MLR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

CONTROL SYSTEMS

CLASS NOTES

CONTROL SYSTEMS
UNIT-I

Introduction:
A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a
manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system, or is that means by which any
quantity of interest in a system is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner.
Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system and output. The
input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external energy source. A system
is the arrangement of physical components and output is the actual response obtained from the
system. The control system may be one of the following type.
1) man made
2) natural and / or biological and
3) hybrid consisting of man made and natural or biological.
Examples:
1) An electric switch is man made control system, controlling flow of electricity.
input
: flipping the switch on/off
system
: electric switch
output
: flow or no flow of current
2) Pointing a finger at an object is a biological control system.
input
: direction of the object with respect to some direction
system
: consists of eyes, arm, hand, finger and brain of a man
output
: actual pointed direction with respect to same direction
3) Man driving an automobile is a hybrid system.
input
: direction or lane
system
: drivers hand, eyes, brain and vehicle
output
: heading of the automobile.
Classification of Control Systems
Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action which is
responsible to activate the system to produce the output viz.
1) Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the out put.
2) Closed loop control system in which the control action is some how dependent upon the
output and are generally called as feedback control systems.
Open Loop System is a system in which control action is independent of output. To each
reference input there is a corresponding output which depends upon the system and its operating
conditions. The accuracy of the system depends on the calibration of the system. In the presence
of noise or disturbances open loop control will not perform satisfactorily.

Page 5

input

Actuating signal
Controller

output
System

EXAMPLE - 1 Rotational Generator

The input to rotational generator is the speed of the prime mover ( e.g steam turbine) in r.p.m.
Assuming the generator is on no load the output may be induced voltage at the output terminals.
Induced Voltage
Speed of the
Prime mover
Inputs

Rotational Generator
Output
Fig 1-2 Rotational Generator

EXAMPLE 2

Washing machine

Most ( but not all ) washing machines are operated in the following manner. After the clothes to
be washed have been put into the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach and water are entered in
proper amounts as specified by the manufacturer. The washing time is then set on a timer and the
washer is energized. When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off. In this example
washing time forms input and cleanliness of the clothes is identified as output.
Cleanliness of clothes
Time
Washing Machine
Fig 1-3 Washing Machine
EXAMPLE 3 WATER TANK LEVEL CONTROL
To understand the concept further it is useful to consider an example let it be desired to maintain
the actual water level 'c ' in the tank as close as possible to a desired level ' r '. The desired level
will be called the system input, and the actual level the controlled variable or system output.
Water flows from the tank via a valve Vo , and enters the tank from a supply via a control valve
Vc. The control valve is adjustable manually.
Valve VC
Actual
Water
level c
Desired Water
WATER
Water in
level r
TANK
Valve VO
C

Water
out

Fig 1-4 b) Open loop control

Fig 1.4 a) Water level control

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A closed loop control system is one in which the control action depends on the output. In
closed loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input
signal and the feed back signal (out put signal or its function) is fed to the controller.

Reference
input

Error
detector Actuating

Controlled
output

Forward path

signal

Control
elements

System /
Plant

controller

Feed back elements

Fig 1.5: Closed loop control system
EXAMPLE 1 THERMAL SYSTEM
To illustrate the concept of closed loop control system, consider the thermal system shown in fig6 Here human being acts as a controller. He wants to maintain the temperature of the hot water at
a given value ro C. the thermometer installed in the hot water outlet measures the actual
temperature C0 C. This temperature is the output of the system. If the operator watches the
thermometer and finds that the temperature is higher than the desired value, then he reduce the
amount of steam supply in order to lower the temperature. It is quite possible that that if the
temperature becomes lower than the desired value it becomes necessary to increase the amount
of steam supply. This control action is based on closed loop operation which involves human
being, hand muscle, eyes, thermometer such a system may be called manual feed back system.
Human operator
Thermometer
Steam
Steam

Hot water

Desired hot
water. temp
ro c

Brain of
operator (r-c)

Muscles
and Valve

Actual
Water temp
Co C
C

Thermometer

Cold water
Drain
Fig 1-6 a) Manual feedback thermal system

b) Block diagram

EXAMPLE 2 HOME HEATING SYSTEM

The thermostatic temperature control in hour homes and public buildings is a familiar example.
An electronic thermostat or temperature sensor is placed in a central location usually on inside
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wall about 5 feet from the floor. A person selects and adjusts the desired room temperature ( r )
say 250 C and adjusts the temperature setting on the thermostat. A bimetallic coil in the
thermostat is affected by the actual room temperature ( c ). If the room temperature is lower than
the desired temperature the coil strip alters the shape and causes a mercury switch to operate a
relay, which in turn activates the furnace fire when the temperature in the furnace air duct system
reaches reference level ' r ' a blower fan is activated by another relay to force the warm air
throughout the building. When the room temperature ' C ' reaches the desired temperature ' r '
the shape of the coil strip in the thermostat alters so that Mercury switch opens. This deactivates
the relay and in turn turns off furnace fire, which in turn the blower.
Outdoor temp change
(disturbance)

Desired temp. r c

Relay
switch

Furnace

Blower

House

Actual
Temp.
Co C

Fig 1-7 Block diagram of Home Heating system.

