Finite Strain Consolidation

Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Murray Fredlund
June 7, 1995

Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

Table of Contents
1. INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 4
2. THEORY........................................................................................................... 5
2.1 Coordinate Systems ......................................................................................................... ....................5
2.2 The Dependent Variable .....................................................................................................................6
2.2.1 Classical Consolidation Equation ......................................................................................... ..........6
2.2.2 Derivation of Davis & Raymond Consolidation Equation............................................................10
2.2.3 Derivation of Gibsons Consolidation Equation ...........................................................................1 3
2.2.4 Derivation of Finite Strain Consolidation Equation......................................................................14
2.3 Solution Methodology....................................................................................................... .................17
2.4 Prediction Scenarios...................................................................................................... ...................18
2.5 Discussion of Results...................................................................................................... ....................21
2.5.1 Scenario A ............................................................................................................... .....................23
2.5.2 Scenario C............................................................................................................... ......................25
2.5.3 Scenario D ............................................................................................................... .....................28
2.6 Conclusion ................................................................................................................. .........................30
References

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Table of Figures
Figure 1 - Lagrangean and convective coordinates (Gibson) ____________________________________5
Figure 2 - Comparison of Terzaghi and Davis & Raymond consolidation solution (Lee, p. 150) ________11
Figure 3 - Variation of cv with changing k and mv (Lee, p. 137) _________________________________13
Figure 4 - Stress/Volume change relationship used in model ___________________________________22
Figure 5 - Permeability function used for model _____________________________________________23
Figure 6 - Comparison of height of consolidation layer to other predictors ________________________24
Figure 7 - One-year profile of void ratio among predictors ____________________________________24
Figure 8 - One year profile of excess pore-water pressure among predictors _______________________25
Figure 9 - Correlation of height of consolidation layer among predictors for Scenario C _____________26
Figure 10 - One-year void ratio prediction for Scenario C _____________________________________27
Figure 11 - One-year profile of pore-water pressure for Scenario C _____________________________27
Figure 12 - Comparison of height estimations among predictors ________________________________28
Figure 13 - One-year profile of void ratio for Scenario D ______________________________________29
Figure 14 - One-year profile of excess pore-water pressure for Scenario D ________________________29

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

1. Introduction
Terzaghis theory, although widely used, is based on assumptions that are rarely met in
practice. The most significant of these assumptions is that the strains are small in the
porous media in which consolidation takes place. Often there will be significant strains in
the media and therefore new theory must be developed. It has been shown that the
compressibility for a saturated soil is a non-linear function of the effective stress state of
the soil. This must be accounted for in the theory if the solution is to be correct.
Terzaghis theory also assumes that the permeability of the soil remains constant during
the consolidation process. When large strains take place, the soil pores are squeezed and
there is a resulting decrease in the void ratio of the soil. A smaller void ratio means that
water has less room to flow and there is a resulting decrease in the permeability of the
soil.
There have been attempts made to extend Terzaghis theory of consolidation to take
account of large strains (Richart, 1957; Lo, 1960; Davis & Raymond, 1965; Janbu, 1965;
Barden and Berry, 1965). These theories are still based on essentially small strain theory
and therefore have limitations.
It was the desire of the author to develop the theory of large strain consolidation and solve
the theory using a finite difference technique. Once the finite difference model was
working sufficiently, results would be compared to existing consolidation computer
models to verify accuracy.
A paper by F.C. Townsend on Large Strain Consolidation Predictions provided a
comparison of the most common computer programs used in the prediction of
consolidation rates. These currently available consolidation programs have been used
extensively by the Florida phosphate mining industries for compliance with regulatory
activities. The paper by F.C. Townsend was written to provide a forum by which the
different prediction methods might be compared.
In comparison of the different models, it was found by F.C. Townsend that predictions
varied from program to program. This difference was attributed to differences in the
coordinate system used (Eularian vs. Lagrangian), the dependent variable selected (void
ratio vs. pore-water pressure), the finite difference solution technique employed, (implicit
vs. explicit), or the solution methodology used (finite difference vs. finite element). It was
the purpose of F.C. Townsend to provide a standard of comparison for these programs
and gain understanding of their advantages and limitations. This also provided a basis for
comparison to the finite difference consolidation model developed by the author.
In addition to comparison to other finite strain models, comparison will also be made to
Terzaghis standard consolidation equation. The progress at which consolidation
settlement occurs as well as the rate pore-water pressures dissipate will be examined.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

2. Theory
Differences in solutions between computer programs can be traced back to the theory that
the solutions are based on. Theoretical differences in solutions can be categorized into
three areas: differences in coordinate system used, in the dependent variable solved for,
and in the solution methodology.

