DOI: 10.5958/2319-5886.2015.00116.

International Journal of Medical Research

&
Health Sciences
www.ijmrhs.com
Volume 4 Issue 3
Received: 25th Apr 2015
Research article

Coden: IJMRHS
Revised: 23rd May 2015

Copyright @2015
ISSN: 2319-5886
Accepted: 24th Jun 2015

SERUM LEVELS OF HIGH SENSITIVITY C REACTIVE PROTEIN AND MALONDIALDEHYDE IN

CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE
*Rakshitha Gowda B.H1, Meera K.S 1, Mahesh E2
1

Dept of Biochemistry, 2Dept of Nephrology, M. S. Ramaiah Medical College, MSR Nagar, Bangalore,
Karnataka, India
*Corresponding author email: rakshitha28282@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Background: Chronic kidney disease cases are at increased risk for progression to end stage renal disease and
accelerated atherosclerosis, with premature cardiovascular morbidity and mortality being the more frequent
outcome. Aim: The study was taken up to find if there is any association between nontraditional cardiovascular
risk markers like high sensitivity C reactive protein (marker of inflammation) and malondialdehyde (marker of
lipid peroxidation) with the progression of chronic kidney disease. Methodology: The study included 44 pre
dialysis chronic kidney disease cases and 44 healthy controls. Serum levels of creatinine, high sensitivity C
reactive protein and malondialdehyde were estimated in both groups. The mean estimated glomerular filtration
rate(eGFR) in chronic kidney disease patients was calculated by the MDRD formula. Results: The mean eGFR in
cases was found to be 23.65 14.99 ml/min by MDRD formula. The serum hsCRP and malondialdehyde levels in
cases was 11.8 7.24 mg/L and 3.02 1.24 nmol/ml respectively. Conclusion: There was a significant negative
correlation (p<0.001) between high sensitivity C-reactive protein and malondialdehyde with eGFR. A highly
significant positive correlation was found between serum hsCRP and malondialdehyde (p<0.001) in chronic
kidney disease underlining the synergism between oxidative stress and inflammation, perpetuating to further
deterioration of renal function and enhancing the predisposition to cardiovascular risk with the progression of
chronic kidney disease.
Keywords: Chronic kidney disease, Estimated glomerular filtration rate, High sensitivity C reactive protein,
Inflammation, Malondialdehyde, Oxidative stress.
INTRODUCTION
Chronic kidney disease has gained attention as a
public health problem worldwide with the increase in
incidence and prevalence of the disorder. The Kidney
Diseases Outcomes Quality Initiative (K/DOQI)
defines chronic kidney disease (CKD) as kidney
damage or glomerular filtration rate (GFR) less than
60 ml/min/1.73 m2 for a period of three months or
more, irrespective of cause [ 1] . The glomerular
filtration rate (GFR) is the amount of plasma that is
filtered by the glomeruli per unit time and is a reliable
measure of the functional capacity of the kidneys.
Based on the GFR, CKD is divided into five stages
with stage 5 being end stage renal disease having a

GFR of <15ml/min. Chronic kidney disease cases

with end stage renal disease ultimately undergo renal
replacement therapy either in the form of dialysis or
renal transplantation. The measurement of GFR is
very useful in monitoring the progression of CKD,
targeting treatment and predicting renal replacement
therapy.
However, cardiovascular morbidity and mortality due
to accelerated atherosclerosis is encountered more
frequently in CKD patients. CKD is considered an
independent risk factor for the development of
cardiovascular disease [2]. There is increase in
cardiovascular risk whilst there is decline in