A change in out door temperature is a disturbance to the home heating system. If the out side
temperature falls, the room temperature will likewise tend to decrease.
CLOSED- LOOP VERSUS OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS
An advantage of the closed loop control system is the fact that the use of feedback makes the
system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in systems
parameters. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain
the accurate control of the given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop case.
From the point of view of stability, the open loop control system is easier to build
because system stability is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem
in the closed loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors that can cause
oscillations of constant or changing amplitude.
It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in
which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop control. closed loop control
systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop
control. Closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and
/ or unpredictable variations in system components used in a closed loop control system is more
than that for a corresponding open loop control system. Thus the closed loop control system is
generally higher in cost.
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Definitions:
Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective. The system may be physical, biological, economical, etc.
Control system: It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in a manner
to command, direct or regulate itself or another system.
Open loop: An open loop system control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output.
Closed loop: A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow
dependent on the output.
Plants: A plant is equipment the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Any
physical object to be controlled is called a plant.
Processes: Processes is a natural or artificial or voluntary operation that consists of a series of
controlled actions, directed towards a result.
Input: The input is the excitation applied to a control system from an external energy source.
The inputs are also known as actuating signals.
Output: The output is the response obtained from a control system or known as controlled
variable.
Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect
relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functional
relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Control elements: These are also called controller which are the components required to
generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
Plant: Plant is the control system body process or machine of which a particular quantity or
condition is to be controlled.
Feedback control: feedback control is an operation in which the difference between the output
of the system and the reference input by comparing these using the difference as a means of
control.
Feedback elements: These are the components required to establish the functional relationship
between primary feedback signal and the controlled output.
Actuating signal: also called the error or control action. It is the algebraic sum consisting of
reference input and primary feedback.
Manipulated variable: it that quantity or condition which the control elements apply to the
controlled system.
Feedback signal: it is a signal which is function of controlled output
Disturbance: It is an undesired input signal which affects the
output.
Forward path: It is a transmission path from the actuating signal to controlled output
Feedback path: The feed back path is the transmission path from the controlled output to the
primary feedback signal.
Servomechanism: Servomechanism is a feedback control system in which output is some
mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
Regulator: Regulator is a feedback system in which the input is constant for long time.
Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts one energy form into other
Tachometer: Tachometer is a device whose output is directly proportional to time rate of change
of input.
Synchros: Synchros is an AC machine used for transmission of angular position synchro motorreceiver, synchro generator- transmitter.

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Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect
relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functional
relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Summing point: It represents an operation of addition and / or subtraction.
Negative feedback: Summing point is a subtractor.
Positive feedback: Summing point is an adder.
Stimulus: It is an externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled output.
Take off point: In order to employ the same signal or variable as an input to more than block or
summing point, take off point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations.
Time response: It is the output of a system as a function of time following the application of a
prescribed input under specified operating conditions.

Page 10

DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

The term mechanical translation is used to describe motion with a single degree of freedom or
motion in a straight line. The basis for all translational motion analysis is Newtons second law
of motion which states that the Net force F acting on a body is related to its mass M and
acceleration a by the equation F = Ma
Ma is called reactive force and it acts in a direction opposite to that of acceleration. The
summation of the forces must of course be algebraic and thus considerable care must be taken in
writing the equation so that proper signs prefix the forces.
The three basic elements used in linear mechanical translational systems are ( i ) Masses (ii)
springs iii) dashpot or viscous friction units. The graphical and symbolic notations for all three
are shown in fig 1-8

M
Fig 1-8 a) Mass

Fig 1-8 b) Spring

Fig 1-8 c) Dashpot

The spring provides a restoring a force when a force F is applied to deform a coiled spring a
reaction force is produced, which to bring it back to its freelength. As long as deformation is
small, the spring behaves as a linear element. The reaction force is equal to the product of the
stiffness k and the amount of deformation.
Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two elements, frictional forces exist.
The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of nonlinear nature. The
characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces often depend on the
composition of the surfaces. The pressure between surfaces, their relative velocity and others.
The friction encountered in physical systems may be of many types
( coulomb friction, static friction, viscous friction ) but in control problems viscous friction,
predominates. Viscous friction represents a retarding force i.e. it acts in a direction opposite to
the velocity and it is linear relationship between applied force and velocity. The mathematical
expression of viscous friction F=BV where B is viscous frictional co-efficient. It should be
realized that friction is not always undesirable in physical systems. Sometimes it may be
necessary to introduce friction intentionally to improve dynamic response of the system. Friction
may be introduced intentionally in a system by use of dashpot as shown in fig 1-9. In
automobiles shock absorber is nothing but dashpot.

