Q is a formula of the theory of fields that is true in
every field of characteristic zero, then there is a prime p (depending
on Q) such that Q is true in every field of characteristic greater
than p.

28 Independence

l. Use Theorems 1 and 2 to show that AG, L, and F are consistent.

2. The ordering in the proof of Theorem 3 is not exactly the usual

dictionary ordering, because, e.g., it would place be before ask.

A proper axiom S of T is independent if and only if S is not provable

from the other axioms of T .

168

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

28]
INDEPENDENCE

From previous theorems it follows immediately that if T is consistent,

then S is independent if and only if there is a model for the other proper
axioms of T in which S is false.
EXAMPLE 1. L 1 is an independent proper axiom of L. Let the domain
of M consist of a alone, and let < be defined in M by a < a = T .
Then L2 and L3 are true in M, but Ll is false in M.

In the theory F of fields, the commutative law of addition

+ x) is dependent (i.e., not independent). We sketch
~n informal proof of VxVy(x + y = y + x), using some theorems of F
which can be proved from the other axioms of F.

EXAMPLE 2.

'<txVy(x

y = y

+ y)(l +

(x

l} = (x

+ y}l +

(x

y )l = x

Distributing in another way,

y)(l

+ y(l + 1)
+ yl + yl = x + x + y + y
Eience x + x + y + y= x + y + x + y. The cancellation law applied
m the left gives x + y + y = y + x + y. Then the cancellation law
Lpplied on the right gives x + y = y + x .
(x

l}

x(l + 1)
xl + xl

Independence of ali the proper axioms is a matter of elegance, not

iecessity. A dependent axiom does no real harm; it is merely
mperfiuous.
~XAMPLE

3.

The two distributive laws for the theory R of rings are

VxVyVz(x(y + z}
R7. VxVyVz((y + z)x
R6.

R8.

VxVy(xy

non-Euclidean geometry is a model for geometry in which the fifth postulate is false and ali the other axioms are true.
The preceding discussion is concerned with a statement that is
already an axiom. Now suppose a statement is not an axiom but is
being considered as a possible axiom.
The statement S of T is consistent with T if and only if the result of
adjoining S to T as a proper axiom is consistent. For example, the
statement VxVy(xy = yx) of the t heory G of groups is consistent with
G because there is an abelian group.
The statement S of T is independent of T if and only if both S and ,.....,s
are consistent with T. For example, the statement VxVy(x = y ) of
AG is independent of AG because there is an abelian group with exactly
one element, and there is an abelian group with more t han one element .
An important example of an independent statement is t he statement
of set theory called the. axiom of choice. The axiom of choice states
that for every nonempty set d of nonempty sets, there is a funct ion
that assigns to each set A in dan element of A . Because the consistency of set theory has not been proved, a more precise statement
of this result is: If set theory is consistent, then the axiom of choice is
independent. A famous independent statement of number theory is
discussed in Section 31.
A proper symbol may be dependent.
An n-place predicate s~'rnbol G of T is de penrlr-nt if and ody if : h.;::re
is a formula P ( v 1, , vn ) of T whose free variables are exactly
v1, ,v,., such that G does not occur in P and

= xy + xz)
= yx + zx}

t is customary to define a commutative ring to be a ring that satisfies

.he additional property
yx}

.n the theory of commutative rings, R6 and R 7 are dependent because

:ach can be proved from the other by R8. (See Theorem 23.7.) But
.s soon as R6 or R 7 is omitted, the other one becomes independent.
l,.n axiom is not dependent or independent by itself, but relative to a
et of axioms.
. Independence makes sense for all axiomatic theories. The clasic example of an independent axiom is Euclid's fifth postulate. A

169

f-TV'v1 .. . Vvn ( G ( v 1 ,

. .

,v,.) ~ P ( v 1

,v,,))

EXAMPLE 4. BA *is the result of adjoining to BA the 2-place predicat e

symbol ~ and the following proper axioms:
BA12.
BAI3.
BA14.
BA15.
BA16.

VxVyVz(x ~ y /\ y ~ z--+ x ~ z)
VxVy(x ~ y /\ y ~ x --+ x = y)
VxVyVz(x ~ y--+ x U z ~ y U z)
VxVyVz(x ~ y--+ x n z ~ y n z}
VxVy(x ~ y--+ y' ~ x' )

The predicate symbol ~ is dependent because

1-BA

Vx1 Yx 2 (x 1 ~ x 2 ~ x 1

U x2 = x2 )

. 70

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

An n-place operation symbol F of T is dependent if and only if there

s a formula P(xi, ... , x,. , X 11 +i) of T whose free variables are exactly
Ci, , x 11 , X 11 + i such that F does not occur in P and
f-T'v'v 1 ... 'v'vn+ 1 (F (v 1,

. .

,vn )

5. AG' is the result of adjoining to AG the 1-place operation

;ymbol - and replacing AG3 by
'v'x(x

(-x)

INDEPENDENCE
EXAMPLE

8.

The constant symbol O of AG is dependent because

'v'x3!y(x

The operation symbol - is dependent because

ExAMPLE

6.

X2-Xi

In the theory LA of lattices,

1-LA 'v'xi 'v'x2 'v'x3(Xi

Xz = X3 -

Xi ~ X3

'v'x2(X2

Xi

= X2))

Many theories have dependent operation and constant symbols

because it is more intuitive to work with the operation or constant
symbol than with a formula . For example, a theorem of AG is

O)

1-AG''v'x1'v'x2(-xi

171

v,,, V,,+ 1 ))

li::XAMPLE

AG3'.

28)

1-Aa'v'Xi(O =Xi Vn+l ~ P (v 1 ,

---~

X2 =O)

u is dependent because

Xz ~ X3

/\ 'v'x4(Xi ~ X4 /\ Xz ~ X4-+ X3 ~ X4))

Similarly, nis dependent in LA.

ExAMPLE 7, In the theory R of rings, the operation symbol is
independent. Let M 1 be the interpretation for R in the integers with
the usual meaning of +, , and O. Let M 2 be the same as M 1 except
that M 2 assigns to the operation o defined by a b = O for all integers
a and b. Mi and M 2 are models for R. Suppose for contradiction
that is dependen t. Then there is a formula P(x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) of R su ch that
does not occur in P and 1-R 'v'x 1'v'x 2'v'x 3(xi x 2 = x 3 - P (xi , x 2, x 3)).
Then Xi x 2 = x 3 - P(xi, x 2, x 3) is true in both Mi and M 2. Let
p = (2 , 3, 6, ... ) be a point whose first three coordinates are 2, 3, 6.
Then p satisfies Xi x 2 = x 3 - P(xi, x 2, x 3). p satisfies x 1 x 2 = x 3
in Mi because 2 3 = 6 in the ring of integers. Hence p satisfies
P (xi , x 2, x 3) in Mi p does not satisfy Xi x 2 = x 3 in M 2 because
2 3 # 6. Hence p does not satisfy P(xi , x 2 , x 3 ) in M 2 . But does
not occur in P(x 1 , x2 , x 3 ), and Mi and M 2 are identical except for "
Therefore p satisfies P(x 1 , x 2 , x 3 ) in M 1 if and only if p satisfies
P (x i , x 2, x 3 ) in M 2 . This contradiction shows that is independent
in R , i.e., it cannot be defined from the other proper symbols of R.

A constant sy mbol e of T is dep endent if and only if there is a

formula P (v 1 ) of T with exactly one free variable v1 such that e does
not occur in P and f- T'iv 1(c = v 1 ~ P (v 1 )) .

= O)

(1)

Let AG* be the result of adjoining to AG the 1-place operation symbol

- and the proper axiom
'v'x(x

+ (-

x) = O)

(2)

In working with AG informally, it is customary after proving (1) to

introduce the notation -x and to note (2). The formal counterpart is
to extend AG to AG*. Similarly, in other first order theories it is
customary to adjoin new operation symbols and proper axioms after
justifying theorems ofthe form (1) ha ve been proved. This is especially
true in number theory, where there are many familiar operations (e.g.,
n! and nm) for which no operation symbol occurs in the axioms. This
procedure is justified because all the successive extensions are
essentially the same theory. As an example we show exactly how
AG* is related to AG.
First, - is dependent in AG* because
1-Aa'v'x1'v'x2( -Xi = x 2 -

x1

x2

O)

Second, (2) cannot be proved in AG (even if - is adjoined) because does not occur in any proper axiom. Third, AG and AG* ha ve essentially the same models. More precisely, every model for AG* is a
model for AG because AG* is an extension of AG, and every model for
AG can be extended to a model for AG* as follows. Let M be a model
for AG with domain D , and let M assign a to O. Because (1) is true
in M, far every element d of D there is a unique element d' of D such
that d + d' = a. Define the 1-place operation - in D by -d = d'.
Let M* be the same as M, except that M* assigns - to the operation
symbol - of AG*. Then M* is a model for AG*. We conclude that
for practica! purposes AG and AG* are two formulations of the same
theory.

172

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

l. Prove that if T is consistent, then the proper axiom S of T is

independent if and only if there is a model for the other proper

axioms of T in which S is false.
2. Show that all the proper axioms of AG are independent.
3. Show that all the proper axioms of L are independent.
4.. Show that the proper axiom O # 1 of the theory F of fields is
independent.
'5. Let T be finitely axiomatized with at least one proper axiom.
Show that there is a theory T' with the same formulas and
theorems as T which has only one proper axiom.
6. Prove that the statement S of T is consistent with T if and only if
,....,,s is not a theorem of T .
7. Prove that T is complete if and only if there is no statement of T
that is independent of T.
8. Prove that the statement S of T is independent of T if and only if
there exist models M 1 and M 2 for T su ch that S is true in M 1 and
false in M 2 .
Show that p

O /\ q = O is not

consistent with F.
10. Show that the statement 1 + 1 = O is independent of F .
11. The theory OAG of ordered abelian groups has the proper symbols
=, +, O, and <, and the proper axioms AGl through AG4, Ll
through L3, and
OAG8.

VxVyVz(x < y-+ x

z < y

+ z)

Show that < is independent in OAG.

12. Give without proof a theorem of BA that shows that the operation
symbol nis dependent.
13. Let F* be the result of adjoining to F the 1-place operation symbol'
and the proper axiom
Fll.

Vx(x # 0-+xx'

= 1)

Show that every model for F can be extended to a model for F*.
Discuss O'.
14. Formulate the theory of fields, using only the proper symbols

=, +, and .

29)

29

EXERCISES

9. Let p and q be distinct primes.

COMPLETENESS AND CATEGORICITY

173

Completeness and Categoricity

THEOREM l. T is complete if and anly if every statement af T that is true

inane madel far T is true in every madel far T.
Praof. Suppose T is complete, and S is a statement of T that is true
in the model M for T. We show that S is true in every model for T. We
proceed by contradiction. Suppose that S is not true in t he model M'
for T. Then Sis nota theorem of T. Similarly, - Sis nota theorem of T
because -Sis not true in M. Hence neither S nor -Sis a theorem of T,
contradicting the completeness of T. Now suppose that every statement
of T that is true in one model for T is true in every model for T. If T is
inconsistent, then T is complete. So suppose that T is consistent. Let S
be a statement of T. Since T is consistent, T has a model M by the
completeness theorem. Sor-Sis true in M. By hypothesis, Sor-Sis
true in every model for T. Hence Sor -Sis a theorem of T by Theorem
27.11. Since S is arbitrary, T is complete.

EXAMPLE 2. AG is not complete because the statement VxVy(x = y)

is true in a model with exactly one element and is false in a model with
more than one element.
Let M and M ' be models for T with domains D and D'. For each
predicate symbol G of T, let g and g' be the predicates assigned to G by
M and M '. For each operation symbol F of T, let f and f' be the
operations assigned to F by M and M '. Mis isomorphic to M' if and
only if there is a 1-1 correspondence between D and D' (say d is paired
off with d') such that for every n-tuple (d1 , . . . , dn) of elements of D
and every predicate symbol G of T and every operation symbol F of
T and every constant symbol e of T and every element d of D,
g(d 1 , . . . , dn ) = T ifand only if g'(d~,. . ., d~) = T , andf(d 1 , . ., dn) = d
if and only if f'(d~, ... , d~) = d', and M assigns d to e if and only if M '
assigns d' to c.
If M is isomorphic to M', then for practica! purposes M and M' are
the same. In particular, a formula of T is true in M if and only if it is
true in M'. (See Exercise 8.) When we say that all models of a given
set of models are isomorphic, we mean that for every M and M' in the
set, Mis isomorphic to M'.
T is categorical if and only if all models for T are isomorphic.

174

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

The familiar algebraic theories are not categorical because they have
models with different numbers of elements. One advantage of the
axiomatic approach in algebra is that one theorem establishes a true
formula in each of many different models.
The obvious way to make a theory categorical is to pile on axioms
until only one model remains . (This must be done with sorne care to
avoid reducing the number of models to zero.) Axioms fixing the
number of elements in a model sometimes make a theory categorical.
Let 3!n be the statement

29)

COMPLETENESS AND CATEGORICITY

M 2 correspond entry by entry, showing that M 1 and M 2 are isomorphic.

Since M 2 is arbitrary, every model for AG 2 is isomorphic to M 1
Hence AG 2 is categorical.
Straightforward computation shows that M 3 and M 4 are models for
AG 4 , where M 3 assigns O to O, and M 4 assigns a to O.

M3

o 1
o 1
o ,...---

-1

3x 1 3xn(x 1 # x 2 /\ /\ x 1 # Xn /\ x 2 # x 3 /\ /\ x 2 # Xn
/\ /\ Xn-l # Xn /\ 'Vy( y = x 1 V y = x 2 V V y = Xn))

-3

Thus 3!3 is
3x3x23X3 (X1

# Xz /\ X #

X3 /\ Xz

X3

/\ 'Vy(y = X1 V y = Xz V Y = X3})

Every model for 3!n has exactly n elements.

ExAMPLE 3. Let AG 2 be the result of adjoining 3!2 to AG as a proper
axiom , and let AG 4 be the result of adjoining 3!4 to AG as a proper
axiom. Then AG 2 is categorical, and AG 4 is not categorical.

Proof.

Let M 1 be the model for AG 2 defined below.

+
o

11

11

o
o
1

1
1=

Let M 2 be a model for AG 2 with elements a and b, and let M 2 assign a

to O. Then a + a = a and b + a = b, because AG2 is true in M 2 .
Thena + b = b, becauseAG4istrueinM 2 Weassertthatb + b =a,
for if b + b = b, then there is no y such that b + y = a, contradicting
the fact that AG3 is true in M 2 . Therefore M 2 is defined by

If a is paired off with O, and b is paired off with 1, the tables for M 1 and

175

M4
2 3
-=== 2 3

- 2

1-

1
2

*fe

~l e 1._~~
b

M 3 is not isomorphic to M 4 because the statement Vx(x

true in M 4 and is false in M 3
THEOREM 4.