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glomerular filtration rate below 70 ml/min[3, 4]. The

traditional risk factor for development of
atherosclerosis includes increase in age, predilection
to male gender, hypertension, smoking, diabetes
mellitus, dyslipidemia and others[5]. However, these
conventional factors are unable to entirely explain the
mechanism for the increased risk for atherosclerosis
in the CKD population. In some of the CKD cases
there is increase in serum triglyceride with associated
decrease in serum high density lipoprotein and with
no alteration in other fractions of lipoproteins[6].
The uremic milieu of CKD patients contains high
amounts of proinflammatory proteins and cytokines
like C reactive protein, interleukin 6 and others[7].
Atherosclerosis too is an inflammatory condition of
the arteries and C reactive protein (CRP) which is
produced chiefly in the hepatocytes under the
influence of interleukin 6 (IL-6) and IL-1 is an
important inflammatory mediator. Among the various
mechanisms responsible for increase in oxidative
stress in uremia, activation of reduced nicotinamide
adenine dinucleotide oxidase which can be stimulated
by angiotensin II is a very important one[8].
There are studies to demonstrate the role of increased
levels of CRP and reactive oxygen species in end
stage renal disease and patients undergoing dialysis [9,
10]
. However, the role of inflammatory protein CRP
and oxidative stress markers like malondialdehyde in
the progression of renal dysfunction and accelerated
atherosclerosis in predialytic patients is not very
clear. The study was intended to determine the levels
of high sensitivity C reactive protein (hsCRP) as a
marker of inflammation and malondialdehyde
(MDA), a lipid peroxidation product as a marker of
oxidative stress in predialytic renal disease patients
and to decipher if there is any association between
serum hsCRP and MDA levels with the progression
of kidney disease.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study design: Cross sectional , case control study
Ethical approval: The study was approved by
Institutional Ethics review board; an informed
consent was taken from the patients before the
collection of blood sample.
Sample size: The study population included 44
healthy control subjects and 44 pre dialytic
nephropathy cases who attended the outpatient clinic
of the Department of Nephrology of our college.

Inclusion criteria: Clinically diagnosed chronic

kidney disease patients with serum creatinine level
greater than 1.5mg/dL were chosen. The estimated
GFR (eGFR) was calculated based on MDRD
formula [11] [186 (S.creatinine mg/dl)1.154 x
(age)0.203 x (0.742 if female)] mL/min/1.73 m2 ]
Patients were grouped into:
Stage III CKD eGFR : 30-59 ml/min
Stage IV CKD eGFR : 15-29 ml/min
Stage V CKD eGFR : <15ml/min
Exclusion criteria: Patients with active infection or
chronic
ongoing
inflammation,
history
of
cardiovascular disease, autoimmune disorders, renal
transplant and chronic kidney disease on dialysis,
drug supplementation such as steroids, immuno
suppressants, non steroidal anti - inflammatory drugs,
oral contraceptives, hormone replacement therapy,
statins, niacin and fibrates were excluded from the
study.
Grouping: The participants were divided into two
groups:
Group1: Control (Healthy volunteers who visited the
hospital for routine health check up and were willing
to be part of the study were taken as controls. The
control subjects had the same exclusion criteria as
CKD cases.)
Group 2: Chronic kidney disease(CKD) cases.
Methodology
5 ml of venous blood sample was collected under
aseptic conditions from the study groups in BD
vacutainer. The sample was allowed to clot. The
serum was separated from the sample at the earliest
after centrifugation and used for the estimation of
serum creatinine, high sensitivity C - reactive protein
and malondialdehyde. Serum creatinine was
estimated on Roche/Hitachi COBAS c-501
autoanalyzer by Buffered Kinetic Jaffe reaction
without deproteinization (ID-MS traceable method).
hsCRP in serum was measured by a turbidimetric
immunoassay. The assay is based on a latex-enhanced
turbidimetric
immunoassay
method.
The
agglutination that occurs between CRP in a sample
and anti-CRP antibody which has been sensitized to
latex particles, is detected as an absorbance change
(570 nm), with the magnitude of the change being
proportional to the quantity of CRP in the sample.
The actual concentration is then determined by
interpolation from a calibration curve prepared from
calibrators of known concentration. MDA was
measured by the Thiobarbituric acid reactive
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substances (TBARS) method as described by Wilbur