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a
Applied force
F

b
Piston

The basic operation of a dashpot, in which the housing is filled with oil. If a force f is applied to
the shaft, the piston presses against oil increasing the pressure on side b and decreasing
pressure side a As a result the oil flows from side b to side a through the wall clearance. The
friction coefficient B depends on the dimensions and the type of oil used.
Outline of the procedure
For writing differential equations
1. Assume that the system originally is in equilibrium in this way the often-troublesome
effect of gravity is eliminated.
2. Assume then that the system is given some arbitrary displacement if no distributing force
is present.
3. Draw a freebody diagram of the forces exerted on each mass in the system. There should
be a separate diagram for each mass.
4. Apply Newtons law of motion to each diagram using the convention that any force
acting in the direction of the assumed displacement is positive is positive.
5. Rearrange the equation in suitable form to solve by any convenient mathematical means.
Lever
Lever is a device which consists of rigid bar which tends to rotate about a fixed point
called fulcrum the two arms are called effort arm and Load arm respectively. The
lever bears analogy with transformer

F2 Load
L2

L1

Fulcrum
effort F1

Page 12

It is also called mechanical transformer

Equating the moments of the force
F1 L1 = F2 L 2
F2 =

F1 L1
L2

Rotational mechanical system

The rotational motion of a body may be defined as motion about a fixed axis. The variables
generally used to describe the motion of rotation are torque, angular displacement , angular
velocity () and angular acceleration()
The three basic rotational mechanical components are 1) Moment of inertia J
2 ) Torsional spring 3) Viscous friction.
Moment of inertia J is considered as an indication of the property of an element, which stores the
kinetic energy of rotational motion. The moment of inertia of a given element depends on
geometric composition about the axis of rotation and its density. When a body is rotating a
reactive torque is produced which is equal to the product of its moment
of inertia (J) and angular acceleration and is given by T= J= J d2
d t2
A well known example of a torsional spring is a shaft which gets twisted when a torque is
applied to it. Ts = K, is angle of twist and K is torsional stiffness.
There is viscous friction whenever a body rotates in viscous contact with another body. This
torque acts in opposite direction so that angular velocity is given by
T = f = f d2

Where = relative angular velocity between two bodies.

dt

Newtons II law of motion states

T = J d2 .
d t2
Gear wheel

f = co efficient of viscous friction.

Page 13

In almost every control system which involves rotational motion gears are necessary. It is often
necessary to match the motor to the load it is driving. A motor which usually runs at high speed
and low torque output may be required to drive a load at low speed and high torque.

Driving wheel
N1

N2

Driven wheel

Analogous Systems
Consider the mechanical system shown in fig A and the electrical system shown in fig B

The differential equation for mechanical system is

d2x
M +

dt2

dx
+ B

+ K X = f (t) ---------- 1

dt

The differential equation for electrical system is

d2q

d2q
L +

e ---------- 2
dt
c
dt2
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we see that for the two systems the differential equations are of
identical form such systems are called analogous systems and the terms which occupy the
corresponding positions in differential equations are analogous quantities
2

The analogy is here is called force voltage analogy

Table for conversion for force voltage analogy
Mechanical System

Electrical System

Force (torque)

Voltage

Mass (Moment of inertia)

Inductance

Page 14

Viscous friction coefficient

Resistance

Spring constant

Capacitance

Displacement

Charge

Velocity

Current.

Force Current Analogy

Another useful analogy between electrical systems and mechanical systems is based on force
current analogy. Consider electrical and mechanical systems shown in fig.
For mechanical system the differential equation is given by

d2x
M +

dx
B

dt

K X = f (t) ---------- 1

dt

For electrical system

C

d2x
dt2

1
+

dt2

= I(t)

Comparing equations (1) and (2) we find that the two systems are analogous systems. The
analogy here is called force current analogy. The analogous quantities are listed.
Table of conversion for force current analogy
Mechanical System
Electrical System
Force( torque)

Current

Mass( Moment of inertia)

Capacitance

Viscous friction coefficient

Conductance

Spring constant

Inductance

Displacement
( angular)

Flux

Velocity (angular)

Voltage
Page 15

Illustration 1:For a two DOF spring mass damper system obtain the mathematical model where
F is the input x1 and x2 are responses.

b2 (Damper)

k2
m2

Draw the free body diagram for mass

m1 and m2 separately as shown in figure
1.10 (b)

x2 (Response)

Apply NSL for both the masses

separately and get equations as given in
(a) and (b)

b1

k1
m1

x1 (Response)

F
Figure 1.10 (a)

k2 x2

b2 x2
m2

k1 x1

k1 x2

b1

b1 x1

k1 x1

k1 x2

.
x

k2 x2

b1

.
x

x2

b2 x2
m2

..

k1 (x1-x2) b1 (x1-x2)

b1 x2

m1

x1

m1

F
F
Figure 1.10 (b)
From NSL

F= ma

For mass m1

..

. .
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m1x1 = F - b1 (x1-x2) - k1 (x1-x2)

--- (a)

For mass m2

..