O) is

If T is categorical, then T is complete.

Proof. Suppose T is categorical. Then every statement of T that

is true in one model for T is true in every model for T. Then T is
complete by Theorem l.
EXAMPLE 5. The theory DL (Example 22.12) is complete but not
categorical. Axiom L4 (in conjunction with Ll through L3) forces
every model for DL to be infinite. The rationals and the reals with
the usual meaning of < are models for DL. Since the rationals are
countable and the reals are uncountable, DL is not categorical.
By a theorem of Cantor, all countable infinite models for DL are
isomorphic to the rationals. We use Cantor's theorem to show that
DL is complete. Let S be a statement of DL. Let T 1 be the result
of adjoining S as a proper axiom to DL, and let T 2 be the result of
adjoining ,.....,s as a proper axiom to DL. We assert that T 1 or T 2 is
inconsistent. Then f--nL,.....,s or f--nL,.....,,.....,s by Theorem 25.5. Hence
f--nL,.....,s or f--nLS by the statement calculus, and DL is complete.
Suppose to the contrary that T 1 and T 2 are consistent. Then T 1
and T 2 have countable models M 1 and M 2 by the completeness
theorem. M 1 and M 2 are models for DL since T 1 and T 2 are extensions
of DL. M 1 and M 2 are countable infinite because all models for DL

76

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

29]

[Ch. 3

Some of the most interesting resulta about completeness and

~tegoricity require some knowledge of cardinal numbers and transaite methods. Intuitively, the cardinal number of a set is the number
: elements in the set. The cardinal number of a finite set is a non3gative integer. The cardinal number of an infinite set is called a
ansfinite cardinal number. Every set A has a unique cardinal number
' = B if and only if there is a 1-1 correspondence between A and
A ~ B if and only if there is a l-1 correspondence between A
nd a subset of B. A < if and only if A ~ B and A i= B. The
chroder-Bemstein theorem: if A ~ B and B ~ A, then A = B.
11 countable infinite sets ha.ve the same cardinal number w .
Shortly we shall discuss theories with uncountable sets of proper
rmbols. For the moment we assume without proof that the comactness theorem applies to such theories.

6. Let T have an infinite model M. The.n for every transfinite

irdinal number re, T has a model with at least re elements.

'HEOREM

Theorem 6 applies to many theories, including AG, L, R , and F .

~HEOREM

7.

If first arder number the.ory is consistent, then it is not

ategorical.
Proof. Suppose N is consistent. Then N has a countable model M
>y the completeness theorem. The proper axioms of N force every

177

model to be infinite. Then by Theorem 6, N has a model M' whose

cardinal number is at least the cardinal number of the reals. Hence
N is not categorical, since M is countable .and M' is uncountable.

S is true in M 1 and false in M 2 This is impossible because

r1 a.nd M 2 are isomorphic by Cantor's theorem. Hence DL is
>mplete.
~e infinite.

Proof. Let A be a set with cardinal number re. Let T' be the result
f adjoining to Tone new constant symbol for ea.ch eleroent of A , and
djoining to T one new proper axfom a i= b for e>'. ch pair {a . b} of
istinct new constant symbols. Let X be any finite subset of the
roper axioms of T'. Let a 1 , . . . , an be ali the distinct new constant
ymbols that occur in X. Let M' be the same as M except that M '
ssigns a different element of the domain to each a;. This is always
o0ssible because M is infinite. Then M' is a model for X. Hence 1"
.as a model M 1 by the compactness theorem. ltf 1 is a model for T
ecause T' is an extension of T. The cardinal number of M 1 is at least.
?, because each new proper axiom a #- b is true in M 1 .