2.1 Coordinate Systems

The most commonly used coordinate system in geotechnical engineering is the Eularian
system where material deformations are related to planes fixed in space. This fixed plane
is commonly referred to as a datum. Distances are then measured relative to this datum.
Properties of the Representative Elementary Volume (REV) are referenced to a specific
distance from the datum. Terzaghis consolidation theory which is based on this type of
system then assumes that both the size and position of the element remain the same over
time. Any deformations that do take place in the soil element are assumed to be small in
comparison to the size of the element. This can be visualized by thinking of a piezometer
installed a fixed distance from a datum. Using infinitesimal strain, it is assumed that the
distance from the datum to the piezometer will always remain the same.

Figure 1 - Lagrangean and convective coordinates (Gibson)

With finite strain consolidation, the deformations are large compared to the thickness of
the compressible layer. This means that properties referenced to a certain y-coordinate
may suddenly be outside the element they refer to if deformations are large enough. A
system must be found that deforms with the material particles. This would mean in the
above example that the piezometer is always surrounded by the same material. Such a
coordinate system can be either a convective system or a lagrangean coordinate system as
shown in Figure 1. When the soil element deforms, the location and size of the soil
element changes and this is reflected by the changing coordinates. Changes with time can
be related to the either the convective system ( ,t) or to the lagrangian system (a,t).

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

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2.2 The Dependent Variable

Solution methods can also vary by the dependent variable in the governing equation.
Typical dependent variables include pore-water total head, pore-water pressure, effective
stress, and void ratio. Terzaghis consolidation equation used pore-water pressure as the
dependent variable. With pore-water pressure as the dependent variable, boundary
conditions were easily specified. No flow and constant pressure boundary conditions can
both be specified with ease. The primary drawback of using pressure or head as a
dominant variable seems to be that in finite strain formulations the resulting equation is
highly non-linear. This results in difficulties in finding a solution method to handle the
non-linear nature of the equation. Davis & Raymond were the first two people to develop
a consolidation equation taking into account variations of permeability and
compressibility of the soil. This equation was based on effective stress and it was found
that pore-water pressure dissipation occurred at a slower rate than Terzaghis equation
predicted when deformation of the soil was taken into account. Work was later done by
Robert E. Gibson of Kings College in UK on consolidation and an equation was
developed that used void ratio as the dependent variable. Using void ratio seemed to
result in an equation that was easier to solve and thus resulted in the popularity of
Gibsons equation.
Due to reasonable difference in the different equations describing finite strain
consolidation, the following sections will contain derivations of the equations to illustrate
in detail the differences between the classical derivations and the finite strain
consolidation derivation presented in this paper.
2.2.1 Classical Consolidation Equation
The most common consolidation equation that takes into account the non-linear soil
properties of permeability and compressibility is presented below. Terzaghis classic
consolidation equation can be simplified out of this derivation.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

REV
Qout

dy
dx

dz
Qin

Assuming adherence to Darcys Law

dh
q = k
dy
Continuity dictates that
M
= Q in Q out
t

where: M = mass (kg)

t = time (s)
Qin = mass flow in (kg/s)
Qout = mass flow out (kg/s)

but

M = w . Vw

where: w = density of water (kg/m3)

Vw = volume of water (m3)

and

Qin = w qy dx dz

where: qx = flow of water per unit area

(m3/s/m2)

also

Qout

= Qin + Q
= w . q y . dx. dz +

( w . q y . dx. dz). dy
y

now substitute into the continuity equation

( w Vw )

= w . q y . dx. dz w . q y . dx. dz + ( w . q y . dx. dz)dy

t
y

this reduces to
( w Vw )