. .

m2 x2 = b1 (x2-x1) + k1 (x2-x1) - b2 x2 - k2 x2

--- (b)

Illustration 2: For the system shown in figure 2.16 (a) obtain the mathematical model if x 1 and
x2 are initial displacements.

Let an initial displacement x1 be given to mass m1 and x2 to mass m2.

K1
m1
K2

X1

m2
K3

Figure 1.11 (a)

X2

Page 17

K1 X1

K1 X1

m1

m1
X1

K2 X2
K2 X2

X1
K2 (X2 X1)

K2 X1
K2 X1

K2 (X2 X1)

m2
m2
X2

X2

K3 X2

K3 X2

Figure 2.16 (b)

Based on Newtons second law of motion: F = ma
For mass m1

..

m1x1 = - K1x1 + K2 (x2-x1)

..

m1x1 + K1x1 K2 x2 + K2x1 = 0

..

m1x1 + x1 (K1 + K2) = K2x2

----- (1)

For mass m2

..

m2x2 = - K3x2 K2 (x2 x1)

..

m2x2 + K3 x2 + K2 x2 K2 x1

..

m2 x2 + x2 (K2 + K3) = K2x1

----- (2)

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Mathematical models are:

..

----- (1)

..

----- (2)

m1x1 + x1 (K1 + K2) = K2x2

m2x2 + x2 (K2 + K3) = K2x1

1.Write the differential equation relating to motion X of the mass M to the force input u(t)

K1

X
utput)
(
o

K2
M

U(t)
(input)

2. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure

X1

B2

(output)

F(t)
(input)

3. Write the differential equations for the mechanical system shown in figure.

X1
f12

K1
M1
f(t)

X2
M2

f1 B

f2
Page 19

4. Write the modeling equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

Xi

force f(t)

Xo

5. For the systems shown in figure write the differential equations and obtain the transfer
functions indicated.

Yk

Xi

Xo

Xi

Xo

6. Write the differential equation describing the system. Assume the bar through which
force is applied is not flexible, has no mass or moment of inertia, and all
displacements are small.

f(t)

M
B
Page 20

7. Write the equations of motion in terms of given mechanical quantities.

X2
Force f

K1
a

b
M2

M1

K2

B1

X1
8. Write the force equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

B1
J1

T(t)
9. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

T(t)

J1

J2
2

10. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

Torq

ECE/SJBIT

1 K
1
J1

2 K
2
J2

B
1

3 K J3
3
B3

Page 21

11. Torque T(t) is applied to a small cylinder with moment of inertia J 1 which rotates with in a
larger cylinder with moment of inertia J 2. The two cylinders are coupled by viscous friction B1.
The outer cylinder has viscous friction B2 between it and the reference frame and is restrained by
a torsion spring k. write the describing differential equations.

J2

J1
Torque T1, 1

B2
B1

12. The polarized relay shown exerts a force f(t) = Ki. i(t) upon the pivoted bar. Assume the relay
coil has constant inductance L. The left end of the pivot bar is connected to the reference frame
through a viscous damper B1 to retard rapid motion of the bar. Assume the bar has negligible
mass and moment of inertia and also that all displacements are small. Write the describing
differential equations. Note that the relay coil is not free to move.

Page 22

13. Figure shows a control scheme for controlling the azimuth angle of an armature controlled
dc. Motion with dc generator used as an amplifier. Determine transfer function
L (s)
. The parameters of the plant are given below.
u
Motor torque constant
Motor back emf constant
Generator gain constant
Motor to load gear ratio

(s)
=
=
=
=

KT in N.M /amp
KB in V/ rad / Sec
KG in v/ amp
N2

N1
Resistance of the circuit = R in ohms.
Inductance of the circuit = L in Henry
Moment of inertia of motor = J
Viscous friction coefficient = B
Field resistance = Rf

Field inductance = Lf

Page 23

14. The schematic diagram of a dc motor control system is shown in figure where K s is error
detector gain in volt/rad, k is the amplifier gain, Kb back emf constant, Kt is torque
constant, n is the gear train ratio = 2
1

Tm

Bm = motion friction constant

T2

Jm = motor inertia, KL = Torsional spring constant

JL = load inertia.

15. Obtain a transfer function C(s) /R(s) for the positional servomechanism shown in figure.
Assume that the input to the system is the reference shaft position (R) and the system output is
the output shaft position ( C ). Assume the following constants.
Gain of the potentiometer (error detector ) K1 in V/rad
Amplifier gain Kp in V / V
Motor torque constant KT in V/ rad
Gear ratio N1 N2
Moment of inertia of load J

Page 24

Viscous friction coefficient f

16. Find the transfer function E0 (s) / I(s)

C1
I

E0
C2

Output

input

Page 25

Recommended Questions :
1. Name three applications of control systems.
2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not
using them.
3. Give three examples of open- loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed loop systems differ from open loop systems.
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would not
be the difference between the input and output.
6. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.
7. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
8. Name the two parts of a systems response.
9. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
10. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response.
11. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?
12. To what classification of systems can the transfer function be best applied?
13. What transformation turns the solution of differential equations into algebraic
manipulations ?
14. Define the transfer function.
15. What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer
functions?
16. What do we call the mechanical equations written in order to evaluate the transfer
function ?
17. Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer functions
for electrical networks?
18. What function do gears and levers perform.
19. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motors transfer function?