COMPLETENESS AND CATEGORICITY

~~

First order number theory is intended to be categorical. We want

the nonnegative integers, with the usual meaning of + , , ', and O, to
be the one and only model (except for isomorphic copies). But no
matter how many axioms are adjoined to N, Theorem 7 still applies,
and the resulting theory is not categorical if it is consistent.
A set is well-ordered if and only if it is linearly ordered and every
nonempty subset has a smallest element, i.e., has an element a such
that a ~ b for every b in the subset. If A is well-ordered, and B is a
subset of A such that for every x in A , x is in B whenever every y less
than x is in B , then B = A (transfinite induction). F or every cardinal
number "t', there is a well-ordered set of cardinal number re. (The
proof of this statement uses the axiom of choice.)
A generalized first arder the.ory is like a first order theory except that
it may have an uncountable set of proper symbols. A generalized
first order theory with an uncountable set of proper symbols is not
formal because the notion of formula is not effective. The theory T ' in
the proof of Theorem 6 is such a theory. The next theorem extends
the completeness theorem to generalized first order theories. We
restrict our attention to theories whose sets of proper symbols are wellor<l~red .
For such theori1_.s, aL Lhe sets o Theoren1 ::.7 .3 fft \.\re.i.i.ordered.

~~~(l

~.:i~~~

~Ji1

~I ,

Let T be a generalized first arder theory, and let ~ be the

cardinal number of the set of proper symbols of T. T hen T has a model
with at most ~ elements if re is transfinite .

THEOREM 8.

Proof. The proofs of Theorems and Lemmas 3 through 7 in Section

27 go as before, replacing infinite sequences by well-ordered sets of
cardinal number ~' and ordinary induction by transfinite induction.
For example, in the proof of Theorem 7 in Section 27, the infinite
sequence of new constant symbols is replaced by a well-ordered set of
cardinal number ~ of new constant symbols, and the theorem is proved
by transfinite induction. The proof of Theorem 8 in Section 27 is the
same as before (ordinary induction), but now the model M has at most
~ elements instead of at most w elements.

i''>l

78

FiltST ORDER THEORIES

30]

[Ch. 3

lf T has an infinite model, then for every transfinite

irdinal number CfJ, T has a model with exactly CfJ elements.

9.

EXERCISES

Show that AG 3 is ca.tegorical.

2. Let Ln be the result of adjoining 3!n to Las a proper axiom. Show
tha.t L,, is categorical.
3. Give a sta.tement which when adjoined to T as a proper axiom forces
every model for T to have 2, 5, 7, or 13 elements.
4. In AG let nx be an abbrevia.tion for x + x + + x . The theory

10. Suppose every model for T is infinite, and for some

"Lns.finite cardinal number CfJ, all models for T with cardinal number 7f

HEOREM

Then T is complete.
5.
:'
'

1!
'"

6.

7.

8.

tmber CfJ, M 3 and M 4 are isomorphic.

The theory DL of Example 5 is an example of Theorem 1O in which
= w . We give an example in which CfJ # w.
11. Let T be the theory ACF of algebraically closed fields
characteristic zero. We use Theorem 10 to show that T is complete.
le complex numbers and the algebraic numbers are models for T.
is not categorical because the complex numbers are uncountable and
e algebraic numbers are countable. But since T is complete, every

~.;b;;,~

#ft- ,r,;_~

,-:.:- ~.;

ii~i:~

.....

n times

Proof. (Compare Example 5.) Let S be a statement of T . Let Ti

: the result of adjoining S as a proper axiom to T, and let T 2 be the
sult of adjoining ,.....,s as a proper axiom to T. We assert that T 1 or
: is inconsistent. Then .,_T~~S or ,_TS hy Thecrem ::!5.5 an'.J t he
:i,tement calculus, and T is complete. Suppose to the contrary
at Ti and T 2 are consistent. Then Ti and T 2 have models M i
td M 2 by the completeness theorem. M 1 and lYI 2 are models for
Therefore M 1 and M 2 are infinite. Then by Theorem 9, T i and
: have models M 3 and M 4 of cardinal number CfJ. Sis true in M 3 and
lse in M 4 This is impossible because, being models for T of cardinal

l. Let AG 3 be the result of adjoining 3!3 to AG as a proper axiom.

Proof. Suppose T has an infinite model M. Let A be a well~dered set of cardinal num ber CfJ. Define T ' as in the proof of Theorem
Then exactly as in the proof of Theorem 6, T ' has a model M i By
le generalized Lowenheim-Skolem theorem, T ' has a model M 2 with
; most C(J elements. M 2 has at least CfJ elements because each new
~oper axiom a # b is true in M 2 . Hence M 2 has exactly ({j' elements
r the Schroder-Bernstein theorem.

e isomorphic.

179

statement of T that is true in the complex numbers is true in the

algebraic numbers, a.nd vice versa. Ali models for T a.re infinite
because every field of characteristic zero is infinite. By a. theorem of
Steinitz, if CfJ is a transfinite cardinal number gres.ter than w, then all
a.lgebra.ically closed fields of characteristic zero of cardinal number CfJ a.re
isomorphic. Hence T is complete by Theorem 10.

Because of Theorem 8, ali the theorems that follow from the comleteness theorem extend to generalized first order theories with exactly
!le same proofs. In the generalized Lowenheim-Skolem theorem,
ountable (i.e., ~ w} is replaced by :::; CfJ, where CfJ is the cardinal number
f the set of proper symbols of the theory if CfJ is transfinite.
'l !EOREM

DECIDABILITY

of torsion-f ree abelian grou ps is the result of a djoinin g to AG all

the statements Vx(nx = O-+ x = O) a.s proper axioms. Is this t heory
categorica.l? Why ?
Let T,, be the result of adjoining 3!n to T as a proper axiom. Prove
that .,_T. Q if and only if Q is true in every model for T with exactly n
elements.
Prove t hat if T has a modo:: wit h .s.t lbi-st n ek..:nents for every
positive integer n, then T has a model with exactly CfJ elements for
every transfinite cardinal number CfJ.
Prove that T is complete if and only if every statement of T that is
true in one counta.ble model for T is true in every countable model
for T. State the corresponding theorem for generalized first order
theories.
Let M and M' be isomorphic models for T with domains D and D '.
Let the element d of D be pa.ired off with the element d' of D '. Let
p = (d1 , d 2 , ) be a point of M , and let p' = (d~ , d;, . .. ). Let P
be a. formula of T. Show that p satisfies P if a.nd only if p' sa.tisfies
P. Then show that Pis true in M if and only if Pis true in M ' .

CAMPLE

30

Decidability

T is decidable if and only if there is an effective procedure, called a

decision procedure, for deciding if an arbitrary formula of T is a theorem

30]

[Ch. 3
80

DECIDABILITY

FIRST ORDER TREORIES

THEoREM 3.

1f T. In the language of Section 3, T is decidable if and only if the

lotion of theorem is effective. In the language of Section 22, T is
lecidable if and only if its set of theorems is decidable.
Decidability ma.kes sense for the statement calculus, and the stateo.ent ca.lculus is decidable because the method of truth tables is a
lecision procedure.
l'HEOREM l. Let T be a formal first arder theory.

181

A formal first arder theory is decidable if and only if its

rwntheorem8 can be effectively enumerated.

Proof.

Theorems 1 and 2.

The machines that a.ppear in the proofs of Theorems 1 a.nd 2, and 4

below, a.re mathema.tical constructs. Existing digital computers do
not have enough memory to execute these effective procedures.

Then the thearems of

~ can be effectively enumerated.

THEoREM 4.

Proof. Every formula of T is a string in the 12 formal symbols

...., ~ \1( , ) a f3 y x 1 # We add a thirteenth symbol, : , which we use
o separate formulas. We write a proof with steps 8 1 , , Sn as
11 : S 2 : : Sn : . Then every proofis a string in these 13 symbols. Ali
he strings in these 13 symbols can be effectively enumerated as in the
1roof of Theorem 27 .3. We feed each string in turn into a proof-

Proof. Let T be a complete formal first order theory. If T is

inconsistent, then T is decidable beca.use every formula ofT is a theorem.
So suppose tha.t T is consistent. Let P be a statement of T. Let
Q1' Q2 , be the effective enumeration of the theorems of T given by
Theorem l. The roa.chine examines ea.ch Q1 in turn. If some Q1 is
P, then Pis a theorem. If some Q, is ,....,p, then Pis nota theorem
since T is consistent. Sorne Q1 is either Por ,...,p because T is complete.
Hence the machine will decide, after examining a finite number of Q's,
whether or not P is a theorem. If P is a formula. with free variables,
then the ma.chine works with the closure of P , because Pis a theorem
if and only if its closure is a theorem.

hecking machine. If the string is of the forro 8 1 : 8 2 : : 8n :,

he machine splits the string into the substrings 8 1 , , 8n ; otherwise
he machine rejects the string. The roa.chine checks to see if 8 1 , . , 8 n
a a proof. If it is a proof, the roa.chine prints the last st.ep Sn. Thus
he machine prints a sequence P 1 , P 2 , of last steps of proofs.
~very theorem appears in this sequence at least once because every
heorem is the last step of some proof, and every possible proof is
:xamined.

2. T is decdable if and only if ts theorems can be effectively

numerated and its nontheorems (i.e. , formulas that are not theorems) can

CREOREM

1e effectively e11:umerated.
Proof. Suppose that T is decidable. Let P 1 , P 2 , . . be the effective
:numeration of the formulas of T given in the proof of Theorem 27 .3.
Che decision-making machine examines each P 1 in turn and puts
t in list 1 if it is a theorem or in list 2 if it is not a theorem.
Chen list 1 is an effective enumeration of the theorems of T, and list 2
s an effective enumeration of the nontheorems of T. Now suppose
;hat Q1 , Q2 , is an effective enumeration of the theorems of T, and
R1 , R 2 , is an effective enumeration of the nontheorems of T. Let
P be any formula of T. The machine goes through the sequence
21 , R 1 , Q2 , R 2 , . . . , Q1, R1, until it encounters P. If Pis a Q,, then
t is a theorem; if P is an R 1, then it is not a theorem. Hence T is

iecidable.

If a formal first arder theory is complete, then it is decidable.

The proof of Theorem 4 brings out an important aspect of the

notion of effective procedure. Although we do not k now in ad..-a.nce
how many Q's have to be examined to reach a decision about P , the
procedure is _effective _beca.use we do know that the decision will be
ma.de after examining a finite number of Q's.
The theories DL a.nd ACF proved complete in Examples 29.5 a.nd
29.11 a.re formal, and hence decidable by Theorem 4. We give a.n
exa.mple of a theory that is decidable but not complete.
EXAMPLE 5. Let AG 4 be the result of adjoining 3!4 to AG a.s a proper
a.xiom. Every model for AG 4 has exactly four elements. A theorem
of algebra. states tha.t there a.re exactly two nonisomorphic abelian
groups with four elements. These are the models M 3 and M 4 of
Example 29.3. A formula P of AG 4 is a theorem of AG 4 if and only
if it is true in both M 3 and M 4 The truth of P in M 3 and M 4 can be
effectively checked because M 3 and M 4 are finite. Hence AG 4 is
decida.ble. The statement \lx(x + x = O) is true in M 4 and false in
M 3 Hence AG 4 is not complete.

182

FIRST ORDER THEOR.IES

[Ch. 3

Two important decida.ble first order theories a.re the theory of abelian
groups and the theory of real closed :fields.
Sorne undecidable first order theories are number theory, set theory,
the predica.te calculus, and the theories of groups, rings, fields, and
lattices. A theory is undecidable if and only if there is a proof that
no decision procedure exista for it. There are many theories whose
decidability is unknown.
T is e.ssentially undecidable if and only if T is undecidable, and every
consistent extension of T with the same formulas as T is undecidable.
The theory Q defined below is essentially undecidable.

Q has the same proper symbols as N, and the following proper

axioma:
QL
Q2.
Q3.
Q4.

Q5.
Q6.
Q7.

VxVy(x' = y' -+ x = y)
Vx(x' =/:- O)
Vx(x = O v 3y(x = y'))
Vx(x + O = x)
Vx'r/y(x + y' = (x + y)')
Vx(xO = O)
Vx'r/y(xy' = xy + x)

The decision procedures for the theories of abelian groups and real
closed fields use the method of elimination of quanti.fiers. We outline
a decision procedure for DL that uses elimination of quanti5.ers.
Let P be a statement of DL. It suffices to consider statements,
because a formula is a theorem if and only if its closure is a theorem.
Let T be 'v'x(x = x). We show that P is equivalent to T or ""'T. If
P is equivalent to T, then P is a theorem because T is a theorem. If
Pis equivn.lent to ,_,T, then Pis nota theorem beca.use DL is consisten t.
We use the following theorems of DL. 1 through 12 are theorems of
the predica.te calculus. Only 13 through 18 depend on the proper
axioma of DL. We also use the commutative and associative laws for
conjunction and disjunction without explicit mention.
(1)

,.._,,.._,p +-t T

(2)
(3)

T A P+-t P
T v P+-tT

(4)
(5)

,.._,TA

P~

,.._,T v

P~P

,.._,T

30]

(6)
(7)
(8)

(9)
(10)
(11)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17)

(18)

3vQ~ Q if vis not free in Q

P A (Q V R) +-4 (P A Q) v (P
3v(Q1 V ... V Qk) +-4
3v(R A

V=v

8)~ R

DECIDABILITy

A R)
3vQ1 V ... V 3vQk

A 3v8 if vis not free in R

3v(v = u)
3v(v = u A 8) +-4 8(u/v) if 8 admits u for v
"-'(V < V)
"-'(u
"-'(U

= v) ~u <
< v) ~U =

3v(v < U A
3v(ul < V A
3v(ul <
U2

<

V
U2

<
<

V V V

< u

V V V

<

U2

A . A

V A .. /\

V < u,)
uj < v)

< V A .. A U < V A V < W1 /\ V < W2 /\

< wk) ~ U < W1 A U1 < W2 A ... A U1 < wk /\
A ... A U2 < wk A ... /\ U < W1 A ... A U < wk

V A U2

... /\ V
W1

In the steps below, T is regarded asan atomic formula, i.e., the variable
x and the quantifier Vx that occur in Tare disregarded.
8tep
each
Vv;l. byReduce
"'3v "-'.P to prenex normal forro Zv1 ZvnQ and replace
1

Step 2. Let Q' be the formula that comes after 3vn (Q' is either Q
or "-'Q.) ln Q', use (10) to replace each subformula v = v by T, and
use (13) to replace each subformula v < v by "-'T. Let Q" be thc r esult.
If Q" is T or "-'l', use (1) and (6) to reduce P to T or "-'1'. If Qh is a
tautology ora contradiction, replace it by T or ,..,_,p and use (1) and (6)
to reduce P to T or "-'T. Otherwise proceed to step 3.
Step 3. Reduce Qh to disjunctive normal forro.

to replace each subformula "-'(u = v) by u < v v

to replace each subformuJa "-'(u < v) by u = v v
Then use (7) to reduce to a formula Q1 v V Qk> where