=
w . q y . dx. dz dy
t
y

but

dy . dz . dx = Vt

where: Vt = total volume (m3)

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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so with densities canceling we have

Vw

Vt

q y

( 2.1)

Now according to Darcys Law

dh
q y = k y
dy

where: ky = permeability (m/s)

u
+ z (m)
w g
u = pore-water pressure (kPa)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
z = elevation (m)
h = head =

Substituting into ( 2.1)

V
w V

h
t
=
ky
t
y y
but since k varies with depth k = fn(x) or k(x)
so by the chain rule

Vw

Vt

k ( y) h
2 h
+ k ( y) 2
y y
y

( 2.2)

Now a change in volume means a change in the storage of the REV and we must find a
way to represent this
V
where: v = volumetric strain (m3/m3)
v =
Vt
-m v =

so

v
'

V
Vt

-m v =
'

but

= t - uw

so

= -uw

where: mv = coefficient of volume change

(m3/kN)
assume all change in volume is due to water
loss (this is the case for saturated soils)
and we assume that total stress does not
change

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

so

Page 9

w V
t
mv =
u w
V
w V = m v u w

and

Murray Fredlund

u = ( h y ) w g
u = h w g y w g

Now differentiate with respect to time

V
w V

u
t
= mv w
t
t
Since the rest of the equation is in total head, the pore-water pressure term will be
converted
h u 1
y
=
+
t
t w t
And if infinitesimal strain is assumed, then the term y/t = 0 so

Vw

Vt

= w m v ( y).

h
t

Substituting into ( 2.2) we get

w m v ( y).

h k ( y) h
2 h
=
+ k ( y) 2
t
y y
y

k ( y) h
1
h
2 h
=
+ k ( y) 2
t w m v ( y) y y
y

( 2.3)

This can also be illustrated in terms of pore-water pressure by differentiating the

following expression:
u
+y
w
h u 1
=
+1
y y w

h=

also

h u 1 y
=
+
t t w t

2h 2 u 1
=
y 2 y 2 w
If we assume that y/t=0 then we have
h u 1
=
t
t w

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

And substituting these equations into equation ( 2.3) we have

k ( y ) u w
1
u w
k
2 u w
k
(
y
)
=
+

+
w
t
w m v ( y ) y y
y
y 2
If permeability does not change with depth then k/y = 0
u w
k ( y) 2 u w
so
=
t
w m v ( y) y 2
Then if k and mv do not vary with depth and we set c v =

k
then we have Terzaghis
mv w

standard consolidation equation

u w
2 u w
= cv
t
y 2

( 2.4)

Equation ( 2.4) has been used extensively to predict the dissipation of pore-water
pressures in soil beneath an applied load. As can be seen from the derivation, a number of
assumptions have been made in this derivation. To randomly apply equation ( 2.4) to all
pore-water pressure problems would be a gross error. In fact, most of the assumptions
made in the derivation of this final equation contradict the field conditions present.
Permeability typically varies with void ratio. The coefficient of compressibility mv varies
with regards to effective stress which changes very dynamically with current pore-water
pressures. If mass flows are important, then the equation used must include total head or
else the solution will be wrong. Therefore equation ( 2.4) is often the better solution to
consolidation problems encountered in the field.

2.2.2 Derivation of Davis & Raymond Consolidation Equation

In the Davis & Raymond equation, effective stress is used as the dominant variable. It
was found that the dissipation of pore-water pressures was slower using the Davis &
Raymond equation than Terzaghis formulation. It was also shown that the degree of
settlement is identical with the Terzaghi one-dimensional theory but the amount of
maximum pore-water pressure dissipation depends on the loading increment ratio. This is
shown in Figure 2.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

Figure 2 - Comparison of Terzaghi and Davis & Raymond consolidation solution (Lee, p. 150)

The following derivation shows the mathematical techniques and assumptions used in
arriving at their solution.
The three most common way of describing how a soil deforms are as follows:

V
V

e
Cc
av

mv

log

This leads to the following equations describing saturated volume change

e
a v =
'

e
Cc =
'
log 2
'1
By combining these equations we get

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

mv =

V
'