Page 26

Block Diagram:
A control system may consist of a number of components. In order to show the functions
performed by each component in control engineering, we commonly use a diagram called the
Block Diagram.
A block diagram of a system is a pictorial representation of the function performed by
each component and of the flow of signals. Such a diagram depicts the inter-relationships which
exists between the various components. A block diagram has the advantage of indicating more
realistically the signal flows of the actual system.
In a block diagram all system variables are linked to each other through functional
blocks. The Functional Block or simply Block is a symbol for the mathematical operation
on the input signal to the block which produces the output. The transfer functions of the
components are usually entered in the corresponding blocks, which are connected by arrows to
indicate the direction of flow of signals. Note that signal can pass only in the direction of
arrows. Thus a block diagram of a control system explicitly shows a unilateral property.
Fig 2.1 shows an element of the block diagram. The arrow head pointing towards the block
indicates the input and the arrow head away from the block represents the output. Such arrows
are entered as signals.
X(s)
Y(s)
Fig 2.1
The advantages of the block diagram representation of a system lie in the fact that it is
easy to form the over all block diagram for the entire system by merely connecting the blocks of
the components according to the signal flow and thus it is possible to evaluate the contribution of
each component to the overall performance of the system. A block diagram contains information
concerning dynamic behavior but does not contain any information concerning the physical
construction of the system. Thus many dissimilar and unrelated system can be represented by the
same block diagram.
Page 27

It should be noted that in a block diagram the main source of energy is not explicitly
shown and also that a block diagram of a given system is not unique. A number of a different
block diagram may be drawn for a system depending upon the view point of analysis.
Error detector : The error detector produces a signal which is the difference between the
reference input and the feed back signal of the control system. Choice of the error detector is
quite important and must be carefully decided. This is because any imperfections in the error
detector will affect the performance of the entire system. The block diagram representation of
the error detector is shown in fig2.2
+

R(s)

C(s)
C(s)

Fig2.2
Note that a circle with a cross is the symbol which indicates a summing operation. The plus or
minus sign at each arrow head indicates whether the signal is to be added or subtracted. Note
that the quantities to be added or subtracted should have the same dimensions and the same units.
Block diagram of a closed loop system .
Fig2.3 shows an example of a block diagram of a closed system
Summing point

R(s)

Branch point
C(s)
G(s)

Fig. 2.3
The output C(s) is fed back to the summing point, where it is compared with reference input
R(s). The closed loop nature is indicated in fig1.3. Any linear system may be represented by a
block diagram consisting of blocks, summing points and branch points. A branch is the point
from which the output signal from a block diagram goes concurrently to other blocks or
summing points.
Page 28

When the output is fed back to the summing point for comparison with the input, it is
necessary to convert the form of output signal to that of he input signal. This conversion is
followed by the feed back element whose transfer function is H(s) as shown in fig 1.4. Another
important role of the feed back element is to modify the output before it is compared with the
input.
B(s)
R(s)

C(s)

G(s
B(s)
Fig 2.4

The ratio of the feed back signal B(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the open
loop transfer function.
open loop transfer function = B(s)/E(s) = G(s)H(s)
The ratio of the output C(s) to the actuating error signal E(s) is called the feed forward
transfer function .
Feed forward transfer function = C(s)/E(s) = G(s)
If the feed back transfer function is unity, then the open loop and feed forward transfer
function are the same. For the system shown in Fig1.4, the output C(s) and input R(s) are related
as follows.
C(s) = G(s) E(s)
E(s) = R(s) - B(s)
= R(s) - H(s) C(s)

but B(s) = H(s)C(s)

Eliminating E(s) from these equations

C(s) = G(s) [R(s) - H(s) C(s)]
C(s) + G(s) [H(s) C(s)] = G(s) R(s)
C(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = G(s)R(s)

Page 29

C(s)

G(s)
=

R(s)
1 + G(s) H(s)
C(s)/R(s) is called the closed loop transfer function.
The output of the closed loop system clearly depends on both the closed loop transfer
function and the nature of the input. If the feed back signal is positive, then
C(s)

G(s)
=

R(s)

1 - G(s) H(s)

Closed loop system subjected to a disturbance

Fig2.5 shows a closed loop system subjected to a disturbance. When two inputs are present in
a linear system, each input can be treated independently of the other and the outputs
corresponding to each input alone can be added to give the complete output. The way in
which each input is introduced into the system is shown at the summing point by either a plus
or minus sign.
Disturbance
N(s)
R(s)

+
+

G1(s)

G2(s)

C(s)

Fig2.5
Fig2.5 closed loop system subjected to a disturbance.
Consider the system shown in fig 2.5. We assume that the system is at rest initially with
zero error. Calculate the response CN(s) to the disturbance only. Response is
CN(s)

G2(s)
=

R(s)
1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s)
On the other hand, in considering the response to the reference input R(s), we may
assume that the disturbance is zero. Then the response CR(s) to the reference input R(s)is

Page 30

CR(s)

G1(s)G2(s)
=

R(s)

1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s).