et al [12].
Statistical analysis: The results were expressed as
mean SD. Significance was assessed at 5% level of
significance. Student t test (two tailed,
independent) and analysis of variance (ANOVA) was
used to find the significance of study parameters.
Pearson correlation was used to study the relation
between the various parameters. Statistical analysis
was performed using SPSS 15.0 software.
RESULTS
The study population involved 44 predialytic CKD
patients whose average age was 55
13 yrs. The
serum creatinine level in controls were within
physiological range and in CKD cases the mean
serum creatinine level was 4.07 2.78 mg/dl .The
eGFR ranged from 4.48 ml/min to 60.61ml/min in
CKD cases with an average of 23.6514.99 ml/min.
In controls the eGFR was found to be 152.33
41.51ml/min (Table 1). The serum hsCRP levels in
cases was 11.8 7.24 mg/L with values ranging from
1.9 mg/L to 26.5 mg/L. The hsCRP level was found
to be fivefold higher in cases as compared to controls
(p<0.001) (Table 1). The serum malondialdehyde
level was significantly higher in chronic kidney
disease cases (Table 1). The serum levels of
inflammatory marker, hsCRP and oxidative stress
marker, MDA was five times higher in CKD cases as
compared to healthy controls.
The result was analysed by comparing eGFR, Serum
hsCRP and MDA in stage III, IV, V CKD (Table 2).
There is a gradual increase in serum creatinine from
stage 3 to stage 5 CKD. There is doubling of serum
hsCRP in stage 4 as compared to stage 3 and three
fold increases in stage 5 as compared to stage 3. The
hsCRP in stage V is 18.61 3.86 mg/L as compared

3). With the progression of CKD, the rise in serum

MDA, a marker of oxidative stress indicates
intensification of inflammation.
Table 1: Comparison of eGFR and biochemical
parameters in controls and CKD cases
Biochemical
parameters

Controls (n=44)
Mean SD

Cases(n=44)
Mean SD

S. Creatinine
(mg/dL)
eGFR
(ml/min)

0.59 0.10

4.07 2.78

**

152.33

**

S. hsCRP
(mg/L)
S. MDA
(nmol/mL)

2.43 0.74

23.65
14.99
11.8 7.24

0.55 0.24

3.02

**

41.51

p value

**

1.24

Table 2: Comparison of biochemical parameters in

different stages of CKD.
Parameters

Stage III
CKD(n=16)

Stage IV
CKD(n=12)

eGFR
(ml/min)

40.72

20.46 3.78

8.7

Stage
VCKD
(n=16)
8.97

p
value
-

3.1

3.11
7.08
2.41

<0.001**

3.77

11.21 6.23

18.61

<0.001**

1.34

2.92

3.86
3.71
0.7

<0.01

S.
Creatinine
(mg/dL)
S. hsCRP
(mg/L)

1.8

3.01

5.44

S. MDA
(nmol/mL)

2.39

1.28

Table 3: Pearson correlation of S. creatinine, hsCRP

and MDA with eGFR.
Pair
Cases
r value
p value
S. Creatinine v/s eGFR
-0.797
**
S. hsCRP v/s eGFR
-0.742
**
S. MDA v/s eGFR
-0.389

to stage IV were it is 11.21 6.23 mg/L. There is

significant rise in hsCRP with the progression of
CKD. There is also a gradual rise inS. MDA with the
progression of the disease (Table 2).
There was a significant correlation between S.
creatinine and eGFR (Table 3). A highly significant
negative correlation was also found between S.
hsCRP and S. MDA with eGFR (Figure 1, 2). With
the deterioration of kidney function, there is increase
in serum creatinine, hsCRP and MDA level.
There was a highly significant positive correlation of
serum MDA with hsCRP (r=0.642, p<0.001),(Figure
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Fig 1: Scatter plot depicting Pearson correlation

between MDA (nmol/mL) and eGFR(ml/min)