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

mv =

set

A=

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Murray Fredlund

Cc
1
(0.434)
1 + eo
'

Cc
(0.434)
1 + eo

mv =

so

A
'

Now derive according to continuity and net velocity

net velocity =

v
dy
y

v = k

k u
h
=
w y
y

but now also

Cv =
so

k
= cons tan t ( assume)
mv w

k = Cv mv w
v
k u
dy =

dy
y
y w y
v
C m u
dy = v v w
dy
y
y w
y
v
1 u
dy = C v A
dy
y
y ' y

Now differentiate the expression using the product rule

1 2 u 1 2 u '
v
dy = C v A

dy
2
' y y
y
' y
Now introduce strain in an element
A '
=
t ' t
And now this is related to the equation describing change in velocity

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

dy =
dy
y
y
1 2 u 1 2 u ' A '
C v A

=
2
' y y ' t
' y
1 2 u 1 2 u '
'
= C v '

2
' y y
t
' y
The above equation ends up being a slightly non-linear equation describing the
consolidation process. The results predicted from this equation were reasonably close to
the Terzaghi formulation for the reason that the coefficient of consolidation was found to
remain reasonably constant with varying stress levels. As the effective stress increased, an
increase in the confined modulus was balanced by a decrease in the coefficient of
permeability resulting in a reasonably constant coefficient of consolidation. This is shown
in Figure 3. While including the nonlinear properties of permeability and compressibility,
this formulation still assumes infinitesimal strains.

Figure 3 - Variation of cv with changing k and mv (Lee, p. 137)

2.2.3 Derivation of Gibsons Consolidation Equation

The following derivation is taken from The Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation
of Saturated Clays by Robert E. Gibson. Assuming the density of pore fluid and solids
are both constant, vertical equilibrium requires that

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

(e f + s ) = 0
z
Note: the sign is positive if measured with gravity and negative if measured against
gravity.
In addition, the equilibrium of the pore-fluid requires that
p u

f
=0
z z
z
where p is the pore water pressure, and u is the excess pore water pressure. is a
Lagrangean coordinate describing the height of the soil element. If
e( v f v s ) e
+
=0
z 1 + e t
then continuity of pore fluid flow is ensured, where vf and vs are the velocities of the fluid
and solid phases relative to the datum plane.
Finally, Darcys law requires that
e( v f v s )
1 p
(1 + e) +
=0
k
f z
where p is the pore water pressure and k is the coefficient of permeability.
If the soil skeleton is homogeneous and possesses no creep effects and the consolidation
is monotonic, then the permeability k may be expected to depend on the void ratio alone,
so that
k = k(e)
while the vertical effective stress
= - p
controls the void ratio, so that
= (e)
Equations are then combined to yield the following equation for the void ratio:

k (e) e k (e) ' e e

s 1
+
=0
+
f
e 1 + e z z f (1 + e) e z t
which appears to be highly nonlinear. This equation can be rendered linear, while
retaining the non-linearity of the permeability and the compressibility, by examining the
relationship between soil properties. It can also be shown that the above equation can be
simplified back to the conventional, linear, infinitesimal strain equation (Terzaghi, 1924)
and a non-linear version which also assumes infinitesimal strains (Davis & Raymond
1965; Raymond 1969)
2.2.4 Derivation of Finite Strain Consolidation Equation

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

The following derivation was obtained by attempting to correct certain deficiencies in

other infinitesimal strain formulations. Although not as complete a formulation as
Gibsons large strain equation, it was attempted to formulate and solve a modified
equation and compare results to standard data. For comparison purposes, the complete
derivation of the modified consolidation equation is presented below.