The response C(s) due to the simultaneous application of the reference input R(s) and the
disturbance N(s) is given by
C(s) = CR(s) + CN(s)
G2(s)
C(s) =

[G1(s)R(s) + N(s)]
1 + G1(s)G2(s)H(s)

Procedure for drawing block diagram :

To draw the block diagram for a system, first write the equation which describes the dynamic
behaviour of each components. Take the laplace transform of these equations, assuming zero
initial conditions and represent each laplace transformed equation individually in the form of
block. Finally assemble the elements into a complete block diagram.
As an example consider the Rc circuit shown in fig2.6 (a). The equations for the circuit
shown are
R

ei

eo
C

Fig. 2.6a

ei = iR + 1/c idt

-----------(1)

And
eo = 1/c idt

---------(2)

Equation (1) becomes

ei = iR + eo
ei - eo
R

=i

--------------(3)

Page 31

Laplace transforms of equations (2) & (3) are

Eo(s) = 1/CsI(s)

-----------(4)

Ei(s) - Eo(s)
= I(s)

-------- (5)

R
Equation (5) represents a summing operation and the corresponding diagram is shown in fig1.6
(b). Equation (4) represents the block as shown in fig2.6(c). Assembling these two elements, the
overall block diagram for the system shown in fig2.6(d) is obtained.

I(s)
Ei(s)

+
_
Eo(s)

1/R

I(s)
Fig2.6(c)
Eo(s) +

Fig2.6(b)

Eo(S)

I(s)

Eo(s)

1/

Fig2.6(d)

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

An alternate to block diagram is the signal flow graph due to S. J. Mason. A signal flow graph is
a diagram that represents a set of simultaneous linear algebraic equations. Each signal flow graph
consists of a network in which nodes are connected by directed branches. Each node represents a
system variable, and each branch acts as a signal multiplier. The signal flows in the direction
indicated by the arrow.
Definitions:
Node: A node is a point representing a variable or signal.
Branch: A branch is a directed line segment joining two nodes.
Transmittance: It is the gain between two nodes.
Input node: A node that has only outgoing branche(s). It is also, called as source and
corresponds to independent variable.
Page 32

Output node: A node that has only incoming branches. This is also called as sink and
corresponds to dependent variable.
Mixed node: A node that has incoming and out going branches.
Path: A path is a traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrow.
Loop: A loop is a closed path.
Self loop: It is a feedback loop consisting of single branch.
Loop gain: The loop gain is the product of branch transmittances of the loop.
Nontouching loops: Loops that do not posses a common node.
Forward path: A path from source to sink without traversing an node more than once.
Feedback path: A path which originates and terminates at the same node.
Forward path gain: Product of branch transmittances of a forward path.
Properties of Signal Flow Graphs:
1) Signal flow applies only to linear systems.
2) The equations based on which a signal flow graph is drawn must be algebraic equations
in
the
form
of
effects
as
a
function
of
causes.
Nodes are used to represent variables. Normally the nodes are arranged left to right,
following a succession of causes and effects through the system.
3) Signals travel along the branches only in the direction described by the arrows of the
branches.
4) The branch directing from node Xk to Xj represents dependence of the variable Xj on Xk
but not the reverse.
5) The signal traveling along the branch Xk and Xj is multiplied by branch gain akj and
signal akjXk is delivered at node Xj.

Guidelines to Construct the Signal Flow Graphs:

The signal flow graph of a system is constructed from its describing equations, or by direct
reference to block diagram of the system. Each variable of the block diagram becomes a node
and each block becomes a branch. The general procedure is
1) Arrange the input to output nodes from left to right.
2) Connect the nodes by appropriate branches.
3) If the desired output node has outgoing branches, add a dummy node and a unity gain
branch.
4) Rearrange the nodes and/or loops in the graph to achieve pictorial clarity.

Page 33

Signal Flow Graph Algebra

Addtion rule
The value of the variable designated by a node is equal to the sum of all signals entering the
node.
Transmission rule
The value of the variable designated by a node is transmitted on every branch leaving the node.
Multiplication rule
A cascaded connection of n-1 branches with transmission functions can be replaced by a single
branch with new transmission function equal to the product of the old ones.
Masons Gain Formula
The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is given
by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system.
Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs.
Gain P is given by
1
P Pk k
k
Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path,
is determinant of graph
=1-(sum of all individual loop gains)+(sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
nontouching loops) +
k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k th forward path. It is
obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P k.