Fig 2: Scatter plot depicting Pearson correlation

between hsCRP(mg/L) and eGFR (ml/min)

Fig3: Scatter plot depicting Pearson correlation

between hsCRP (mg/L) and MDA (nmol/mL)
DISCUSSION
With the rise in both incidence and prevalence of
diabetes mellitus in India and the growing inclination
towards earlier diagnosis of chronic kidney disease,
there is an increase in the number of predialytic CKD
patients [13]. CKD patients exhibit an augmented risk
for the development of cardiovascular morbidity and
mortality which cannot be entirely substantiated by
the traditional Framingham risk factors such as age,
gender,
hypertension,
diabetes
and
hypercholesterolemia. Furthermore, the lipid profile
in CKD patients is not very significant as some cases
show hypertriglyceridemia which has no definite
relation with the various stages of CKD and could be
misleading. The uremia related risks include
proteinuria, increased reninangiotensin system

activity, chronic volume overload, altered calcium

and phosphorus metabolism, inflammation, infection,
anemia, malnutrition, oxidative stress, elevated levels
of homocysteine, uremic toxins and thrombogenic
factors[14].
Oxidative stress and inflammation have received
increased importance as nonconventional risk factors
of cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in CKD [
15]
. Oxidative stress is defined as the tissue damage
resulting from an imbalance between an excessive
generation of oxidant compounds and insufficient
antioxidant defense mechanisms. Evaluation of
oxidative stress is difficult because free radicals have
very short half-lives. However there are more stable
marker molecules that have longer half-lives, ranging
from hours to weeks, which can be used to assess
oxidative stress. Malondialdehyde, a water soluble,
three carbon, low molecular weight reactive aldehyde
is one such molecule which is a product of the lipid
peroxidation and has been studied as an indicator of
oxidative stress. Serum MDA levels in CKD cases
was found to be significantly higher as compared to
healthy controls (p<0.001) (Table1). This finding is
in agreement with studies by Oberg et al [15], who also
reported increase in oxidative stress in CKD patients.
Increased generation of MDA as well as its decreased
renal clearance due to compromised renal function
leads to increased concentration of lipid peroxidation
products in circulation in renal failure patients.
The mechanisms of oxidative stress in uremia
involves activation of reduced nicotinamide adenine
dinucleotide (NAD(P)H) oxidase, xanthine oxidase,
myeloperoxidase (MPO), mitochondrial oxidases and
uncoupling of endothelial nitric oxide synthase
(eNOS) [16]. Furthermore, in CKD there is activation
of the renin angiotensin aldosterone axis which leads
to the stimulation of NADPH oxidase by angiotensin
II [17]. NADPH oxidase is the most important source
of reactive oxygen species in the systemic as well as
renal vasculature. Angiotensin II activates
NADH/NADPH oxidase and protein kinase C activity
in vascular cells thereby increasing superoxide ion
production and decline in nitric oxide (NO)
availability which can lead to endothelial dysfunction
in CKD. The reactive oxygen species along with
inflammation can cause increase in cardiovascular
risk and further deterioration of renal function. The
production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which
can occur at constitutive levels in nonphagocytic cells
(e.g., glomerular cells and tubular epithelial cells) for
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physiological purposes gets deranged and can lead to