Step 1. Use (14)

v < u, and use (15)

v < u.
each Q1 is the conjunction of atomic formulas.

8tep 5. Use (8) to replace 3vn(Q1 V V Qk) by 3vnQ1 V V 3vnQk.

Step 61. Eliminate 3 and all occurrences of vn in 3vnQ1 as follows.
If vn is not free in Q1, use (6) to replace 3vnQ1 by Q1. If vn is free in Q ,
1
then Q1 is R A 8, where vn is not free in R and is free in 8. Then use
(9) to replace 3vn(R A S) by R A 3vn8 and consider 8. (If vn is free in
every atomic subformula ofQ1 , then R does not exist and Sis a11 of Q .)
1
Case l. Sis vn = u. Then use (11) to replace 3vnS by T.
Case 2.
Case 3.

183

Sis vn = u A S'. Then use (12) to replace 3vnS by 8'(u/vn).

= does not occur in S.

184

Subcase 3.1.
(16) to repla.ce
Subcase 3.2.
(17) to replace
Subcase 3.3.
U1

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

< Vn /\

U2

S is t!n < u 1 A t!n < u 2

3v"S by T.
S is u 1 < vn /\ u 2 < t!n
3vnS by T.
S is
<

Vn /\ /\ U;

<

t!n /\ Vn

/\ /\ Vn

<

31]
GODEL'S THEOREM

U;.

Then use

4. Assuming that Q is undecidable, prove that the predica.te calculus

/\ /\ U

<

Vn.

is undecidable.

Then use

5. Let T' be a consistent extension ofT.

<

Prove that ifT is essentially

undecidable, then T' is essentially undecidable.
6. Assuming that Q is essentially undecidable and N is consistent,
prove that N is essentially undecidable.

W1

/\ Vn

<

W2 /\ . /\ Vn

<

Wk

7. Prove that if T is complete, then the following statements are

Then use (18) to replace 3v"S by

U1

<

W1 /\ U1

<

W2 /\ /\ U

/\ ,\ u 2

< Wk /, U2 < W 1
< wk /\ /\ u, < w 1

equivalent: (a) T is undecidable; (b) T is essentially undecidable ;

(c) T is not formal.
/\ /\

ui <

8. Prove that if T is consistent and decidable, then T has a consistent,

complete, and decidable extension with the same formulas as T.
9. Prove that T is essentially undecidable if and only if T is consistent
and no consistent and complete extension of T with the same
formulas as T is formal.

wk

Step 61 Repeat step 61 for each Q to elimina.te 3 and all occurrences

of Vn in 3vnQ1 V V 3vnQh..
Step 7. Use (1) through (6) as they apply. Then repeat steps 2
through 7 for vn _ 1, vn- 2 , . ., v1 in turn. The result is a statement in
which no quantifiers occur. Since DL has no constant symbols, this
statement must be T or "-'T.
ExAMPLE

6.

185

10. Suppose T is finitely axiomatized.

Suppose that for some transfinite cardinal number ce, T has a model of cardinal number ce, and
ali modela for T of cardinal number ce are isomorphic. Prove that
T is decidable.

We apply the decision procedure for DL to 3xVy(y < x).

31

Replace 3xVy(y < x) by 3x,....., 3y ,..._, ( y < x).

Step 2. No change.
Step 3. No change.
Step 4. Replace ,_,(y < x) by y = x v x < y.
Step 5. Replace 3y (y = x v x < y) by 3y(y = x) v 3y(x < y).
Step 61 Replace 3y(y = x) by T.
Step 6 2 Replace 3y(x < y) by T.
Step 7. Replace T v T by T. Then replace 3x,....., T by ,.....,T.
flence 3xVy(y < x) is nota theorem of DL.

Step l.

Godel's Theorem

We sketch the proof of Godel's incompleteness theorem and its

corollary. Ali numbers are nonnegative integers, and all f'1":o::ica .. :-s
are pre:Feates of n um bers. v~e write tfit closed terms O, O', (O') ',
{(O')')', ... of N as O, T, 2, 3, ... and call them the numerals of N
to distinguish them from the corresponding intuitive numbers. If
P (v 1 , . , vn) is a formula of N, then P(a1 , . . , iin ) is the result of
replacing each free occurrence of v1 in P by an occurrence of the numeral
ii1 (corresponding to the number a) for 1 ~ i ~ n.

An n-place predicate f!I' is expressible in N if and only if there is a .

formula P(v1 , , vn) of N with exactly n free variables V, . .. , vn such
that for every n-tuple a 1 , , an of numbers

EXERCISES

l. Why doesn't Theorem 1 yield a decision procedure for ali formal

first order theories 1
2. Let T' be the result of adjoining to the proper axioma of T a finite

(i)
(ii)

if f!l'(a, ... , an) is true, then 1--NP(a 1 , , an);

, an) is false, then 1--N""'P(a1 , , iin)

ji f!l'(a 1 ,

For example, the predicates x ~ y, x is even, and x divides y are

expressible in N by the formulas 3z(x + z = y), 3y(x = 2y), and

set of statements of T. Prove that if T' is undecidable, then T is

undecidable.
3. Give without proof an example of a theory that is undecidable but
not essentially undecidable.

3z(y = zx).

An expression of N is a string or a finite sequence of strings of N .

A Godel numbering for N is a function that assigns to each expression

l86

[Ch. 3

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

) N a number, called the Godel number o the expression, such that

:i) there is an effective procedure for computing the Godel number
) each expression, (ii) different expressions always have different
3odel numbers, and (iii) there is an effective procedure for deciding if
L number n is the Godel number of an expression, and if so, for
~ecapturing the expression from n.
The proof of Theorem 30.l uses a Gdel numbering. Gdel used a
mmbering based on the fundamental theorem o arithmetic. We give
L version for N.
Each formal symbol s is assigned a number g(s) as
:ollows:
,.....,

-+

1357911

f3

'Y

13

15

17

19

21

23

Let p 1 , . . , Pn be the first n primes 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, ... , Pn in their natural

)rder. Then each string s 1 Sn is assigned the number g(s 1 sn) =
o/'5ilpz9'2>, , . p,,gCn>. For example,
g(A(x)) = g(a#(x)) = 213323517191!11

8ach finite sequence S 1 , , S" o strings is assigned the num.ber

7(81 , . . ., S,.) = p 1 11c5 ,>plcs,i . Pncs.>. From now on all references to a
}odel numbering for N are to the numbering just described.
A Godel numbering enables statements about N to be translated
.nto statements o informal number theory, and expressibility enables
;tatements of informal number theory to be translated into statements
>f N. Hence the two together enable statements about N to be
;ranslated into statements of N.
8XAMPLE l.

vis a variable translates into the number theory predicate

219 or there is a prime Pk greater than 2 such that n =
of 9p~ 1 p~ 1 Suppose i""(n) is expressible in N by the formula V.
fhen the true statement xi 1 is a variable about N translates into the
;heorem V(219 321 5 21 ) of N.
f'"(n) : n

To state Godel's theorem we need the notion of w-consistency.

Nis

:.o-consistent if and only if for every formula Q(v) of N with exactly one

ree variable v, if Q() is a theorem of N for every number n, then

-..VvQ(v) is not a theorem of N.
LEMMA 2.

Suppose Nis w-consistent. Let Q(v) be a formula of N with

one free variable v. Either Q() is a theorem of N for every

Proof.
~xactly

Ij Nis w-consistent, then Nis consistent.

31)

GODEL'S THEOREM

187

number n, or there is a number k such Q(k) is not a theorem of N. In

the first case ,..._,VvQ(v) is not a theorem of N by the definition of
w-consistency, and in the second case Q(k) is not a theorem of N.
Hence N is consistent.
LEMMA 3. Let C be the 2-place predicate defined by: C(a, b) is true if
and only if a is the GOdel number of a formul.a P (x) with free variable x,
and b is the Godel number of a proof of P(a) in N. Then C is expressible
in N by a formula G.

W e omit the proof of Lemma 3.

P.

Let P be the formula Yy ,...._, G(x, y), and let i be the Godel number of
Let S be the statement P(i), i.e., Vy ,...._, G(i, y).

THEoREM 4. (Gi'>del's incompleteness theorem.) If Nis consistent, then

S is not a theorem of N; if N is w-consistent, then ,..._,S is not a theorem of
N. H ence if N is w-consistent, then N is incomplete.

Proof. Suppose N is consistent. Suppose for contradiction that S

is a theorem of N , i.e., t--NVy,...., G(i, y). Let j be the Godel number of
a proof of Sin N. Then C(i,j) is true by the definitions of C and S.
Hence t--NG(i,J) by Lemma 3. But spec applied to S gives 1-N--G(i,J),
contradicting the consistency of N.
Suppose that N is w-consistent. Then N is consistent by Lemma 2.
Hen:.:e S is noi a theorem of N by the first part of this proof. Tnerefore
no number nis the Godel number of a proof of S in N, i.e., CfJ(i , n )
is false for every n. Hence f-N-G ('i, ) for every n by Lemma 3.
-G(i, y ) is a formula with exactly one free variable. Then by wconsistency, -Vy - G (i, y) is nota theorem of N.

If G is interpreted as <:, then the interpretation of S is: C(i, n) is

false for every n. By the definitions of <:, i, and S, this means that
there is no proof of S in N. Hence S saya that it is unprovable. If N
is consistent, then indeed S is unprovable by Godel's theorem. Hence,
if N is consistent, then S is true in this interpretation but unprovable.
By using a statement more complicated than S, Rosser replaced the
hypothesis of w-consistency in Godel's theorem by the weaker hypothesis
of consistency. We sketch Rosser's proof.

88

[Ch. 3

FIBST ORDER THEORIES

31]
GODEL'S THEOREM

rEMM.A 5

(a)

For every number k,

r-NQ(O) /\ Q(l) /\ /\ Q(k)-+ 'v'z(z ~ k-+ Q(z) )

(b)

For every number m , r-NY

mVm~

Proof. (a) is Theorem 24.24. Each instance of (b) follows immeditely by spec on 'r-N\fx'v'y.x ~ y v y ~ x , which is Theorem 24.22.
6. Let .J"t' be the 2-place predicate defined by: .J"t'(a, b) 8 true if
nd only if a is the Godel number of a formula P (x) with free variable x ,
nd b is the Godel number of a. proof in K of ,._,P(a). Then .J"t' is
:cpressible in K by a formula H .
.EMMA

Let P be the formula 'v'y(G(x , y ) -+ 3z(z ~ y /\ H(x , z)) ), and let j be

he Godel number of P. Let R be the statement P(J) , i.e. ,

: HEOREM 7
~either

Now suppose for contradiction that ,..._,Risa theorem of N. Let m

be the Godel number of a proof of ,..._,R in N. Then .Yt'(}, m) is true by
the definitions of .J"t' and R. Then r-NH(j, m) by Lemma 6. R is nota
theorem of N because ,..._,R is a theorem of N and N is consistent.
Hence r(j, n ) is false for every n . Then r-N,..._,a(j, ) for every n by
Lemma 3. Bythestatement calculus, .,_N,..._,a(j, O) /\ ,..._,a(j, l) /\ /\
,..._,a(j, m). Lemma 5(a), the statement calculus, and spec give (i)
.,_NY ~ m-+ ,..._,G(j, y) . Assume m ~ y. Then m :::;; y /\ H(j, m) since
r-NH(j , m). Then 3z(z :::;; y /\ H(j , z)) by 3 . Then the deduction
theorem gives () ~m :::;; Y-+ 3z{z :::;; y /\ H(j , z)). Then the statement calculus on (i), (), and Lemma 5(b) gives
r-N,..._,o(j, y ) V 3z(z ~ y /\ H(j , z))

Then the statement calculus and gen give

The proof of Lem.ma 6 is omitted.

'v'y(G(j , y)-+ 3z(z

189

r-N'v'y(G(j , y ) -+ 3z(z ~ y /\ H (j, z)))

i.e., r-NR.

But .,_N,..._,R, contradicting the consistency of K .

y /\ H(j , z)))

(The Godel-Rosser theorem ).

If N is consistent , then

R nor ,..._,R is a theorem of N.

Proof. Suppose Nis consistent. Suppose for contradiction that R is

, theorem of :K, i.e., r-NVy{G\J, y ) -+ :i::(z ~ y t . i!(j, :.))). Let k be
he Godel number of a proof of R in N. Then r(j, k) is true by the
Lefinitions of r and R. Hence r-NG(j, k) by Lemma 3. Spec applied
-0 R gives ~G(j, k)-+ 3z(z ~ k /\ H(j, z)).
Then modus ponens
~ives r-N3z(z ~ k /\ H(j , z)). ,_,R is nota theorem of N because Risa
.heorem of N and N is consistent. Hence no number n is the Godel
mmber of a proof of ,..._,R in N. Then .J"t'(j, n) is false for every n by
he definitions of .J"t' and R . By Lemma 6, ~""-'H(j , ) for every n .
Chen by the statement calculus, r-N"'H(j, O) /\ ,...,,,H(j, T) /\ /\
.._,H(j, k). By Lemma 5(a) and the statement calculus,

The proof of the Godel-Rosser theorem is constructive : The proofs

of Lemmas 3 and 6 give an effective procedure for constructing the
formulas G and H , and hence the statement R .
The Godel-Rosser theorem is not a peculiarity of N. The proof
goes through for every formulation ofnumber theory for which Lemmas
3, 5, and 6 hold. This includeio fo:::mulation.s both weaker and s'tra:!g'::
the.n K . 1n par ticular, the proof goes through if R (or ,..._,R) is adjoined
to N as a proper axiom. Indeed, the proof goes through no matter
how many statements are adjoined to N as proper axioms, provided
the resulting theory is formal.
Godel 's second theorem is a corollary of the incompleteness theorem .
Let .ft' be the 3-place predicate defined by: .ft'(a, b, e) is true if and only
if a is the Godel number of a formula P of N , b is the Godel number of a
proof of Pin N, ande is the Godel number of a proof of ,..._,pin N. .ft'
is expressible in N by a formula L . Let Oonsis be the statement
'v'x ,..._, 3y3zL(x, y, z) of N .

r-N'v'z(z ~ k-+ ,...,,,H(j, z))

fhen r-N~z(z ~ k /\ H(j, z)) by the predicate calculus (Theorem

L8.5, the statement calculus, and the replacement theorem). But we
,lready have r-N3z(z ~ l /\ H(j , z)) , contradicting the consistency of N .

THEOREM 8 (Gdel's second theorem).

not provable in N.

lf Nis consistent, then Consis is

Proof. We sketch the proof. If Lis interpreted as .ft', then Oonsis

says that there is no formula P such that both P and ,..._,pare theorems

90

FIRST ORDER THEORIES

[Ch. 3

f N, i.e., N is consistent. Recall that the statement S says that S is

ot provable. Hence Consis --+ S says that if N is consistent then S
: not provable. By means of Godel numbering and e"'-'Pressibility, the
roof (Theorem 4) that if Nis consistent then Sis not provable can be
~anslated into a proof of Oonsis--+ S in N. Now suppose ~Nconsis.
'hen ~Ns by modus ponens. Then N is inconsistent. by Theorem 4.
fence if N is consistent, then Con.sis is not provable in N.

Notes

The significance of Godel's second theorem lies in the interpretation:

f N is consistent, then the consistency of N cannot be proved by
iethods formalizable in N. Like the incompleteness theorem, Godel's
:icond theorem applies to many theories both weaker and stronger
han N. In particular, it applies to set theory and every formal
xtension of N. Although the consistency of N can be proved in set
heory, the value of the proof is doubtful, because set theory itself
annot be proved consistent by methods formalizable in set theory.
EXERCISES

Show that 5 and 16 are not Godel numbers.

State how to distinguish the Godel number of a string from t he
Godel number of a sequence of strings.
Find the expression whose Godel number is 46656.
Find the Godel number of A(x)--+ B (y).
Let N be the res11lt of a.djoin}ng ~s (S is GO~~J~s .;~&,teme~ t) t.c !'-~as
a proper axiom. Prove that if N is consistent, then N' is consistent
but w-inconsistent.
Let T have the same formulas as N . T is w-complete if and only if
for every formula Q(v) of T , if ~TQ () for every number n, then