Example1
Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.2.7
H2
X1

X2

X3
G1

X4

X5
G2

X6

G3

H1
Figure 2.7 Multiple loop system
Page 34

Choose the nodes to represent the variables say X1 .. X6 as shown in the block diagram. .
Connect the nodes with appropriate gain along the branch. The signal flow graph is shown in
Fig. 2.7
-H2
R

X1

X2

G1

X3

G2

G3

X4

X5

X6

H1

-1
Figure 1.8 Signal flow graph of the system shown in Fig. 2.7

Example 2.9
Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig.2.9.
G1

X2

X1

G2

G3
X3

G4

Figure 2.9 Block diagram feedback system

Page 35

The nodal variables are X1, X2, X3.

The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.10.
G1
R

G2

X2

X3

X1
-G3
G4
Figure 2.10 Signal flow graph of example 2
Example 3
Draw the signal flow graph of the system of equations.
X 1 a11 X 1 a12 X 2 a13 X 3 b1u1
X 2 a 21 X 1 a 22 X 2 a 23 X 3 b2 u 2
X 3 a31 X 1 a32 X 2 a33 X 3
The variables are X1, X2, X3, u1 and u2 choose five nodes representing the variables.
Connect the various nodes choosing appropriate branch gain in accordance with the equations.
The signal flow graph is shown in Fig. 2.11.

Page 36

a13
a12

u2
b2
u1

a11

b1

a33

X2

a21

a32

X1

X3

a22
a23

a31
Figure 2.11 Signal flow graph of example 2

Example 4
LRC net work is shown in Fig. 2.12. Draw its signal flow graph.

ec(t
)

e(t)

i(t)

Figure 2.12 LRC network

The governing differential equations are
L di Ri 1 idt
1
dt
C
et or
L di Ri ec
dt
ede
t c2 C

dt

i t 3

Taking Laplace transform of Eqn.1 and Eqn.2 and dividing Eqn.2 by L and Eqn.3 by C

Page 37

R
1
1
sI s i 0 I S E c s
L
L
L
E s 4sE
c s 1 ec 0 C I s 5
Eqn.4 and Eqn.5 are used to draw the signal flow graph shown in Fig.7.
i(0+)

1
LsR

ec(0+)

1
s R L

-1
L sR

1
Cs

1
s
Ec(s)

Figure 2.12 Signal flow graph of LRC system

Page 38

SIGNAL FLOW GRAPHS

The relationship between an input variable and an output variable of a signal flow graph is given
by the net gain between input and output nodes and is known as overall gain of the system.
Masons gain formula is used to obtain the over all gain (transfer function) of signal flow graphs.
Masons Gain Formula
Gain P is given by
P

1
Pk k
k

Where, Pk is gain of kth forward path,

is determinant of graph
=1-(sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of gain products of all possible combinations of
two nontouching loops sum of gain products of all possible combination of three
nontouching loops) +
k is cofactor of kth forward path determinant of graph with loops touching k th forward path. It is
obtained from by removing the loops touching the path P k.
Example 1
Obtain the transfer function of C/R of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in Fig.2.13

G1
R

G2

-G3
G4

Figure 2.13 Signal flow graph of example 1

There are two forward paths:
Gain of path 1 : P1=G1
Gain of path 2 : P2=G2
Page 39

There are four loops with loop gains:

L1=-G1G3, L2=G1G4, L3= -G2G3, L4= G2G4
There are no non-touching loops.
= 1+G1G3-G1G4+G2G3-G2G4
Forward paths 1 and 2 touch all the loops. Therefore, 1= 1, 2= 1
The transfer function T =

P P2 2
G1 G2
C
s
1 1

Rs

1 G1G3 G1G4 G2 G3 G2 G4

Example 2
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.2.14.

-H2
R(s)

G2

G1

G3

C(s)

H1
-1

Figure 2.14 Signal flow graph of example 2

There is one forward path, whose gain is: P1=G1G2G3
There are three loops with loop gains:
L1=-G1G2H1, L2=G2G3H2, L3= -G1G2G3
There are no non-touching loops.
= 1-G1G2H1+G2G3H2+G1G2G3
Forward path 1 touches all the loops. Therefore, 1= 1.
G1G 2G3
C
s
P
The transfer function T =
1 1
Rs 1 G1G2 H 1 G1G3 H 2 G1G2 G3
Example 3
Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is shown in
Fig.2.15.