REV
Qout

dy
dx

dz
Qin

Assuming adherence to Darcys Law

dh
q = k
dy
Continuity dictates that
M
= Q in Q out
t

where: M = mass (kg)

t = time (s)
Qin = mass flow in (kg/s)
Qout = mass flow out (kg/s)

but

M = w . Vw

where: w = density of water (kg/m3)

Vw = volume of water (m3)

and

Qin = w qy dx dz

where: qx = flow of water per unit area

(m3/s/m2)

also

Qout

= Qin + Q
= w . q y . dx. dz +

( w . q y . dx. dz). dy
y

now substitute into the continuity equation

( w Vw )

= w . q y . dx. dz w . q y . dx. dz + ( w . q y . dx. dz)dy

t
y

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

this reduces to
( w Vw )

=
w . q y . dx. dz dy
t
y

but

where: Vt = total volume (m3)

dy . dz . dx = Vt

so with densities canceling we have

V
w V
q y

t
=
t
y

( 2.5)

Now according to Darcys Law

dh
q y = k y
dy

where: ky = permeability (m/s)

u
+ z (m)
w g
u = pore-water pressure (kPa)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
z = elevation (m)
h = head =

Substituting into ( 2.5)

V
w V

h
t
=
ky
t
y y

V
V

e
av

mv

This leads to the following equations describing saturated volume change

e
a v =
'

mv =

V
'

Now differentiate with respect to time so

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Vw
t

Vt

= mv

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Murray Fredlund

'
t

When the two equations relating volume change are combined we have
mv

' h
=
k
t
y y

The following substitutions are then made in place of effective stress

' u
=

t
t t
u
h
y
= w
w
t
t
t
'
h
y
=
w
+w
t
t
t
t
This then leads to the equation presented below:
1 y
1
h
h
=
+
+
k
t w t t m v w y y
A drawback to this equation is that there are three dependent variables to solve for. This
renders the problem highly non-linear and also reduces the number of numerical methods
available to obtain a solution to this equation. Its performance related to other finite
strain formulations can be seen in the following sections.

2.3 Solution Methodology

Due to time restraints, a quick solution to the equation was necessary. Therefore a finite
difference solution to the equation was developed. A model was built on Microsofts
EXCEL 5.0 spreadsheet program which allowed a solution to the consolidation equation
to be found. The results from this program were then compared to standard finite strain
models which used finite element or finite difference as their solution methods. An
iterative procedure was used to solve for the change in total stress and the change in
height. This is because both variables are unknown at the start of a timestep. These
variables were set to zero and then a change in head was then estimated. Once a change in
head was calculated, a corresponding change in height and change in total stress could be
calculated. These two variables were then substituted back into the start of the equation
and the process was repeated until the two variables converged. This solution method
allowed convergence of the equation and therefore the model could be tested against
standard solutions.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

It should be noted, however, that this equation does not lend itself to an easy solution
methodology and so it is the authors recommendation that a better formulation be
developed.

2.4 Prediction Scenarios

Prediction scenarios were taken from F.C. Townsends Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions paper. A total of four scenarios were presented in the paper but only three
were used for comparison purposes. The reason for this was that one scenario required the
model to simulate a boundary changing in elevation with time and it was not the
capability of the model developed to perform this type of analysis. The three scenarios
that were used for comparison purposes are presented below. Scenarios A, C, and D
were used in the comparison process.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

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2.5 Discussion of Results

The greatest difficulty in the modelling of the three scenarios was convergence problems
and numerical instability encountered in the developed finite difference model. For the
consolidation equation presented it was unknown how large a timestep should be used
and what number of nodes were required to produce sufficiently accurate results. This had
to be determined by a trial and error approach. The EXCEL model was modified so that
the amount of change of key properties in the equation (pore-water pressure, void ratio,
unit weight, and height) could be strictly monitored. The time increment allowed was also
regulated so that if the model was having difficulty converging, the time step would
automatically be reduced until a suitable time step could be found. In the finite difference
solution to Terzaghis consolidation equation, a variable named Beta is introduced that
must be limited to be less than 1/2 for the calculated time increment to be accurate. Beta
c t
in the original equation is equal to v 2 and in the new equation Beta was set to
y
t (1 + e o )
. It was guessed that this would be the controlling influence on the finite
wav
difference equation but during model testing this assumption was found to be untrue. The
Beta variable could still be used to control time increments but could not guarantee an

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Murray Fredlund

accurate solution. To estimate whether a timestep was accurate, tolerance levels were put
in place for the maximum amount of change allowed to the key variables mentioned
above. Timesteps were reduced to allow convergence within these tolerance limits.
A second problem encountered with convergence was the steep function input describing
the relationship between void ratio and effective stress. Since a forward difference
technique was used to estimate volume change, errors were great if the amount of change
was not minimized. This is illustrated in Figure 4 showing the relationship between void
ratio and effective stress that was used in the predictions.