1

i.

~T\fvQ(v).

{a) Prove that if Nis consistent, then Nis w-incomplete.

(b) Prove that if T is consistent and w-inconsistent, then T is
w-incomplete.

Chapter l
Chapter 1 of Rosser 1953 and Part I of Kleene 1952 are excellent
introductions to mat hematical logic. Section 2. For more set theory
along these lines, see Abian 1965, Fraenkel 1953, Halmos 1960, and
Sf Jll l 963. Sr:cf,",-;;; ?. _:_xiornD~ :e, the0::t:s an, di:>cuss6d in StoL lflt:::;
and vVilder 1952.

Chapter 2
General references for the predicate calculus are Beth 1959, Church
1956, Hilbert and Ackermann 1950, Hilbert and Bernays 1934, Kleene
1952, l\fendelson 1964, Quine 1940, Rosenbloom 1950, Rosser 1953,
Stoll 1963, and Whitehead and Russell 1910. For additional references
to particular topics, see Church 1956, especially Sections 29 and 49.
Section 14. The deduction theorem is due to Herbrand 1930. Section
15. The completeness theorem for the statement calculus is due to
Post 1921. The proof here is that of Kalmr 1935. Section 17. The
name Rule C is borrowed from R osser 1953. (The formulation here is
not t he same as Rosser's. )
191

NOTES
NOTES

Cha.pter 3
neral references for first order theories are Beth 1959, Mendelson
64, Robinson 1963, and Stoll 1963. For additional references to
rticular topics, see Mendelson 1964. Section 22. For more algebra,
~ Birkhoff and MacLane 1941, Herstein 1964, Jacobson 1951, van der
a..erden 1949, or any modern algebra book. Higher order logic is
1cussed in Church 1956 and Hilbert and Ackermann 1950. For
mal set theory , see Bernays and Fraenkel 1958, Fraenkel and
,r-Hillel 1958, Godel 1940, Mendelson 1964, Rosenbloom 1950, and
ppes 1960. Section 24. For more number theory along these lines,
i Beth 1959, Church 1956, Hilbert and Bernays 1934, Kleene 1952,
.ndau 1951 , and Mendelson 1964. Section 26. The precise definition
truth is due to Tarski 1936. (An English translation appears in
.rski 1956.) Section 27. Lowenheim 1915 proved that if a finitely
iomatized first order theory has a model, then it has a countable
>del. Skolem 1920 extended the theorem to arbitrary first order
~ores . The completeness theorem is dueto Godel 1930. The proof
re is that of Henkin 1949 as simplified by Hasenjaeger 1953. The
mpactness theorem is due to Malcev 1936. Theorem 4 is due to
Lolf Lindenbaum. (See page 98 of Tarski 1956.) The definition of
ith and the completeness theorem forro the basis of the theory of
1dels. See Tarski 1952 and 1954, and Robinson 1963. Section 29.
r more on completeness see Robinson 1956. Cantor's theorem is in
ntor 1915 and Kamke 1950. For cardinal nun:bers h.rid well -or derd
;s, see Abian 1965, Bachman 1955, Bernays and Fraenkel 1958,
ntor 1915, Fraenkel 1953, Godel 1940, Halmos 1960, Kamke 1950,
mdelson 1964, Sierpiski 1958, Stoll 1963, Suppes 1960, and Whitead and Russell 1910. Theorem 10 is dueto Vaught 1954. Steinitz's
eorem is in Steinitz 1910. Section 28. Euclid's fifth postulate is
;cussed in Wilder 1952. The consistency of the axiom of choice
~s proved by Godel 1940; the independence by Cohen 1963. For
)re about the axiom of choice, see Rosser 1953, Rubn and Rubn
63, or any set theory book. Section 30. Church 1936a and 1936b
ve a precise definition of decidable theory and proved the uncidability of number theory and the predicate calculus. Decida.bility
an aspect of the theory of recursive functions. See Davis 1958 and
65, Hermes 1965, Kleene 1952, Markov 1954, Mendelson 1964,
:ter 1951, Rogers 1967, and Smullyan 1961. Theorem 2 and related
eorems are discussed in Post 1944. The decidability of the theory

193

of abelian groups was proved by Szmielew 1955. A decision procedure

for real closed fields was given by Tarski 1948. For a discussion of the
theory Q and the undecidability of various algebraic systems, see
Tarski, Mostowski, and Robinson 1953. The decision procedure for
DL is dueto Langford 1927. Exercise 10 is a theorem of Henkin 1955.
Severa] of the other exercises are theorems of Tarski, Mostowski, and
Robinson 1953. Section 31. Godel's theorems are in Godel 1931.
The details of the proof of the corollary are in Hilbert and Bernays
1934. Rosser's extension is in Rosser 1936. Davis 1965 includes an
English translation of Godel 1931 and reprints of Church 1936a and
1936b, Rosser 1936, and Post 1944 .

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ALFRED

1936: "Der Wahrheitsbegriff in den formalisierten Spra.chen," Studia Philoaophica, Vol. 1, pp. 261-405.

ROBINSON.

1956: Complete Theories. Arnsterda.rn.

1963: Model Theory. Amsterdam.

VA.Cl.A.w

1910: "Algebraische Theorie der Korper," Journaljr die reine und angewandte
Mathematik, Vol. 137, pp. 167-309 .

1963: Set Theory and Logic.

1921 :"Introduction to a. General Theory of Elernenta.ry Propositions,'~merican

Journal oj Mat,hematics, Vol. 43, pp. 163-185.
1944: "Recursively Enumera.ble Sets of Positive Integers a.nd Their Decision
Problems,'' Bulletin oj the American MathematicalSociety, Vol. 50, pp. 284-316.

BRAHAM

Princeton, K.J.: Princeton Unversity Press.

ROBERT STOLL.
Buda.pest, second edition 1957.

MIL POST.

1940: 1J1athem.atical Logic.

revised 1951.

1961 : Theory of FormalSystema.

ERNST STEINITz.

1964: Introdudion to Mathematical Logic.

.ZSA.

199

RAYMOND SMULLYAN.

Warsaw.

1910: Principia Mathematica, 3 vols., 1910, 1912, 1913.

second edition 1925, 1927, 1927.

Cambridge, England,

'HORA.LF SKOLEM.
RA.YMOND WILDER.

1920: "Logisch-kombinatorische Untersuchungen ber die Erfllbarkeit oder

Beweisbarkeit mathema.tischer Sii.tze nebst einem Theorerne ber dichte
Mengen," Skrijter utgit av Videnskapsselskapet i Kristiania, I, no. 4.

1952: Introduction to the Foundations of Mathematics.

Wiley & Sons, second edition 1965.

New York: John

"

.~;

Addendum
In this section a few minor errors are corrected, and the bibliography
is expanded to include sorne worthy books published since the first
edition.
There is a defect in the proofs of the substitution theorems. In
Theorem 18.2 (see p. 84 ), the equivalence theorem, it may happen in
case 3 that Qr (or R u) is left unchanged by the substitut ion. Then we
cannot appeal to the induction hypothesis to get
f-V'v 1

Vv" ( U~V ).~.Qr~Q 1

(1 )

but since Qr is the same as Qr the statement calculus gives (1 ). In

Theorem 21.8 (p. 107 ) the same missing subcase occurs in case 2, and is
corrected in exactly the same way. In Theorem 21.5 (p. 106 ) the details
are a little different because here we are dealing with terms instead of
formulas. In the in du(', tion step it m 2y h&ip~n that sorne t , is leh
unchanged by the substitution. Then we cannot appeal to the induction hypothesis to get
f-r

s ~ f

t;

t;

(2)

t;,

but since is the same as t . El and spec give t =

and then the
statement calculus gives (2 ).
On page 142, E2' is not quite the transform of E2 when Gis =. The
easy correction is left as an exercise.
Sorne additional books of interest are given below. Barwise 1977 is an
encyclopedic collection of long original articles. Kunen 1980 is a good
example of the new generation of set theory books. Shoenfield 1967 is a
standard text. Van Heijenoort 1967 is a collection of seminal papers.
JO!\ BAR\YISE.

1977 : Handbook o/ Mathematica/ Logic. Amsterdam.

201

202

ADDEJ\'Dt:M

KENNETI! KUNEJ\.

1980: Set Theory: A11 l11troductio11 to lndependence Prnofs. Amsterdam .

JOSEPH SHOENFIF:LU.

1!!67: Mathematica/ logic. Reading, )lass.: Addison-Wesley Publishing Co .

] EA!\ YAN HEJJENOO!IT ( ed. ;

Index of Symbols

1!:167: Frorn Frege lo Godel: A Sourcl Book i111liathematical Logic. 1879- 1931.
Cumbrid(!e. Mass.: Harvard rniversir:- Press.

E, 5

'f, 5
{x, ... , Xn}, 5
{x / P(x)), 5

J:, 5
s. 5
6, 104, 105
0, 6
{x}, 6
u, 6, 115
{"\, 6, 115

=.

j(a), 7
:;&., 7

(a, . .. , an), 7

An, 7
1-1, 9
17, 47
3, 18, 49
A, 23, 49
T, 23
F, 23
V, 23, 49
~, 24, 47

v.

~.

24, 47
25, 49
v, 26, 123
L. 31, 113
<, 31, :>5, 134
AG, 32, 114
~. 35, 131
>, 35
;;i:, 35
., :, .:, 37
P(t/v), 38
a:, 47
fJ, 47
y, 47
X , 47
J, 47
#. 47
P, Q R, S, U, V, 48
u, v, w, 48
Ll., 49
Ll. 1--Q, 50
.__ Q, 50
A, B, O, 50
~.

203

204

INDEX OP' SYMBOLS

P 1 , .. , P,. 1- Q, 51
A2, 52
MP, 52
as, 53
!::.., p 1-Q, 55
DT, 58
Tl3.6, 59
r, 61
se, 72
spec, 75, 88
3, 2, 75
gen, 77
Cx, 79
e, 2, 79
equiv, 85
rep, 85
taut, 85
P(v), 86
... t' 103
sub, 107, 108
3!uP(u), 109
A 1-TQ, 112
.....~. 113
R,114
LA,115
G,115
F,115
F", 116
F, 116
ACF, 116
OF, 117
RCF, 117
DL, 117

BA, 118
123
N, 127
'. 127
+. 127
., 127
O, 127
ind, 128
ind. hyp., 129
k, 137
rs, 140
pr(B}, 140
D"', 149
p, q, 149
p(d/k), 149
p(t), 149
T, 158
3n, 166
BA*, 169
AG', 170
AG, 171
OAG, 172
F*, 172
3tn, 174
AG2 , 174
AG., 174
.A, 176
w, 176
ACF, 178
Q, 182
P(a1 , , an), 185
Oonsis, 189

v,

Subject Index

Abbreviations, 26, 36, 49, 50

Abelian groups, theory of, 32, 114, 119,
12~23, 145, 171, 173, 182, 192-93
ordered, 172
torsion-free, 179
Abian, A., 191, 192, 195
Absorption le.w;, 71
Accepta.ble statement, 12
ACF, 116
ACF
is complete, 178-79
is decidable, 181
Ackermann, '\V., 191, 192, 197
Admits, 38
AG, 32, 114, 119, 12~23, 145, 171, 173,
182, 192-93
AG2 , 174
AG., 174, 181
AG', 170
AG*, 171
Algebraically closed fields, theory of,
116
ofcharacteristiczero, 116, 178-79, 181

Algebraic numbers, 116, 179

Alphabetic order of variables, 4 7, 50
149
Analysis, 52
And, 23
Antecedent, 25
as, 53
Associative laws, 71
Associative operation, 7
Asswnption, 50
Atomic formula, 48
Ax Gen, 49
Axiom, 12, 13
equality, 104
logical, 112
proper, 112
Axiomatic theory, 12, 191
Axiom generaliza.tion, 49
Axiom of choice, 169, 192
Axiom schemes, 49
equality, 104-105
predicate calculus, 49
statement calculus, 51

205

206

SUBJECT INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX

BA,118
BA*, 169
Bachman, H., 192, 195
Bar-Hillel, Y., 192, 196
Bernays, P., 191-93, 195, 197
Beth, E., 191, 192, 195
Biconditional, 25
Binary connective, 26
Bina.ry operation, 7
Birkhoff, G., 192, 195
Boolean algebras, theory of, 118
Bound, 48
change of bound variable, 86-88,
108
Cantor, G., 175, 176, 192, 195
Cardinal number, 176, 192
Cases, proof by, 2, 4, 72, 94
Categoricity, 173
and completeness, 175
and number theory, 176
Change of bound varia.ble, 86-88, l 08
Characteristic of a field, 116
Church, A., vii, 191-93, 196
Closed first order theory, 161-62
Closed formule., 48
Closed term, 159
Closure, 48, 143
Cohen, P., 192, 196
Cornmutative laws, 71
Commutative operation, 8
Cornmutative rings, theory of, 114
Compe.ctness theorem, 166, 192
Completeness, 143-44, 165, 192
of algebraically closed fields of characteristic zero, l 7S-79
and categoricity, 175
and consistency, 159
and decidability, 181
of dense linearly ordered sets, 175
and models, 173
number theory is incomplete, 187-89
w-completeness, 190
operational, 97-98
of predicate calculus, 165
of statement calculus, 69, 191
Completeness theorem, 164, 192
generalized, 177

for the statement ce.lculus, 69, 191

Complex numbers, 116, 117, 179
Conditional, 24
Conjunction, 23, 37
Conjunctive normal forro, 99
Connectives, 23-26, 47, 49, 72
operational completeness, 97-98
Consequent, 25
Gonai8, 189
Consistency, 140-44
and completeness, 159
and models, 158, 164
w-consistency, 186
of predicate calculus, 141
of a statement, 169
of statement calculus, 141
Constant symbol, 48, 119, 160-61, 170
Contradiction, 96
proof by, 4, 69, 72
Contraposition, proof by, 2, 4, 71
Converse, 26, 45
Countable interpretation, 153
Countable set, 8-10, 159
Davis, M., 192, 193, 196
Decidability, 179-82, 192
a.nd completeness, 181
of a set of statements, 118
Decimal, 10
Decision procedure, 179, 193
for dense linearly ordered sets, 182
for statement calculus, 180
Deduction, 49
first order theory, 112-13
predicate calculus, 49
Deduction theorem, 55, 74, 191
De Morgan's laws, 71
Denial, 42
Dense linearly ordered sets, theory of,
117
is complete, 175
is decidable, 181, 182, 193
Discharge
by deduction theorem, 56, 59
by Rule C, 79
Disjunction, 23, 37
Disjunctive normal forro, 98
Distributive laws, 71

Divide, 140
Division rings, theory of, 116
DL, 117
is complete, 17 5
is decida.ble, 181, 182, 193
Doma.in, 16, 145
finite, 153
of function, 6
Dots, 37
Double nege.tion, 3, 71
DT, 58
Dummy variable, 19

207

ofcharacteristic zero, 116, 17S-79, 181

real closed, 117, 182
Finite doma.in, 153
Finite interpretation, 153
Finitely axiomatized, 118, 192
Finite sequence, 7
Finite set, 8
First order theories, 16, 30, 112, 119-20,
192
closed, 161-62
deduction in, 112, 120-27
examples of, 113-18
extensions of, 158
Effective, 14, 49, 160, 180
finitely axiomatized, 118, 192
Effective enumeration, 159, 180
formal, 118, 160, 180-81
Effective procedure, 13, 14, 64, 118,
generalized, 177
153, l 79, 181, 186
models for, 158, 192
Element, 5
theorems of, 113
Empty set, 6
Formal first order theory, 118, 160,
Enumeration, 8
180-81
effective, 159, 180
Formal proof, 13
Equality, 104
Formal symbols, 14, 47
interpretation of, 145
Formal theorem, 15
Equiv, 85
Formal theory, 14, 17
Equivalence, 83
Formula, 48
Equivalence theorem, 84
atomic, 48
Essential undecidability, 182
closed, 48
Eu~lid, 12, 168, 16B, lS:!
clo;;:ze oE, 48
Excluded middle, 3, 71
of first order theory, 112
Existential quantifier, 18, 49
of predicate calculus, 48
inserting, 39, 75
prime, 63
interpretation of, 28
subformula, 48
removing, 40, 78-79, 88
true, 150
Exportation law, 71
Formula s:iheme, 54
Export-import law, 71
Fraenkel, A., 191, 192, 195, 196
Expressible, 185
Free, 48, 76
Expression, 185
Function, 6
Extension, 158-59, 161
doma.in of, 6
range of, 11
F, 115, 125-26, 168, 182
recursive, 192
F, 116
value of, 7
FP, 116
F, 172
G, 115, 182
Falsehood, 23, 150
Gaal, I., vii
Fermat conjecture, 2
Gen, 77
Fields, theory of, 115, 125-26, 168, 182 Generalization, 40, 76
algebraically closed, 116, 178-79, 181
axiom, 49
of characteristic p, 116
Generalized completeness theorem, 177

208

SUBJECT INDEX
SUB.TECT INDEX

Generalized first order theory, 177

Genera.lized Lowenheim-Skolem theorem, 178
Gtidel, K., 185-90, 192, 193, 196
GodelnUIDber, 185-86
Godel-Rosser theorem, 188, 193
Godel's incompleteness theorem, 185,
187, 193
Godel's second theorem, 189, 193
Groups, theory of, 115, 182
Ha.lmos, P., 191, 192, 196
Ha.senjaeger, G., 192, 196
Henkin, L., 192, 193, 196
Herbra.nd, J., 191, 197
Hermes, H., 192, 197
Herstein, l., 192, 197
Higher order logic, 119, 192
Hilbert, D., 191-93, 197
Idempotent la.ws, 71
If, 25
If a.nd only if, 25
If P, then Q, 24
hnplies, 25
hnporte.tion la.w, 71
Include, 5
ind, 128
Indenting steps, 59, 79
Independence, 167
