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    Advanced Thermodynamics: Prof. P.L.Dhar I.I.T.Delhi

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    Sumiran Manghani
    Thermodynamics deals with quantitative measurements of macroscopic systems. An isolated system in equilibrium undergoes no spontaneous changes. Interactions between systems lead to interdependence defined by conditions like conservation of energy or entropy. The state of a system is described by intrinsic properties, and the relationship between properties is an equation of state. Generalized coordinates are a set of orthogonal variables that define the state. A generalized force is the cause behind interactions and can be identified and quantified based on the direction of changes in generalized coordinates during interactions. Equilibrium occurs when generalized forces are equal.

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    Advanced Thermodynamics: Prof. P.L.Dhar I.I.T.Delhi

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    Sumiran Manghani
    91 views15 pages
    Thermodynamics deals with quantitative measurements of macroscopic systems. An isolated system in equilibrium undergoes no spontaneous changes. Interactions between systems lead to interdependence defined by conditions like conservation of energy or entropy. The state of a system is described by intrinsic properties, and the relationship between properties is an equation of state. Generalized coordinates are a set of orthogonal variables that define the state. A generalized force is the cause behind interactions and can be identified and quantified based on the direction of changes in generalized coordinates during interactions. Equilibrium occurs when generalized forces are equal.

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    Thermodynamics deals with quantitative measurements of macroscopic systems. An isolated system in equilibrium undergoes no spontaneous changes. Interactions between systems lead to interdependence defined by conditions like conservation of energy or entropy. The state of a system is described by intrinsic properties, and the relationship between properties is an equation of state. Generalized coordinates are a set of orthogonal variables that define the state. A generalized force is the cause behind interactions and can be identified and quantified based on the direction of changes in generalized coordinates during interactions. Equilibrium occurs when generalized forces are equal.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as pdf or txt
    91 views15 pages

    Advanced Thermodynamics: Prof. P.L.Dhar I.I.T.Delhi

    Uploaded by

    Sumiran Manghani
    Thermodynamics deals with quantitative measurements of macroscopic systems. An isolated system in equilibrium undergoes no spontaneous changes. Interactions between systems lead to interdependence defined by conditions like conservation of energy or entropy. The state of a system is described by intrinsic properties, and the relationship between properties is an equation of state. Generalized coordinates are a set of orthogonal variables that define the state. A generalized force is the cause behind interactions and can be identified and quantified based on the direction of changes in generalized coordinates during interactions. Equilibrium occurs when generalized forces are equal.

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    of 15

    Advanced Thermodynamics

    Prof. P.L.Dhar
    I.I.T.Delhi

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    What is thermodynamics?

    Its scope ?

    Need for a precise formulation of basic concepts & improvement


    in its mathematical basisvarious attempts.
    Macroscopic & Microscopic View
    Concept of Quantitative Measurement
    ------- standards
    ------- any quantitative measurement would involve a method by
    which we recognise the three cases :
    A > B;

    A < B; A=B

    Conversely : To define a new quantity, we need to set up an


    experimental. method on above lines.

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    OBJECT, ISOLATION, BOUNDARIES
    Need for idealisation
    Since by definition an object is something that can be
    no spontaneous changes should occur in it (e.g.
    isolated
    Radioactive salt cant be an object).
    Such an isolated object undergoing no change at all is said
    to be in equilibrium.
    Equilibrium Thermodynamics

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    INTERACTION Its general features
    Establishing
    A

    interaction

    PA

    interaction

    RB

    RA

    Mode of

    PB

    PA

    PB
    RA

    RB

    A
    B

    X
    A

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    Condition of interaction
    loss of independence interdependence
    e.g.
    Conditions of Interaction

    Alternative formulations

    X + X = H

    ------- (1)

    Q + Q = Const ----(2)
    V + V = Const ---(3)

    e.g. If S = l nV eq (2) would transform to e s+ e


    s=Const.

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    STATE of an OBJECT, PROPERTY
    Intrinsic macroscopically observable characteristics.
    Condition of an object as described by its properties.
    Choice of properties is not unique.
    Relationship between the properties of an Object EQ.OF
    STATE

    e.g.

    Q
    = C ; P.V. = RT
    V

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    Generalised Coordinates
    Variables preferred in
    defining the state of an
    object

    Q, h

    or V, h ?

    +
    h

    Capacitor balance

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    Orthogonal Variables :
    That can be changed arbitrarily without affecting the
    other .
    Q, h

    or V, h ?

    Generalised Coordinates : a set of variables that are


    orthogonal on one another.
    For various interactions we can identify generalized
    coordinates, e.g.
    X, V, Q, Ni, M, .

    Basic Concepts
    Recap

    Quantitative Measurement
    Object , Isolation, Boundaries
    Equilibrium
    Interaction - its general features
    State , property, Equation of state
    Generalised coordinates

    BASIC CONCEPTS.
    Generalised Force
    Principle of Causality : for every effect there is a
    cause
    Cause behind the effects of interaction
    Generalised Force
    How to Quantify it ?
    Three possible outcomes of any interaction are
    dx > 0 ; dx < 0 ------(i)
    dx < 0 ; dx > 0 -----(ii)
    dx = 0 ; dx = 0 ----- (iii)

    BASIC CONCEPTS

    Generalised Force

    By close observation of the interaction, it is


    possible to identify property f of the objects
    such that :
    f < f -------- (i)
    dx > 0 ; dx < 0 ------(i)
    dx < 0 ; dx > 0 -----f > f -------(ii)
    (ii)
    f = f -------dx = 0 ; dx = 0 ----(iii)
    (iii)
    We call this Quantity f as the Gen. Force
    Condition (iii) above equilibrium between objects

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    Determine Generalised force for various interaction
    Battery capacitor

    Compressible fluid
    PB

    PA

    A
    B

    RA
    PA

    Surface film :

    RB
    PB

    RA

    RB

    Spring weight : F

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    SYSTEM
    GEN. FORCE
    Mechanical
    Tension, T
    (Linear / elastic)
    (N)

    GEN. CO-ORD.
    Extension, L
    (m)

    Mechanical
    (expansion)

    Pressure, (-P)
    (N/m2)

    Angle of
    rotation,
    (radians)
    Volume, V
    (m3)

    PhysicoChemical
    (Surfaceextension)

    Surface
    Tension,
    (N/m)

    Surface Area,
    A
    (m2)

    Mechanical
    (rotational)

    Torque M
    (N-m)

    Electrical
    Electric
    Polarisation

    E.M.F. V
    (volt)

    Charge, Q
    (coulomb)

    Elec. field, E Polarisation,


    P
    (volt/m)
    (coulomb-m)

    Mag. field, H Magnetisation,


    Magnetic
    M
    (magnetization)
    (Amp / m)
    2)
    (A m

    BASIC CONCEPTS
    Generalised Force
    Summary
    Generalised Force is the cause
    behind the effects of interaction
    Mode of interaction decides
    the generalised force
    Equilibrium is essential for
    measurement of generalised force

    Principle of Transitivity : f = f & f = f


    =>f = f

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