loss of redox homeostasis and oxidative stress which
can contribute to proinflammatory and profibrotic
pathways in the kidney. Peroxidation of lipids brings
about changes in the molecular structure of the lipids
and these changes becomes more marked when the
damaged lipids are the constituents of the biological
membrane disrupting the cohesive lipid layer
arrangement and structural organization. The lipid
peroxides in general, enhances prostaglandin
synthesis which is another source of free radical and
associated decrease in NO production are well known
risk factor for atherosclerotic complication.
Formation of ROS is evident in many areas of the
kidney, predominantly in the renal cortices, sparing
the medulla which is susceptible to hypoxia and less
ROS production under physiologic conditions. The
substantial generation of ROS is all the more
damaging because CKD patients have a weaker
antioxidant system which also can be attributed to
intake of diet low in antioxidant nutrients. The
disturbances in cellular oxidant and pro-oxidant status
can cause detrimental effect by altering cellular
signaling process and perpetuating renal cell
apoptosis and senescence [16]. Due to increased
production of reactive oxidants there is predisposition
to enhancement in the peroxidation of lipids and
lipoproteins. In the study, a graded increase in serum
MDA levels are observed with the progression of
renal failure. A significant negative correlation
between serum MDA levels and eGFR is found in the
CKD cases (p<0.001) (table 3).
Serum
malondialdehyde (MDA) a three carbon compound
reflects both autoxidation and oxygen mediated
peroxidation of poly unsaturated fatty acids in
particular. It reflects the oxidative status of the
biological system. MDA causes damage to low
density lipoproteins (LDL) which in turn can be taken
up by macrophages via scavenger receptors and form
foam cells. Due to increased production of ROS and
increased oxidative stress, lipid peroxidation products
are found to be elevated in chronic kidney disease
cases. Oxidative stress promotes vascular smooth
muscle cell proliferation, hypertrophy and collagen
deposition, leading to thickening of the vascular
media and narrowing of the vascular lumen.
Increased oxidative stress, can initiate further damage
to the endothelium thereby causing impairment of
endothelium-dependent vascular relaxation and
increases vascular contractile activity.

The augmented oxidative stress in CKD leads to a net

deficiency of NO. Nitric oxide production and/or
bioavailability in the vascular endothelial cells
involves normal functioning of endothelial nitricoxide synthase (eNOS), and optimal concentrations
of the substrate L-arginine and the cofactor 5,6,7,8tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4). The physiological actions
of NO include the regulation of vascular tone and
blood pressure, prevention of platelet aggregation and
inhibition of vascular smooth muscle proliferation.
NO can inhibit the activation of xanthine oxidase and
NADPH oxidase. Under pathological conditions
such as CKD there is uncoupling of endothelial NO
synthase enzyme wherein, electrons are transferred
to molecular oxygen instead of L-arginine to produce
superoxide rather than NO and also inactivation of
nitric oxide that is already available by the increased
oxygen free radicals [ 18]. These oxygen free radicals
additionally work on LDL cholesterol molecules
leading to their oxidation. Oxidized LDL attack the
arterial intima and triggers an inflammatory response
in the vessel wall.
The causes for inflammation in CKD are
multifactorial. Several markers are studied as
inflammatory markers in CKD. These markers can be
used to predict future risk of CVD in CKD patients.
In the study C reactive protein level, a marker of
inflammation in stage III, IV and V of CKD and
healthy controls was estimated. hsCRP is an acute
phase reactant, produced chiefly in the hepatocytes
and its synthesis is transcriptionally driven by
interleukin 6 with synergistic enhancement by
interleukin 1. CRP is released in response to
inflammation produced by numerous external and/or
internal stimuli and increases dramatically after
severe trauma, bacterial infection, inflammation,
surgery or neoplastic proliferation. It is found to bind
to the fc 1 and 2 receptors on the surface of
phagocytic cells and helps in the clearance of the
apoptotic and necrotic cells behaving as an opsonin.
In an apparently normal individual with no other
signs of infection, inflammation or trauma, the basal
levels of CRP are detected by a more sensitive assay,
as high sensitivity CRP (hsCRP). Serum hsCRP is a
well studied marker in inflammation and has
advantage for the detection and predictor of
inflammation. The mean hsCRP level in CKD cases
obtained in the study was 11.8 7.24 mg/L which is
comparable to earlier studies by G Abraham et al

[19]