Page 40

G6

R(s)

G1

G3

G2
X1

G7

X2

G4

G5
X4

X3
-H1

C(s)

X5

-H2

Figure 2.15 Signal flow graph of example 3

There are three forward paths.
The gains of the forward path are: P1=G1G2G3G4G5
P2=G1G6G4G5
P3= G1G2G7
There are four loops with loop gains:
L1=-G4H1, L2=-G2G7H2, L3= -G6G4G5H2, L4=-G2G3G4G5H2
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product
L1L2=G2G7H2G4H1
= 1+G4H1+G2G7H2+G6G4G5H2+G2G3G4G5H2+ G2G7H2G4H1
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore 1= 1, 2= 1.
Forward path 3 is not in touch with loop1. Hence, 3= 1+G4H1.
The transfer function
T= C(s) / R(s)

G1G2 G3 G4 G5 G1G4 G5 G6 G1G2 G7 1 G4 H1

C s P11 P2 2 P3 3

R
s

1 G4 H 1 G2 G7 H 2 G6 G4 G5 H 2 G2 G3 G4 G5 H 2 G2 G4 G7 H1 H 2

Page 41

Example 4
Find the gains

X6 X5 X3
,
,
for the signal flow graph shown in Fig.2.16.
X1 X 2 X1

-h

b
X1

c
X2

X3

X5 f

X6

X4

-g
-i

Figure 2.16 Signal flow graph of MIMO system

Case 1:

X6
X1

There are two forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=acdef
P2=abef
There are four loops with loop gains:
L1=-cg, L2=-eh, L3= -cdei, L4=-bei
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product
L1L2=cgeh
= 1+cg+eh+cdei+bei+cgeh
Forward path 1 and 2 touch all the four loops. Therefore 1= 1, 2= 1.

cdef abef
The transfer function T = X 6 P11 P2 2
X1

1 cg eh cdei bei cgeh

Page 42

X5
X2
The modified signal flow graph for case 2 is shown in Fig.2.17.
Case 2:

-h

b
X2

X5

c
X2

X3

X5

X4

-g
-i

Figure 2.17 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 2

The transfer function can directly manipulated from case 1 as branches a and f are removed
which do not form the loops. Hence,

cde be
The transfer function T= X 5 P11 P2 2
X2

1 cg eh cdei bei cgeh

X3
X1
The signal flow graph is redrawn to obtain the clarity of the functional relation as shown in
-h
Fig.2.18.
Case 3:

c
X1

X2

X5

X4

X3

X3
-i

-g
Figure 2.18 Signal flow graph of example 4 case 3
Page 43

There are two forward paths.

The gain of the forward path are: P1=abcd
P2=ac
There are five loops with loop gains:
L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg
There is one combination of Loops L1 and L2 which are nontouching with loop gain product
L1L2=ehcg
= 1+eh+cg+bei+efd+befg+ehcg
Forward path 1 touches all the five loops. Therefore 1= 1.
Forward path 2 does not touch loop L1. Hence, 2= 1+ eh
The transfer function T =

X 3 P 1 P 2
abef ac1 eh
X 1 1 2 1 eh cg bei efd befg ehcg

Example 5
For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function X(s)/U(s) using
signal flow graph technique.
X X 1 3 u

X 1 a1 X 1 X 2 2 u

X 2 a 2 X 1 1u
Taking Laplace transform with zero initial conditions
X
s X 1
s 3U
s
sX 1 s a1 X 1 s X 2
2
s U s sX 2 s a
U 2 X 1 s 1

Rearrange the above equation

X
s X 1
s 3U
s

a1

1
X 1 s X 2 s 2
s
s
s

a
U s X 2 s 2 X 1 s1 U s
s
s

The signal flow graph is shown in Fig.2.19.

X 1 s

Page 44

 a1

2
s
U

X1

1
s
a2
s

X
X2

1
s

Figure 2.19 Signal flow grapgh of example 5

There are three forward paths.
The gain of the forward path are: P1=3
P2=1/ s2
P3=2/ s
There are two loops with loop gains:
a
L1 1
s
a
L2 2 2
s
L1=-eh, L2=-cg, L3= -bei, L4=edf, L5=-befg
There are no combination two Loops which are nontouching.
a a
1 1 22
s s

Forward path 1 does not touch loops L1 and L2. Therefore

a a
1 1 1 22
s s
Forward path 2 path 3 touch the two loops. Hence, 2= 1, 2= 1.

X3
The transfer function T =
X1

1 2 2 3 3 3 s 2 a1 s a2 2 s 1
s 2 a1 s a 2
Page 45

Recommended Questions:
1. Define block diagram & depict the block diagram of closed loop system.
2. Write the procedure to draw the block diagram.
3. Define signal flow graph and its parameters
4. Explain briefly Masons Gain formula
5. Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig below.

H2
X1

X2

X3

G1

X4

X5

X6

G2

G3

H1
6. Draw the signal flow graph of the block diagram shown in Fig below

G1

X2

X1

G2

G3
X3

G4

Page 46

7.

For the LRC net work is shown in Fig Draw its signal flow graph.

ec(t
)

e(t)

i(t)

Figure

8. Obtain the transfer function of C(s)/R(s) of the system whose signal flow graph is
shown in Fig.
G6
R(s)

G1

G7

G2
C(s) X1

G3
X

G4
X3

G5

1
X4

-H1

X5
-H2

Q.9 For the system represented by the following equations find the transfer function
X(s)/U(s) using signal flow graph technique.
X X 1 3u

X 1 a1 X 1 X 2 2u

X 2 a2 X 1 1u