Plot of Equation
25

Void Ratio, e

20

15

Calculated
Predicted from slope
Node Point

10

0
0

0.5

1.5

Effective Stress (kPa)

Figure 4 - Stress/Volume change relationship used in model

The relationship between permeability and void ratio created numerical instability in
certain situations. This is illustrated in Figure 5 where a graph of the permeability for
different void ratios can be seen. When a zero pressure boundary was introduced, this had
the effect of immediately compressing the boundary element. Void ratio decreased and
the permeability decreased by several orders of magnitude. This had the effect of trapping
water inside the consolidation layer. It was found, however, that this problem could be
overcome by increasing the number of nodes used in the analysis. The smaller element
size then reduced the effect of this problem.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Finite Strain Consolidation

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Murray Fredlund

Permeability Function used for Input to Model

1.00E-05

Permeability (m/s)

1.00E-06

1.00E-07

1.00E-08

1.00E-09

1.00E-10

1.00E-11
0.00

2.00

4.00

6.00

8.00

10.00

12.00

14.00

16.00

Void Ratio, e

Figure 5 - Permeability function used for model

2.5.1 Scenario A
The finite difference model developed on EXCEL (the model is hereafter called
Squeezer) matched this scenario almost exactly with a minimum number of nodes.
Only 20 nodes were used in the analysis and run times to a one-year solution were
approximately 15 minutes. The results of Squeezer alongside data gathered from other
prediction models by F.C. Townsend can be seen in the following figures.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

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Scenario A - Height vs. Time

35

30

Height (ft)

25

20
Standard Models
Squeezer
15
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"
10

0
1

10

100

1000

10000

Time (days)

Figure 6 - Comparison of height of consolidation layer to other predictors

Scenario A - Void Ratio vs. Height

30
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"
25

Height (ft)

20

Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.

University of Florida
Squeezer

15

10

0
0

10

12

14

16

Void Ratio, e

Figure 7 - One-year profile of void ratio among predictors

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 25

Murray Fredlund

Scenario A - Pore Water Pressures vs. Height

25
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"
20

Height (ft)

15
University of Florida
Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.
Squeezer
10

0
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

Excess Pore Water Pressure (psf)

Figure 8 - One year profile of excess pore-water pressure among predictors

The slight disagreement between programs can be attributed to differing numerical

techniques used by the predictors to obtain solutions. Overall the Squeezer model
provided close correlation to industry standard programs.
2.5.2 Scenario C
The correlation between Squeezer and standard models was not as favorable for Scenario
C. The difference seemed to be centered on the height prediction of the consolidation
layer. The results from Squeezer and other predictors can be seen in Figure 9 .

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 26

Murray Fredlund

Scenario A - Height vs. Time

25.00

20.00

15.00
Height (ft)

Squeezer
Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.
University of Connecticut
10.00

Example data was obtained from F.C.

Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"

5.00

0.00
0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

1000.0

10000.0

Time (days)

Figure 9 - Correlation of height of consolidation layer among predictors for Scenario C

Compression of the consolidation layer seemed to occur too quickly. From closer
examination of the Squeezer model, this appears to be due to the forward difference
prediction of volume change used by the model. the steepness of the void ratio vs.
effective stress function caused the height to consistently be underpredicted. This is
illustrated in Figure 9. The author lacked sufficient time to correct this problem but the
problem may be minimized by using extremely small time steps.
The zero pressure upper boundary was a source of numerical instability for Scenario C.
This caused a reduced permeability along the upper boundary and had the effect of
trapping water in the soil as was previously described. To overcome this, the number of
nodes used was increased from 20 to 200. This then yielded a reasonable solution at the
expense of solution time. To achieve a one-year solution with 200 nodes consumed 3
days of computer time on a 486-66 computer. The long solution times as well as the
uncertainty of the error cause the usefulness of the finite difference method to be closely
examined. A faster solution method such as finite element would be recommended.
Notwithstanding the height predictions, the void ratio and pore-water pressure profiles
were reasonable as shown in the following figures. Inaccuracy can be attributed to
numerical problems of height prediction.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 27

Murray Fredlund

Scenario A - Void Ratio vs. Height

20

18

16

14
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"

Height (ft)

12

Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.