of constant symbol, 170
of opera.tion symbol, 170
of predica.te symbol, 169
of proper a.xiom, 167
of a. sta.tement, 169
ind. hyp., 129
Individual, 16
Induction
ma.thema.tica.l, 119, 128, 137
tra.nsfinite, 177
Infinite model, 166, 178
Infinite sequence, 8
Infinite set, 8
Informa.ltheory, 14
lnserting qua.ntifiers, 39, 40, 75, 76
lnsta.nce, 49, 54
Interpreta.tion, 145
counta.ble, 153

of equa.lity, 145
finite, 153
of predica.tes, 27
of qua.ntifiers, 28
of sta.tement connectives, 23-26
Intersection, 6
Isomorphic modela, 173

isomorphic, 173
for sets of formuls, 145
a.nd theorem, 165
theory of, 192
Modus moron, 4
Modus ponens, 2, 49, 62
preserves ta.utologies, 65
preserves truth, 150
Mostowski, A., vii, 193, 199
MP, 52

Ja.cobson, N., 192, 197

Ka.lmr, L., 191", 197
Ka.mke, E., 192, 197
Kleene, S., vii, 191, 192, 197
L, 31, 113, 146
trichotomy la.w of, 123
LA, 114, 182
Landa.u, E ., 192, 197
La.ngford, C., 193, 197
La.ngua.ge, 14
La.ttces, theory of, 114, 182
Lindenba.um, A ., 192
Linea.rly ordered sets, theory of, 31,
113, 146
dense, 117, 175, 181, 182, 193
trichotomy la.w of, 123
Logic, 1, 191
higher order, 119, 192
Lo6~ca.l axiorns, 112
Logica.l opera.tora, 30
Ltiwenheim, L ., 166, 167, 178, 192,
197
Lowenheim-Skolem theorem, 166, 167
genera.lized, 178
Ma.cLa.ne, S., 192, 195
Ma.lcev, A., 192, 197
Ma.rkov, A., 192, 198
Ma.thema.tica.1 induction, 119, 128, 137
Member, 5
Mendelson, E., vii, 191, 192, 198
Meta.la.ngua.ge, 14, 137
Meta.theorem, 15
Models, 145
a.nd completeness, 173
a.nd consistency, 158, 164
for first order theories, 158, 192
infinite, 166, 178

N, 35, 127, 182, 185

,,

209

successor, 127-28
truth va.lue, 94
Opera.tiona.l completeness, 97-98
Opera.tion symbol, 47, 119, 170
Or, 23-24
Order
linear, 31
in number theory, 131, 134
well, 177
Ordered abelia.n groups, theory of, 172
Ordered fields, theory of, 11 7
Ordered n -tuple, 7
Ordered pair, 7

is incomplete, 187-89
is not ca.tegorica.l, l 7 6
Necessa.ry a.nd sufficient condition, Pa.rentheses, omission of, 26, 36
25
Pter, R., 192, 198
Necessa.ry condition, 25
Positive, 117
N ega.tion, 24
Positive integers, 8-9
double, 3, 71
Post, E., 191-93, 198
N orma.l forro, 94
Predica.te, 16, 21
conjunctive, 99
interpreta.tion of, 27
disjunctive, 98
Predica.te ca.lculus, first order, 30, 47,
prenex, 100
112, 119-20, 182, 191, 192
Not, 24
axiom schemes of, 49
n-pla.ce opera.tion, 7
completeness of, 165
n-pla.ce predica.te, 16, 21
consistency of, 141
Number, 16
deduction in, 49
cardinal, 176, 192
with eque.lity, 104, 112
prir:1er 140
is a first order theory, 118
Number theory, 16, 35, 127, 182, 185,
formula. of, 48
192
theorem of, 50
is incomplete, 187-89
Predica.te symbol, 47, 119, 169
is not ca.tegorica.l, 176
Premiss, 49
Numera.!, 185
Prenex norma.! fonn, 100
Prime constituent, 63
OAG, 172
Prime formula., 63
Object la.ngua.ge, 14
Prime number, 140
OF, 117
Proof
w-completeness, 190
by ca.ses, 2, 4, 72, 94
w-consistency, 186
by contra.diction, 4, 69, 72
Omission of pa.rentheses, 26, 36
by contra.position, 2, 4, 71
One to one correspondence, 9, 173
in first order theory, 113
Only if, 25
forma.!, 13
Opera.tion, 7
in predica.te ca.lculus, 50
a.ssocia.tive, 7
working, 13
bina.ry, 7
Proof outline, 59
commuta.tive, 8
Proper a.xiom, 112, 167
n-pla.ce, 7
Proper symbols, 112, 169-71, 177

210

SUBJ;<.:CT INDEX

E'rove.ble, 12, 50
E'rovided, 25
Q, 182, 193

IQuantifiers
existentia.l, 18, 49
inserting, 39, 40, 75, 76
interpreta.tion of, 28
removing, 39, 40, 74, 78-79, 88
scope of, 18
universal, l 7, 4 7
Quine, _W., 191, 198
R, 114, 124, 182
multiplication is independent in, 170
Range, 11
Ra.tional numbers, 9, 116, 117
RCF, 117, 182, 193
Real closed fields, theory of, 11 i, 182,
193
Real numbers, 10, 116, 117
Recursive function, 192
Removing que.ntifiers, 39, 40, 74, 7879, 88
rep, 85
Replacement theorem, 85
Rings, theory of, 114, 124, 182
commuta.tive, 114
division, 116
multiplication is independent in, 170
Robinson, A., 192, 198
Robinson, R., vii, 193, 199
Rogers, H., 192, 198
Rosenbloom, P., 191, 192, 198
Rosser, J. B., 187-89, 191-93, 198
Godel-Rosser theorem, 188, 193
Rubin, H., 192, 198
Rubin, J., 192, 198
Rule C, 40--42, 78-79, 88, 191
Rules of inference, 1, 49
Russell, B., 191, 192, 199
Satisfiable, 157
Satisfies, 150
se, 12
Schroder-Bernstein theorem, 176, 178
Scope, 18
Sequence, 7-8

SUBJECT INDEX

Set, 5
counta.ble, 8
empty, 6
enumere.tion of, 8
finite, 8
infinite, 8
singleton, 6
subset, 5
unit, 6
well-ordered, 177, 192
Set theory, 5, 119, 182, 190, 192
Sierpmski, W., 192, 198
Similar, 86
Singleton set, 6
Singulary connective, 26
Skolem, T., 166, 167, 178, 192, 198
LOwenheim-Skolem theorem, 166,
167, 178
Smullyan, R., 192, 199
spec, 75, 88
Specialization, 39, 74-75, 88
Ste.tement, 1, 21 , 48
acceptable, 12
consistency of, 169
independence of, 169
truth of, 150
vacuously true, 45
Statement calculus, 51, 72
is complete, 63, 69, 19~
is consistent, 141
is decide.ble, 69, 180
is operatione.lly complete, 97-98
Ste.tement connectives, 23-26, 47, 49,
72
operational completeness, 97-98
Steinitz, E., 179, 192, 199
Step, 13, 56
Stoll, R., 191, 192, 199
String, 14, 47
Godel number of, 186
sub, 107, 108
Subformula, 48
Substitution of a term for a variable,
38, 48
Substitutivity of equality, 106, 107
Successor operation, 137-38
Sufficient condition, 25
Suppes, P., 192, 199

Symbol
constant, 48, 119, 170
formal, 14, 47
operation, 47, 119, 170
predice.te, 47, 119, 169
proper, 112, 177
Szmielew, W., 193, 199
Tarski, A., vii, 192, 193, 199
taut, 85
Tautologous schemes, 64
list of, 71-72
Tautology, 64, 96
Term, 48
closed, 159
of a sequence, 7
Theorem, 12, 13
of first order theory, 113
formal, 15
metatheorem, 15
and models, 165
of predice.te calculus, 50
Theorem schemes, 54
list of, 89-90
Theory, 12
axioma.tic, 12, 191
first order, 112
formal, 14
hif!her order, lHl, 192
informal, 14
Torsion.free abelian groups, theory of,
179
Transfinite cardinal number, 176
Transfinite induction, 177
Transitivity of implication, 2, 71

Trichotomy law, 123

True formula, 150
Truth, 23, 145, 150, 192
Truth te.ble, 23
Truth value, 23
Truth value operation, 94
Union, 6
Unit set, 6
Universal quantifier, 17, 4 7
inserting, 40, 76
interpretation of, 28
removing, 39, 74
V acuously true, 45
Validity, 153, 165
Value
of function, 7
truth, 23
Variables, 17, 47
alphabetic order of, 47, 50, 149
bound,48
dummy, 19
free, 48, 76
and terms, 38
Vaught, R., 192, 199
Waerden, B. van der, 192, 199
\Vell-orderecl S6t, l 7 7, l V2
When, 25
Whitehead, A., 191, 192, 199
Wilder, R., 191, 192, 199
Working proof, 13
Yields, 50

m=====================================~I

A CATALOG OF SELECTED

r1

DOVER BOOKS
IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS 11

[O

,
!

A CATALOG OF SELECTED

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

DOVER BOOKS

RELATIVITY, THERMODYNAMICS ANO COSMOLOGY, Richard C. Tolman. Landmark study extends thermodynamics to special, general relativity; also
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501pp. 51' )( 81;.
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IN SCIENCE AND MATHEMATICS

Q UALIT ATIVE THEOR Y OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS. V. V. Nemytskii
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of atmosphere, theory of valency, laws and structure of atomic theory , much more.
428pp. 51' x 8lf. (Available in U .S. only )
65977-1 Pa. $10.95
A HISTORY OF ASTRONOMY, A. Pannekoek. Well-balanced, carefully reasoned study covers such topics as Ptolemaic theory , work of Copemicus, Kepler,
Newton, Eddington's work on stars, much more. Illustrated. References. 521pp.
51' )( 8:.
65994-1 Pa. $12.95
PRINCIPLES OF METEOROLOGICAL ANALYSIS, Waher J. Saucier. Highl y
respected, abundantly illustrated classic reviews atmospheric variables, hydrostatics, static stability, various analyses (scalar, cross-section, isobaric, isentropic,
more). For intermediate meteorology students. 454pp. 6~" 9'.t 65979-8 Pa. $12.95

ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSIONS OF INTEGRALS, Norman Bleistein & Richard A .

Handelsman. Best inrroduction to importam field with applications in a variet y of
sciemific disciplines. New preface. Problems. Oiagrams. Tables. Bibliography.
Index. 448pp. 51' "8l.
65082-0 Pa. $11.95

1
,

MATHEMATICS APPLIEO TO CONTINUUM MECHANICS, Lee A. Segel.

Analyzes models of fluid fl o w and sol id deforma ti o~" For u ;:iper-level math. se: '. '.CJ Ct'
2n engin.-<:~ing stuoeats. C08pp . Sii:.. 8~.
65369-2 Pa. $ 13. 95
ELEMENTS OF REAL ANALYSIS, David A. Sprecher. Classic text covers
fundamental concepts, real number system, point sets, functions of a real variable,
Fourier series, much more. Over 500 exercises. 352pp. 51' x 8Jf. 65385-4 Pa. $9.95
PHYSICAL PRINCIPLES OF THE QUANTUM THEOR Y, Wemer Heisenberg.
Nobel Laureate discusses quamum theory, uncertainty, wave mechanics, work of
Oirac, Schroedinger, Compton, Wilson, Einstein, etc. 184pp. 5 x 8!-l.
60113-7 Pa. $5.95
INTROOUCTORY REAL ANALYSIS, A.N. Kolmogorov, S.V. Fomin. Translated by Richard A. Silverman. Self-contained, evenl y paced inrroduction w real
and functional anal ysis. Sorne 350 problems. 403pp. 51' x 8\.
61226-0 Pa. $9.95
PROBLEMS ANO SOLUTIONS IN QUANTUM CHEMISTR Y ANO PHYSICS,
Charles S. Johnson, Jr. and Lee G . Pedersen. Unusually varied problems, detailed
solutions in coverage of quamum mechanics, wave mechanics, angular momentum, molecular spectroscopy, scauering theory, more. 280 problems plus 139
supplementary exercises. 430pp. 6!-l x 9!4.
65236-X Pa. $12.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS
ASYMPTOTIC METHODS IN ANALYSIS, N.G. de Bruijn. An inexpensive,
comprehensive guide to asymptotic methods-the pioneering work that teaches by
explaining worked examples in detail. Index. 224pp. 5 x Sil.
64221-6 Pa. S6.95
OPTICALRESONANCEANDTWO-LEVELATOMS, L. Allen andJ.H. Eberly.
Clear, comprehensive introduction to basic principies behind ali quamum optical
resonance phenomena. 53 illustrations. Preface. lndex. 256pp. 51' x Sl.
65533-4 Pa. $7.95
COMPLEX VARIABLES, Francis J. Flanigan. Unusual approach, delaying
complex algebra till harmonic functions have been analyzed from real variable
613SS-7 Pa. $S.95
viewpoint. lncludes problems with answers. 364pp. 51' x Sil.
ATOMIC SPECTRA AND ATOMIC STRUCTURE, Gerhard Henberg. One of
best introductions; especially for specialist in other fields. Treatment is physical
60115-3 Pa. $5.95
rather than mathematical. SO illustrations. 257pp. 5li x Sli.
APPLIED COMPLEX VARIABLES, John W. Dettman. Step-by-step coverage of
fundamentals of analytic function theory-plus lucid exposition of five important
applications: Potential Theory; Ordinary Differemial Equations; Fourier Transforms; Laplace Transforms; Asymptotic Expansions. 66 figures. Exercises at
chapter ends. 512pp. 5ll x Sl.
64670-X Pa. $11.95
ULTRASONIC ABSORPTION: An lntroduction to the Theory of Sound Absorption and Dispersion in Gases, Liquids and Solids, A.B. Bhatia. Standard reference
in the field provides a clear, systematically organized introductory review of
fundamentalconcepts for advanced graduate students, research workers. Numerous
64917-2 Pa. $11.95
diagrams. Bibliography. 440pp. 5ll x Sil.
UNBOUNDED LINEAR OPERATORS: Theory and Applications, Seymour
Goldberg. Classic presents systematic treatment of the theory of unbounded linear
operators in normed linear spaces with applications to differential equations.
6483G-3 Pa. S 7 . ~.'>
Bibliography. 199pp. 5% x 8h.
LIGHT SCATTERING BY SMALL PARTICLES, H .C. van de Hulst. Comprehensive treatment induding ful! range of useful approximation methods for
researchers in chemistry, meteorology and astronomy. 44 illustrations. 470pp.
51' x Sil.
6422S-3 Pa. $10.95
CONFORMAL MAPPING ON RIEMANN SURFACES, Harvey Cohn. Lucid,
insightful book presents ideal coverage of subject. 334 exercises make book perfect
for self-study. 55 figures. 352pp. 51' x Slt
64025-6 Pa. $9.95
OPTICKS, Sir Isaac Newton. Newton's own experiments with spectroscopy,
colors, lenses, reflection, refraction, etc., in Janguage the layman can follow.
Foreword by Albert Einstein. 532pp. 5li x Sil.
60205-2 Pa. $9.95
GENERALIZED INTEGRAL TRANSFORMATIONS, A.H. Zemanian. Graduate-level study of recent generalizations of the Laplace, Mellin, Hankel, K.
Weierstrass, convolution and other simple transformations. Bibliography. 320pp.
51' x Sil.
65375-7 Pa. $7.95

THE ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELO, Albert Shadowitz. Comprehensive undergraduate text covers basics of electric and magnetic fields, builds up to electromagnetic theory. Also related topics, including relativity. Over 900 problems. 768pp .
5 x 8!4.
65660-8 Pa. SI 7.9S
FOURIER SERIES, Georgi P. To!stov. Translated by Richard A. Silverman. A
valuable addition to the literature on the subject, moving clearly from subject to
subject and theorem to theorem. 107 problems, answers. 336pp. 51' x Sl.
63317-9 Pa. $8.95
THEORY OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE PROPAGATION, Charles Herach Papas. Graduate-level study discusses the Maxwell field equations, radiation
from wire antennas, the Doppler effect and more. xiii + 244pp. 51' x SJi.
65678-0 Pa. $6.95
DISTRIBUTION THEORY ANO TRANSFORM ANALYSIS: An lntroduction
to Generalized Functions, with Applications, A.H. Zemanian. Provides basics of
distribution theory, describes generalized Fourier and l..aplace transformations.
Numerous problems. 384pp. 51' x Sll.
65479-6 Pa. S9.95
THE PHYSICS OF WAVES, William C. Elmore and Mark A. Heald. Unique
overview of classical wave theory. Acoustics, optics, electromagnetic radiation,
more. Ideal as classroom text or Cor self-study. Problems. 477pp. 5 x Sll.
64926- J Pa. SI 1. 95
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS WITH APPLICATIONS, George M. Ewing.
Applications-oriented introduction 10 variational theory develops insight and
promotes understanding of specialized books, research papers. Suitable for
advanced undergraduate/ graduate students as primary, supplementary text. 352pp.
5% x Sll.
64856-7 Pa. $8.95
A TREATISE ON ELECTRICITY ANO MAGNETISM, James Clerk Maxwell.
Imponant foundation work of modern ph vsics. Brings to final orm Man,d l's
of
and rigorously cierives his general equations of field
60636-8, 60637-6 Pa., Two-vol. set $19.90
theory. l,084pp. 51' x Sil.

th~or: eltctromagneti~rn

AN INTROOUCTION TO THE CALCUL US OF VARIATIONS, Charles Fox.

Gradua te-leve) text covers variations of an in tegral, isoperimetrical problems, least