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The hsCRP levels have increased by almost up to five

times in nephropathy patients as compared to
controls, but did not show any significant correlation
with age of the patients studied. Underlying etiology
of CKD, such as diabetes or hypertension is by itself
a major contributory factor to the existing
inflammation. Payson et.al [ 15] have reported on the
renal related causes of inflammation in CKD such as
retention of uremic toxins, sympathetic over activity
and fluid overload. hsCRP has been well studied as a
biomarker indicating increased cardiovascular risk,
wherein levels >3mg/L indicate high risk and levels
<1mg/L indicate low cardiovascular risk [20]. Raised
levels of serum hsCRP between 1-3 mg/L is an
indicator of chronic low level inflammation probably
arising out of the endothelial dysfunction ,
predisposing to the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis.
High concentration of the protein CRP and its mRNA
has been noted in the plaque, as compared to its
concentration in the plasma, which could well
contribute to the proinflammatory and proatherogenic
effects of the protein. Devaraj et al [ 21] have outlined
the active role of CRP in the pathogenesis of
atherosclerosis wherein they have demonstrated that
CRP can also be synthesized by macrophages,
smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells, by noting
the presence of both protein as well as its mRNA in
the atherosclerotic plaque. CRP can no longer be
considered an innocent bystander or biomarker of
cardiovascular risk, but is an actively proatherogenic
molecule which induces cell adhesion molecules,
plasminogen activator inhibitor-1, complement
activation and attenuates nitric oxide production. This
leads to a state of endothelial dysfunction which is a
well known precursor of cardiovascular morbidity
[21]
. Inflammation, oxidative stress and endothelial
dysfunction represent a key triad for the development
and progression of atherosclerosis.
The study showed a significant graded increase
(p<0.001) in the levels of hsCRP in stages III, IV and
V CKD. hsCRP levels have more than doubled and
tripled in stage IV and V CKD as compared to stage
III underlining the highly significant correlation
(p<0.001) between hsCRP and eGFR. hsCRP can
also predispose to inflammation through binding with
lipoprotein and activation of the complement system
[22]
. The rising inflammation may lead to deteriorating
renal function which in turn could lead to further
increase in inflammation setting up a vicious cycle.
hsCRP has been reported to induce adhesion

molecule expression in human endothelial cells

favoring the involvement of hsCRP in the
atherosclerotic process.
The present study shows a significant positive
correlation between oxidative stress marker MDA
and hsCRP, a marker of inflammation in CKD.
Nguyen et al [23], have also found similar results.
Nuclear factor kappa B is a redox sensitive
transcription factor that leads to induction of genes of
various proinflammatory cytokines and adhesion
molecules, links oxidative stress with inflammation.
Inflammation and ROS together lead to increased
propensity for atherogenesis in CKD as reviewed by
Cachofeiro et al [24]. hsCRP has been shown both as
marker and mediator of atherosclerosis. Patients with
CKD have increased mortality which cannot be
explained by traditional risk factors like diabetes
mellitus, hypertension and others but by
nontraditional factors like inflammation, malnutrition
and predisposition to infection which can culminate
in increased cardiovascular risk in these cases. hsCRP
can also be considered as a potent independent
predictor of cardiovascular mortality as well as
malnutrition. Inflammation per se can contribute to
increased cardiovascular risk but there can be
increased
predisposition
to
cardiovascular
complication in CKD cases due to the inflammatory
response.
CONCLUSION
Inflammation and oxidative stress in chronic kidney
disease sets in much before dialysis, and furthermore
the hsCRP and MDA levels rise significantly with the
fall in eGFR. In CKD patients inflammation and
production of reactive oxygen species are linked in a
vicious cycle which in turn can cause damage to both
the glomerular filtration membrane as well as
vascular endothelium, worsening the progressive loss
of nephrons as well as triggering atherosclerosis in
this population. Better insight into the role of the
nontraditional cardiovascular risk factors in various
stages of CKD is warranted. Levels of these markers
can be used not only for risk stratification but also for
management wherein levels can be monitored pre and
post therapeutic interventions. Prospective studies
involving serial measurements of these biomarkers
and cardiovascular outcomes in chronic kidney
disease would be more valuable in better patient care.
Conflict of Interest: Nil
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