University of Connecticut
Squeezer

10

0
0

10

12

Void Ratio, e

Figure 10 - One-year void ratio prediction for Scenario C

Scenario A - Pore Water Pressures vs. Height

20

18

Example data was obtained from F.C.

Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"

16

14

Height (ft)

12
Ardaman & Assoc.
University of Connecticut
Squeezer
Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.

10

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

400

450

Excess Pore Water Pressure (psf)

Figure 11 - One-year profile of pore-water pressure for Scenario C

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 28

Murray Fredlund

2.5.3 Scenario D
The difference between standard predictors and the model Squeezer was significant for
Scenario D. It is estimated that boundary effects between the differing soil layers are
responsible for most inaccuracies. Increasing the number of nodes used in the analysis
might possibly give better results. Since the solution presented used 200 nodes, it is
suggested that 500 nodes may be needed for an accurate solution. Sufficient time to
confirm this estimate was not available. The comparison of results to standard predictors
are shown in the following figures.
Scenario D - Height vs. Time

30.00

25.00

Height (ft)

20.00

Squeezer
Standard Models

15.00
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"
10.00

5.00

0.00
0.1

1.0

10.0

100.0

1000.0

10000.0

Time (days)

Figure 12 - Comparison of height estimations among predictors

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 29

Murray Fredlund

Scenario D - Void Ratio vs. Height

25

20

Example data was obtained from F.C.

Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"

Height (ft)

15

McGill
Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.
Squeezer

10

0
0

10

12

14

16

Void Ratio, e

Figure 13 - One-year profile of void ratio for Scenario D

Scenario D - Pore Water Pressures vs. Height

25
Example data was obtained from F.C.
Townsend's "Large Strain Consolidation
Predictions"
20

15
Height (ft)

Bromwell & Carrier, Inc.

Squeezer
McGill
TAGA
10

0
0

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Excess Pore Water Pressure (psf)

Figure 14 - One-year profile of excess pore-water pressure for Scenario D

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 30

Murray Fredlund

2.6 Conclusion
While allowing for reasonable solution to simple problems, it is the estimation of the
author that a better formulation to the consolidation problem be found. The existing
formulation created significant convergence problems and extremely long run-times to
provide reasonable solutions. Formulations that may be adapted to the finite element
method of numerical solutions are recommended. While adequate for the solution of
simple partial differential equations, the solution of complex partial differential equations
by the finite difference method becomes time consuming.
Solutions of surcharge boundary loading conditions were quite sensitive to the number of
layers used in the analysis yet an accurate way of determining the number of layers
needed was not found. It is the authors recommendation that further research be done in
this field.

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour

Finite Strain Consolidation

Page 31

Murray Fredlund

References
Lee, I.K., Soil Mechanics Selected Topics, (New York, American Elsevier Publishing
Company, Inc., 1968)
Cargill, Kenneth W., Prediction of Consolidation of Very Soft Soil, (Journal of
Geotechnical Engineering, Vol. 110, No. 6, June 1984)
Gibson, R.E., The Progress of Consolidation in a Clay Layer Increasing in Thickness
With Time, (Geotechnique, 1958)
Gibson, R.E., The Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation of Saturated Clays,
(Geotechnique, 17:261-273, 1967)
Gibson, R.E., The Theory of One-Dimensional Consolidation of Saturated Clays. II.
Finite nonlinear consolidation of thick homogeneous layers, (Canadian
Geotechnical Journal, 18, 280-293, 1981)
Townsend, F.C., SOA: Large Strain Consolidation Predictions, (Journal of Geotechnical
Engineering, Vol. 116, No. 2, February, 1990)

C.E. 898 Numerical Methods in Geotechnical Engineering

Instructor: S. L. Barbour