acon, special relativity, approximations, more. References. 279pp. 5%x Sll.
65499-0 Pa. $7.95
HYDRODYNAMICAND HYDROMAGNETICSTABILITY, S. Chandrasekhar.
Lucid examination of the Rayleigh-Benard problem; clear coverage of the theory of
instabilities causing convection. 704pp. 51' x 8!4.
64071 -X Pa. $14.95
CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS, Roben Weinstock. Basic introduction covering
isoperimetric problems, theory of elasticity, quan tum mechanics, electtostacs, etc.
Exercises throughouL 326pp. 5%x Sil.
63069-2 Pa. $7.95
DYNAMICS OF FLUIDS IN POROUS MEDIA, Jacob Bear. For advanced
students of ground water hydrology, soil mechanics and physics, drainage and
irrigation engineering and more. 335 illustrations. Exercises, with answers. 784pp.
65675-6 Pa. $19.95
6li x

9~.

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS
HANDBOOK OF MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS WITH FORMULAS,
GRAPHS, AND MA THEMATICAL TABLES, edited by Milton Abramowitz and
Irene A. Stegun. Vast compendium: 29 sets of tables, sorne to as high as 20 places.
l,046pp. 8 X 10\l.
61272-4 Pa. S22.9S

NUMERICAL METHODS FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS, Richard

Hamming. Classic tex1 stresses frequency approach in coverage o{ algorithms,
polynomial approxima1ion, Fourier approximation, exponential approximation , other topics. Revised and enlarged 2nd edition. 72\pp. 5li x6524
8\l. 1-6 Pa. Sl4.95

MATHEMATICAL METHODS IN PHYSICS AND ENGINEERING, John W.

Dettrnan. Algebraically based approach to vecwrs, mapping, diffraction, other
topics in applied math. Also generalized functions, analytic function theory, more.
Exercises. 448pp. 51' x 8~.
65649-7 Pa. $9.95

THEORETICAL SOLID STATE PHYSICS, Vol. I: Perlect Lauices in Equilib

rium; Vol. Il: NonEquilibrium and Disorder , William Jones and Norman H .
March. Monumental relerence work covers fundamental theory of equilibrium
propenies of per[ect crystalline solids, non-equilibrium properties, defects and
disordered systems. Appendices. Problems. Preface. Diagrams. lndex. Bibliog
raphy. Total o[ l ,30lpp. 5li x 8\,. Two volumes.
Vol. I 65015-4 Pa. $14.9.':>
Vol. II 650162 Pa. $12.95

A SURVEY OF NUMERICAL MATHEMATICS, David M. Young and Roben

Todd Gregory. Broad seH-contained coverage of computer-oriented numerical
algorithms for solving various types o mathematical problems in linear algebra,
ordinary and panial, differemial equations, much more. E.xercises. Total of
l .248pp. 51' x 8lt Two volumes.
Vol. I 65691-8 Pa. S 14. 9S
Vol. JI 65692-6 Pa. Sl4.9!i

OPTIMIZATION THEORY WITH APPLICATIONS. Donald A. Pierre. Broadspectrum approach to important wpic. Classical theory of mnima and maxima,
calculus of variations, simplex technique and linear programming, more. Many
problems, examples. 640pp. 5l x 8\.
65205-X Pa. Sl4.95

TENSOR ANAL YSIS FOR PHYSICISTS, ].A. Schomen. Concise exposition of

the malhematical basis of tensor analysis, imegrated with well-chosen physical
examples of Lhe theory. E.xercises. Jndex.. Bibliography. 289pp. 5li x 8li.
65582-2 Pa. $7.95

THE MODERN THEOR Y OF SOLIDS, Frederick Seitz. First inexpensive edition

of classic work on theo~ o[ ionic crys1al5, free-electron theory of metals and
semiconductors, molecular binding, much more. 736pp. 51' x 8\l.6:'1482-6 Pa. $15.95

INTRODUCTION TO NUMERICAL ANAL YSIS (2nd Edition), F.B. Hilde

brand. Classic, fundamental treatmem covers computation, approximation, imer
polation, numerical diHerentiation and imegration, other topics. 150 new problems. 669pp. 51' x 812.
65363-3 Pa. $14.95

ESSAYS ON THE THEORY OF NUMBERS. Richard Dedekind. Two classic

essays by great German mathematician: on the theory of irrational numbers: and on
transfinite numbers and properties of natural numbers. l l5pp. 5li210103
x 8\l. Pa. S4.95
THE FUNCTIONS OF MATHEMATICAL PHYSICS, Harry Hochstadt. Com
prehensive treatment of onhogonal polynomials, hypergeometric functions, Hill's
equation, much more. Bibliography. Index. 322pp. 51' x Sli.
65214-9 Pa. $9.95
NUMBER THEORY AND ITS HISTORY , Oystein Ore. Unusuaily dear ,
accessible introduction covers counting, propenies of numbers, prime numbers,
much more. Bibliography. 380pp. 5li x 8li.
65620-9 Pa. $9.95
THE VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES OF MECHANICS, Cornelius Lanczos.
Graduate level coverage of calculus of variations, equations of motion, relativistic
mechanics, more. First inexpensive paperbound edition o! classic treatise. Index.
Bibliography. 418pp. 5lx 8li.
6506-7 Pa. SI0.95
MATHEMATICAL TABLES AND FORMULAS, Roben D. Carmichael and
E.dwin R. Smith. Logarithms, sines, tangents, trig functions , powers, roots,
reciprocals, exponential and hyperbolic functions. formulas and theorems. 269pp.
51' x 8\.1.
60111-0 Pa. $6.95
THE.ORETICAL PHYSICS, Georg Joos, with Ira M. Freeman. Classic overview
covers essential math, mechanics, electromagnetic theory , thermodynamics, quan
tum mechanics, nuclear physics, other topics. First paperback edition. xxiii +
885pp. 5li x 8*.
65227-0 Pa. SI 8.95

INVESTIGATIONS ON THE THE.ORY OF THE BROWNIAN MOVE.MENT,

Albert Einstein. Five papers (1905-8) investigating dynamics o Brownian motion
and evolving elememary theory. Notes by R. Frth. 122pp. 51' x 8*.
60304-0 Pa. S4.9!i

-'i;"

NUMERICAL METHODS FOR SCIEJ\'TISTS AND ENG!NEERS , P.icha,-::'

HamrLing. Classi.:: te>.:t ~tresses frequency approach in coverage of algorithms,
polynomial approximation, Fourier approximation, exponemial approximation,
other topics. Revised and enlarged 2nd edition. 721pp. 51' x 8li. 65241-6 Pa. $14.95
AN INTRODUCTION TO STATISTICAL THE.RMODYNAMICS, Terrell L.
Hill. Excellent basic text offers wide-ranging coverage of quantum statistical
mechanics, systems of interacting molecules, quamum statistics, more. 523pp.
51' x 8l2.
65242-4 Pa. $11.95
ELEMENTARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, William Ted Martin and Eric
Reissner. Exceptionally clear, comprehensive introduction at undergraduate leve!.
Nature and origin of differential equations, differential equations of first, second
and higher orders. Picard's Theorem, much more. Problems with solutions. 331 pp.
51' x 8l2.
65024-3 Pa. S8.95
STATISTICAL PHYSICS, Gregory H. Wannier. Classic text combines thermodynamics, statistical mechanics and kinetic theory in one unified presentation of
thermal physics. Problems with solutions. Bibliography. 532pp. 5li x 8n.
65401-X Pa. $11.9.~

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, Morris Tenenbaum and Harry
Pollard. Exhaustive survey o[ ordinary differential equations for undergraduates in
malhematics, engineering, science. Thorough analysis of lheorems. Diagrams.
64940-i Pa. Sl 6.95
Bibliography. Index. 818pp. Sl x 8~

SPECIAL FU NCTIONS, N.N. Lebedev. Translated by Richard Silverman. Famous Russian work treating more importam special functions, with applications
to specific problems of physics and engineering. 38 figures. 308pp. 5% x 8%.
60624-4 Pa. $7.95
OBSERVATIONAL ASTRONOMY FOR AMATEURS, ].B. Sidgwick. Mine of
useful data for observation of sun, moon, planets, asteroids, aurorae, meteors,
comets, variables, binaries, etc. 39 illustra tions. 384pp. 5li x 8!4. (Available in U.S.
only)
24033-9 Pa. S8.95

STATISTICAL MECHANICS: Principies and Applications, Terrell L. Hill.

Standard text covers fundamemals of statiscal mechanics, applications to
fluctuation theory, imperfect gases, disrribution functions, more. 448pp. 5l x 81..
65390-0 Pa. $9.95
ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS AND STABILITY THEORY: An
Imroduction, David A. Snchez. Brief, modern treatment. Linear equation,
stability theory for autonomous and nonauwnomous systems, etc. 164pp. 5%x 8'..
63828-6 Pa. S5.95

INTEGRAL EQUATIONS, F.G. Tricomi. Authoritative, well-wriuen treacmem

of extremely useful mathematical too] with wide applications. Volterra Equa tions,
Fredholm Equations, much more. Advanced undergraduate to graduate leve!.
Exercises. Bibiiography. 238pp. 5% x 8li
64828-J Pa. $7.95

THIRTY YEARS THAT SHOOK PHYSICS: The Story of Quamum Theory,

George Gamow. Lucid, accessible inrroduction !O influemial lheory of energy and
matter. Careful explanations of Dirac's ami-particles, Bohr's model of the atom,
much more. 12 piares. Numerous drawings. 240pp. 5l x 8\.
24895-X Pa. S6.95

CELESTIAL OBJECTS FOR COMMON TELESCOPES, T.W. Webb. Inestimable aid for locating and identifying nearly 4,000 celestial objects. 77 illustrations.
645pp. 5%x 8%.
20917-2, 20918-0 Pa., Two-vol. set $12.00
MODERN NONLINEAR EQUATIONS, Thomas L. Saaty. Emphasizes practical
solution of problems; covers seven types of equations. " . . . a welcome contribu tion
to che existing literature. . . ." -Math Reviews. 490pp. 5%x 812. 64232-1 Pa. $9.95

THEORY OF MATRICES, Sam Perlis. Outstanding text rnvering rank. non

singularity and inverses in connection with the development of canonical matrices
under the relation of equivalence, and wit hout the intervemion of determinants.
Includes exercises. 237pp. 51' x 8~.
66810-X Pa. Si.95
GREAT EXPERIMENTS IN PHYSICS: Firstharid Accounts from Galileo LO
Einstein, edited by Morris H . Shamos. 25 crucial discoveries: Newton's laws of
motion. Chadwick 's study o[ the neutron, Hertz on dectromagnetic waves, more.
Original accoums clearly annotated. 370pp. Sl x 8~
253465 Pa. S9.95
INTRODUCTION TO PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS WITH AP
PLICATIONS, E.C. Zachmanoglou anci Dale W. Thoe. Essem ;als of p3.rtia1
differential equations applied to common problems in engineering and the
physical sciences. Problems and answers. 416pp. 5l x 812.
65251-3 Pa. SI0.95
BURNHAM'S CELESTIAL HANDBOOK, Roben Burnham, Jr. Thorough guide
to the stars beyond our solar system. Exhaustive treatment. Alphabetical by
constellation: Andromeda to Cetus in Vol. l; Chamaeleon to Orion in Vol. 2; and
Pavo to Vulpecula in Vol. 3. Hundreds of illustrations. Index in Vol. 3. 2,000pp.
61 x 9'..
23567-X, 23568-8, 23673-0 Pa., Three-vol. set $41.85
ASYMPTOTIC EXPANSIONS FOR ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, Wolfgang Wasow. Outstanding text covers asymptotic power series,
jordan's canonical form, turning poim problems, singular penurbations, much
more. Problems. 384pp. 5l x 8~.
65456-7 Pa. $9.95
AMATEUR ASTRONOMER'S HANDBOOK, J.B. Sidgwick. Timeless, comprehensive coverage o[ telescopes, mirrors, lenses, moumings, telescope drives,
micrometers, spectroscopes, more. 189 illustrations. 576pp. 5l8 x 8\.
(CS0) 24034-7 Pa. $9.95

FUNDAMENTALS OF ASTRODYNAMICS, Roger Bate et al. Modem approach

developed by U.S. Air Force Academy. Designed as a first course. Problems,
60061-0 Pa. $8.95
exercises. Numerous illustracions. 455pp. 5l x 8\.

INTRODUCTION TO LINEAR ALGEBRA AND DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, John W. Dettman. Excellent text covers complex numbers, determinams,
onhonormal bases, Laplace transforms, much more. Exercises wilh solutions.
Undergraduate leve!. 416pp. 5% x 8\.
6.519J -6 Pa S9.!l5

I.'.\iC0:'.1PRESSIBLE AERODYNAMICS, edited by Bryan Thwaites. Covers theoretical and experimental treatmem o the uniform flow o air and viscous fluids past
two-dimensional aerofoils and three-dimensional wings; many other topics. 654pp.
65465-6 Pa. S 16. 95
5l x 812.
INTRODUCTION TO DIFFERENCE EQUATIONS, Samuel Goldberg. Excep tionally clear exposition of imponam discipline wilh applicacions to sociology,
psychology, economics. Many illustrative examples; over 250 problems. 260pp.
5% X 812.
65084-7 Pa. $7.95
LAMINAR BOUNDAR Y LA YERS, edited by L. Rosenhead. Engineering classic
covers steady boundary layers in two- and three-dimensional flow, unsteady
boundary layers, stability, observacional techniques, much more. 708pp. 5l x 812.
65646-2 Pa. $15.95
LECTURES ON CLASSICAL DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY, Second Edition,
Dirk J. _S truik. Excellem brief introduction covers curves, theory of surfaces,
fundamental equations, geometry on a surface, conforma! mapping, other topics.
Problems. 240pp. 5%x 8~.
65609-8 Pa. $7.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS

ROTARY-WING AERODYNAMJCS, W.Z. S1epniewski. Clear, concise 1ex1covers

aerodynamic phenomena of 1he rotor and offers guidelines for helicopter performance evalua1ion. Originally prepared lor NASA. 537 figures. 640pp. 6l x 914.
64647-5 Pa. $15.95

GEOMETRY OF COMPLEX N UMBERS, Hans Schwerdtfeger. Illuminating,

widely praised book on analytic geometry C7f circles, the Moebiu s transformation,
and two-dimensional non-Euclidean geometries. 200pp. 5ll x 814.

DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY. Heinrich W. Guggenheimer. Local differential

geome1ry as an application of advanced calculus and linear algebra. Curva1ure,
transformation groups, surfaces, more. Exercises. 62 figures. 378pp. 5Ji x 8~.
63433-7 Pa. $7.95

63830-8 Pa. $6.95

MECHANICS, J .P . Den Hanog. A classic introduc1011 tex1or refresher. Hundreds
of applications and design problems illuminate fundamen1als of trusses, loaded
beams and cables, etc. 334 answered problems. 462pp. 5Ji x 8!>!. 60754-2 Pa. $8.95

INTRODUCTJON TO SPACE DYNAMICS, William Tyrrell Thomson. Comprehensive, classic introduction to space-flight engineering for advanced undergraduate and graduate students. lncludes vector algebra, kinema1ics. transformation of coordinates. Bibliography. Index. 352pp. 5ll x 8~.
65113-4 Pa. $8.95
A SURVEY OF MINIMAL SURFACES, Roben Osserman. Up-10-date, in-depth
discussion of the field for advanced students. Corrected and enlarged edition covers
new developments. Includes numerous problems. l92pp. 5ll x 8~.
64998-9 Pa. $8.95
ANALYTICAL MECHANICS OF GEARS, Earle Buckingham. Indispensable
reference for modern gear manufacture covers conjugate gear-tooth action, gearlooth profiles of various gears, many other 1opics. 263 figures. 102 tables. 546pp.
5li x 8n.
65712-4 Pa. s1 J.95
SET THEORY AND LOGIC, Roben R. Stoll. Lucid introducon w unified
theory of mathematical concep1s. Set theory and logic seen as tools for concep1Ual
understanding of real number system. 496pp. 5li x 814.
63829-4 Pa. Sl 0.95
A HISTOR Y OF MECHANICS, Ren Dugas. Monumental study of mechanical
principies from antiquity 10 quantum mechanics. Contributions of ancient Greeks,
Galileo, Leonardo, Kepler, Lagrange, many others. 67lpp. 5% x 8~.
65632-2 Pa. $14.95
FAMOUS PROBLEMS OF GEOMETRY AND HOW TO SOLVE THEM,
Benjamn Bold. Squaring the circle, trisecting the angle, duplicating the cube:
learn their history, why 1hey are impossible IO solve, then salve them yourselL
24297-8 Pa. $3.95
l 28pp. 5Ji x 8\.

TOPOLOGY, John G. Hocking and Gail S. Young. Superb one-year co urse in

classical topology. Topological spaces and functions, point-set 1opology, much
more. Examples and problems. Bibliography. Index. 384pp. 5li x 8\L
65676-4 Pa. S8.9S
STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ).P. Den Hanog. Full, clear t.reatment of basic
material (tension, torsion, bending, etc. ) p lus advanced ma1erial on engineer ing
methods, applications. 350 answered problems. 323pp, 5ll x 8)2. 60755-0 Pa. $8.95
ELEMENTARY CONCEPTS OF TOPOLOGY, Paul Alexandroff. Elegan t.
intuitive approach ro wpology from set-theoretic topology to Be1ti groups; how
concepts of topology are useful in ma1h and ph ysics. 25 figu res. 57pp. 5Ji x 8)2.
60747-X Pa. $3.50
ADVANCED STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, ] .P. Den Hanog. Superbly wrinen
advanced 1ex1 covers wrsion, rotating disks, membrane stresses in shells, much
more. Many problems and answers. 388pp. Sli x 8~.
65407-9 Pa. $9.95
COMPUTABILITY AND UNSOLVABILITY, Manin Davis. Classic graduatelevel introduction IO theory of computability, usually referred to as theory of
recurren1 functions. New preface and appendix. 288pp. 5%x 8)2. 61471-9 Pa. $7.95
GENERAL CHEMISTR Y, Linus Pauling. Revised 3rd edition of classic firs1-year
1ex1 by Nobel laureate. Atomic and molecular structure, quantum mechanics,
statistical mechanics, thermodynamics correla ted with descriptive chemis tn '.
Probiems. 99'.!p~. 57i x 8'':.
65622-5 Pa. $19.95
AN INTRODUCTION TO MATRICES, SETS AND GROU PS FOR SCIENCE
STUDENTS, G. S1ephenson. Concise, readable text introduces sets, groups, and
mos1 importantly, matrices to undergraduate s1udents o f physics, chemistry, and
engineering. Problems. 164pp. Sl x 8n.
65077-4 Pa. S6.9S

MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS, J.P. Den Hanog. Classic textbook offers lucid

explanations and illustra1ive models, applying theories of vibrations ID a variety of
practical industrial engineering problems. Numerous figures. 233 problems,
solutions. Appendix. lndex. Preface. 436pp. 5ll x 8!>!.
64785-4 Pa. S9.%

THE HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF CHEMISTRY, Henry M. Leicester.

Evolution of ideas, not individual biography. Concentrates on formulation o f a
coherent set of chemical laws. 260pp. 5li x 8n.
61053-5 Pa. S6.95

CURVATURE AND HOMOLOGY, Samuell. Goldberg. Thorough treatment of

specialized branch of differential geometry. Covers Riemannian manifolds, 1opology of differentiable manifolds, compacl Lie groups, other 1opics. Exercises. 315pp.
5 X 8l7.
64314-X Pa. $8.95

THE PHILOSOPHY OF MATHEMATICS: An Introductory Essay, Stephan

Krner. Surveys the views of Plato, Aristotle, Leibniz & Kant concerning propositions and theories o f applied and pure mathematics. Introduction. Two appendices. Index. 198pp. 5l x 8!>!.
25048-2 Pa. $6.95

HISTORY OF STRENGTH OF MATERIALS, S1ephen P. Timoshenko. Excellem historical survey of the streng1h of ma1erials wi1h many references ID the
theories of elastici1y and structure. 245 figures. 452pp. 5ll x 8~. 61187-6 Pa. SJ0.95

THE DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN CHEMISTRY, Aaron J. Ihde. Authoritative history of chemist.ry from ancient Greek theory 10 20th-century innovation.
Covers majar chemis1s and their discoveries. 209 illustrations. 14 tables. Bibliographies. Indices. Appendices. 85lpp. 5l x Bn.
64235-6 Pa. $17.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS

DE RE METALLICA, Georgius Agricola. The famous Hoover translation of

greatest treatise on technological chemisrry, engineering, geology, mining of early
modern times (1556). Ali 289 original woodcuts. 638pp. 6l. x 11.
60006-8 Pa. SI 7.95

THE FOUR-COLOR PROBLEM: Assaults and Conquest, Thomas L. Saaty and

Paul G. Kainen. Engrossing, comprehensive account of the century-old combina
torial topological problem, its history and solution. Bibliographies. lndex. 110
figures. 228pp. 5% x 8!->.
65092-8 Pa. S6.95
CATALYSIS IN CHEMISTRY AND ENZYMOLOGY, William P. Jencks.
Exceptionally clear coverage of mechanisms for catalysis, forces in aqueous
solution, carbonyl- and acyl-group reactions, practical kinetics, more. 864pp.
5l! x 8~.
654605 Pa. $19.95

SOME THEORY OF SAMPLING, William Edwards Deming. Analysis of the

problems, theory and design of sampling techniques for social scientists, industrial
managers and others who find statistics increasingly important in their work. 61
tables. 90 figures. xvii + 602pp. 5% x 8\2.
64684-X Pa. $15.95

PROBABILITY: An Introduction, Samuel Goldberg. Excellent basic lext covers set

theory, probability theory for finite sample spaces, binomial theorem, much more.
360 problems. Bibliographies. 322pp. 5% x 8\2.
65252-1 Pa. $8.95

THE VARIOUS AND INGENIOUS MACHINES OF AGOSTINO RAMELLI: A

Classic Sixteenth-C..emury Illustrated Treatise on Technology, Agostino Ramelli.
One of the most widely known and copied works on machinery in the J 6th century.
194 detailed plates of water pumps, grain milis, cranes, more. 608pp. 9 x 12. (EBE)
2&4976 Clothbd. $34.95

LIGHTNING, Martin A. U man. Revised, updated edition of classic work on the

physics of lightning. Phenomena, terminology, measurement, photography,
spectroscopy, thunder. more. Reviews recent research. Bibliography. Indices.
64575-4 Pa. S8.95
320pp. 5li x 8\4.

LINEAR PROGRAMMING AND ECONOMIC ANALYSIS, Roben Dorfman,

Paul A. Samuelson and Roben M. Solow. First comprehensive rreatment of linear
programming in standard economic analysis. Game theory, modern welfare
65491-5 Pa. $13.95
economics, Leontief input-output, more. 525pp. 5l! x 8\2.
ELEMENTAR Y DECISIO!\" THEORY, Herman Chernoff and Lincoln E. Moses.
Clear introduction to statistics and statistical theory covers data processing,
probability and random variables, testing hypotheses, much more. Exercies.
364pp. 5li x 8\2.
652181 Pa. $9.9'>
THE COMPLEAT STRATEGYST: Being a Primer on the Theory of Games o[
Strategy, J.D. Williams. Highly emenaining classic decribes, with many illustrated examples, how to select best strategies in conflict situations. Prefaces.
Appendices. 268pp. si. X 8~.
25101-2 Pa. $6.95

PROBABILITY THEORY: A Concise Course, Y.A. Rozanov. Highly readable.

selfcontained introduction covers combination of events, dependent events,
Bernoulli rrials, etc. Translation by Richard Silverman. 148pp. 5%x 8"'.
635449 Pa. $5.95

1
1

MATHEMATICAL METHODS OF OPERATIONS RESEARCH, Thomas L.

Saaty. Classic graduate-i~vel text covers historical background, cla;,sica; ::r1cd10cb oi
forming models, optimization, game theory, probabiiity, queueing theory, much
more. Exercises. Bibliography. 448pp. 5% x 8\t
65703-5 Pa. $12.95
CONSTRUCTIONS AND COMBINATORIAL PROBLEMS IN DESIGN OF
EXPERIMENTS, Damaraju Raghavarao. In-depth reference work examines
onhogonal Latin squares, incomplete block designs, tactical configuration, partial
geometry, much more. Abundant explanations, examples. 416pp. 5l x 8\(.
65685-3 Pa. $10.95
THE ABSOLUTE DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS (CALCULUS OF TENSORS),
Tullio Levi-Civita. Great 20th-century mathematician 's classic work on material
necessary for mathematical grasp of theory of relativity. 452pp. 5!> x 8~.
63401-9 Pa. $9.95
VECTOR AND TENSOR ANALYSIS WITH APPLICATIONS, A.I. Borisenko
and LE. Tarapov. Concise imroduction. Worked-out problems, solutions, exer
63833-2 Pa. $6.95
cises. 257pp. 5% x 8\4.

THE CEASELESS \'\'IND: An Introduction to the Theory of Atmospheric Motion,

John A. Dutton. Acclaimed text integrates disciplines of mathematics and physics
for full understanding of dynamics of atmospheric motion. Over 400 problems.
Index. 97 illustrations. 640pp. 6 x 9.
65096-0 Pa. $1 i.95
STA TISTICS MANUAL, Edwin L. Crow, et al. Comprehensive, practica!
collection of classical and modern methods prepared by U.S. Naval Ordnance Test
Station. Stress on use. Basics of statistics assumed. 288pp. 5l x 8\2.
60599-X Pa. S6.95
D I C~IO J'.:A R Y/ O'CTLI:'\E

OF RASr:: S~-:ATIS7ICS , J o hn E. Freund t-:n.:= Fr2r..!-:

J. William;. A ciear concise dictionary of o ver 1,000 statistical terms andan outline
of statistical formulas covering probabil ity, nonparametric tests, much more.
667960 Pa. S6.95
208pp. 5li x 8!7

STATISTICAL METHOD FROM THE VIEWPOINT OF QUALITY CON

TROL, Walter A. Shewhart. Important text explains regulation of variables, uses
of statistical control to achieve quality conuol in industry, agriculture, other areas.
65232-7 Pa. $7.95
192pp. 5% x 8lf.
THE INTERPRETATION OF GEOLOGICAL PHASE DIAGRAMS, Ernest G.
Ehlers. Clear, concise text emphasizes diagrams of systems under fluid or
containing pressure; also coverage of complex binary systems, hydrothermal
65389-7 Pa. $10.95
melting, more. 288pp. 6\2 x 9\4.
STATISTICAL ADJUSTMENT OF DATA, W. Edwards Deming. Inrroduction to
basic concepts of slatistics, curve fitting, least squares solution, conditions without
parameter, conditions containing parameters. 26 exercises worked out. 27lpp.
5% x 8\2.
646858 Pa. $8.95

CATALOG OF DOVER BOOKS

TENSOR CALCULUS, J .L. Synge and A. Schild. Widely used inrroductory text
covers spacesand tensors, basic operations in Riemannian space, non-Riemannian
spaces, etc. 324pp. 5* x 8~.
63612- Pa. $7.95
A CONCISE HISTOR Y OF MATHEMATICS. Drk J. Struik. The best brief
hiswry of mathematics. Stresses origins and covers every major figure rom anciem
Near East to l9th cemury. 41 illusrraons. l95pp. 5l x Sli.
60255-9 Pa. $7.95
ASHORT ACCOUNTOFTHEHISTORY OF MATHEMATICS , W.W. Rouse
Ball. One of clearest. most authoritative surveys from the Egyptians and Phoeni
cians through l9th-cemury figures such as Grassman, Galois, Riemann. Fourth
edition. 522pp. 5l x B>.
20630-0 Pa. $10.9'.>
HISTOR Y OF MATHEMATICS, David E. Smith. Nontechnical survey from
ancient Greece and Orient to late 19th century; evolution of arithmetic, geometry.
rrigonomerry, calculating devices. algebra. the calculus. 362 illusrrations. l ,355pp.
5l x S>.
20429-4. 20430-8 Pa., Two-vol. set $23.90
THE GEOMETR Y OF RENt DESCARTES, Ren Descartes. The great work
founded analytical geometry. Original French text, Descartes' own diagrarns,
together with definitive Smith-Latham rranslation. 244pp. 5l x 81:.
60068-8 Pa. $6.95
THE ORIGINS OF THE INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS , Margaret E. Baron
Only fully detaled and documented account of crucial discipline: origins;
developrnent by Galileo, Kepler , Cavalieri; contributions of Newton, Leibn iz,
65371-4 Pa. $9.9:,
more. 304pp. 5l x 8>. (Available in U.S. and Ganada onl y)
THE HISTORY OF THE CALCULUS AND ITS CONCEPTUAL DEVELOPMENT, Car! B. Boyer. Origins in antiquity, medieval contributions, work o[
Newton, Leibniz, rigorous formulation. Treatmen t is verbal. 346pp. 5l x S>.
60S09-4 Pe. $7 9S
THE THIRTEEN BOOKS OF EUCLID'S ELEMENTS, translated with introduction and commentary by Sir Thomas L. Heath. Definitive edition. Textual and
linguistic notes, mathematical anal ysis. 2,500 years o[ critica! cornmentary. Not
60088-2, 60089-0, 60090-4 Pa. , Three-vol. set $29.85
abridged. l ,414pp. 5lX 8\.2.
GAMES AND DECISIONS: lnrroduction and Critica! Survey, R. Duncan Luce
and Howard Raiffa. Superb nontechnical introduction to game theory. primaril y
applied to social sciences. Utility theory , zero-sum games, n-person games,
65943-7 Pa. SI l.95
decision-making, rnuch more. Bibliography. 509pp. 5l x 8'2.
THE HISTORICAL ROOTS OF ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS, Lucas
N.H. Bunt, Phillip S. Jones, and Jack D. Bedient. Fundamental underpinnings o[
modern arithmetic, algebra, geometry and number systems derived from ancient
civilizations. 320pp. Sl X S>.
25563-8 Pa. ss.9:-i
CALCULUS REFRESHER FOR TECHNICAL PEOPLE. A. Albert KlaL Covers
irnportant aspects of integral and differential calculus via 756 questions. 566
problems, most answered. 43lpp. 5l x 8\'..
20370-0 Pa. $8.9'i

CATALOG OF DO VER BOOKS

CHALLENGING MATHEMA TI CAL PROBLEMS WITH ELEMENTAR Y
SOLUTIONS, A.M. Yaglom and I.M. Yaglom. Over 170 challenging prnblems on
probability theory, combinatoria! . analysis, points and lines, wpology, convex
polygons, many other topics. Solutions. Total of 445pp. 5% x 8li. Two-vol. set.
Vol. I 65536-9 Pa. S6.95
Vol. II 65537-7 Pa. $6.95
FIFTY CHALLENGING PROBLEMS IN PROBABILITY WITH SOLUTIONS, Frederick Mosteller. Remarkable puzzlers, graded in difficulty, illustrate
elementary and advanced aspects of probability. Detailed solutions. 88pp. 5% x 8*.
65355-2 Pa. $4.95
EXPERIMENTS IN TOPOLOGY, Stephen Barr. Classic, lively explanation of
one of the byways of mathematics. Klein bottles, Moebius strips, projective planes,
map coloring, problem of the Koenigsberg bridges , much more, described with
clarity and wit. 43 figures. 210pp. 5li X 8~.
25933- 1 Pa. s:i.95
RELATIVITY IN ILLUSTRATIONS, Jacob T. Schwartz. Clear nontechnical
treatment makes relativity more accessible than ever before. Over 60 drawings
illustrate concepts more clearly than text alone. Onl y high school geometry needed.
Bibliography. l28pp. 6ll x 9 1~.
25965-X Pa. $6.95
AN INTRODUCTION TO ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS, Earl
A. Coddington. A thorough and systematic first course in elementary differentia l
equations for undergraduates in mathematics and science, with man y exercises and
problems (with answers ). Index. 304pp. 5l x Si>.
65942-9 Pa. $8.95
FOURIER SERIES AND ORTHOGONAL FUNCTIONS, Harry F. Davis. An
incisive text combining theory and practica] example to introduce Fourier series.
onhogonal functions and applications of the Fourier method to boundary-value
problems. 570 exercises. Answers and notes. 416pp. 5% x 8*.
65973-9 Pa. $9.95
T H E T H EORY OF B F.. AN CHl~~G PI~0CE SSL. S . T heo<lore L. H arr1s. f1rst
systematic, comprehensive treatment of branching (i.e. multiplicative) processes
and their applications. Galton-Watson model, Markov branching processes,
electron-photon cascade, many other topics. Rigorous proofs. Bibliography.
240pp. 5 x 8~.
65952-6 Pa. $6.95
AN INTRODUCTION TO ALGEBRAIC STRUCTURES, Joseph Landin.
Superb self-contained text covers "abstract algebra" : sets and numbers, theory of
groups, theory of rings , much more. Numerous well-chosen examples, exercises.
65940-2 Pa. $6.95
247pp. 5l x Si>.

Prius subject to change without notice.

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