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UNIT-1

A control system is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in such a

manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself or another system, or is that means by which any
quantity of interest in a system is maintained or altered in accordance with a desired manner.

Any control system consists of three essential components namely input, system and output. The
input is the stimulus or excitation applied to a system from an external energy source. A system
is the arrangement of physical components and output is the actual response obtained from the
system. The control system may be one of the following type.
1) man made
2) natural and / or biological and
3) hybrid consisting of man made and natural or biological.

Examples:
1) An electric switch is man made control system, controlling flow of electricity.
input : flipping the switch on/off
system : electric switch
output : flow or no flow of current
2) Pointing a finger at an object is a biological control system.
input : direction of the object with respect to some direction
system : consists of eyes, arm, hand, finger and brain of a man
output : actual pointed direction with respect to same direction
3) Man driving an automobile is a hybrid system.
input : direction or lane
system : drivers hand, eyes, brain and vehicle
output : heading of the automobile.

Classification of Control Systems

Control systems are classified into two general categories based upon the control action which is
responsible to activate the system to produce the output viz.
1) Open loop control system in which the control action is independent of the out put.

2) Closed loop control system in which the control action is some how dependent upon the
output and are generally called as feedback control systems.

Open Loop System is a system in which control action is independent of output. To each
reference input there is a corresponding output which depends upon the system and its operating
conditions. The accuracy of the system depends on the calibration of the system. In the presence
of noise or disturbances open loop control will not perform satisfactorily.
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input Actuating signal output

Controller System

EXAMPLE - 1 Rotational Generator

The input to rotational generator is the speed of the prime mover ( e.g steam turbine) in r.p.m.
Assuming the generator is on no load the output may be induced voltage at the output terminals.
Speed of the Induced Voltage
Prime mover
Inputs Rotational Generator
Output

Fig 1-2 Rotational Generator

EXAMPLE – 2 Washing machine
Most ( but not all ) washing machines are operated in the following manner. After the clothes to
be washed have been put into the machine, the soap or detergent, bleach and water are entered in
proper amounts as specified by the manufacturer. The washing time is then set on a timer and the
washer is energized. When the cycle is completed, the machine shuts itself off. In this example
washing time forms input and cleanliness of the clothes is identified as output.
Cleanliness of clothes
Time Washing Machine

Fig 1-3 Washing Machine

EXAMPLE – 3 WATER TANK LEVEL CONTROL
To understand the concept further it is useful to consider an example let it be desired to maintain
the actual water level 'c ' in the tank as close as possible to a desired level ' r '. The desired level
will be called the system input, and the actual level the controlled variable or system output.
Water flows from the tank via a valve Vo , and enters the tank from a supply via a control valve
Vc. The control
Valve valve
VC is adjustable manually.
Actual
Desired Water Water level c
Water in level r WATER
TANK
Valve VO

C Water Fig 1-4 b) Open loop control

out
Fig –1.4 a) Water level control
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A closed loop control system is one in which the control action depends on the output. In
closed loop control system the actuating error signal, which is the difference between the input
signal and the feed back signal (out put signal or its function) is fed to the controller.

Error Forward path Controlled

Reference detector Actuating output
/ error
input
 Control System /
elements Plant
controller

Feed back elements

Feed back signal

Fig –1.5: Closed loop control system

EXAMPLE – 1 – THERMAL SYSTEM
To illustrate the concept of closed loop control system, consider the thermal system shown in fig-
6 Here human being acts as a controller. He wants to maintain the temperature of the hot water at
a given value ro C. the thermometer installed in the hot water outlet measures the actual
temperature C 0 C. This temperature is the output of the system. If the operator watches the
thermometer and finds that the temperature is higher than the desired value, then he reduce the
amount of steam supply in order to lower the temperature. It is quite possible that that if the
temperature becomes lower than the desired value it becomes necessary to increase the amount
of steam supply. This control action is based on closed loop operation which involves human
being, hand muscle, eyes, thermometer such a system may be called manual feed back system.

Human operator
Thermometer Brain of
Actual
operator (r-c)
Desired hot Water temp
Steam
water. temp Muscles Co C
+ C
Steam Hot water ro c + and Valve

Cold water Thermometer

Drain

Fig 1-6 a) Manual feedback thermal system b) Block diagram

EXAMPLE –2 HOME HEATING SYSTEM
The thermostatic temperature control in hour homes and public buildings is a familiar example.
An electronic thermostat or temperature sensor is placed in a central location usually on inside
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wall about 5 feet from the floor. A person selects and adjusts the desired room temperature ( r )
say 250 C and adjusts the temperature setting on the thermostat. A bimetallic coil in the
thermostat is affected by the actual room temperature ( c ). If the room temperature is lower than
the desired temperature the coil strip alters the shape and causes a mercury switch to operate a
relay, which in turn activates the furnace fire when the temperature in the furnace air duct system
reaches reference level ' r ' a blower fan is activated by another relay to force the warm air
throughout the building. When the room temperature ' C ' reaches the desired temperature ' r '
the shape of the coil strip in the thermostat alters so that Mercury switch opens. This deactivates
the relay and in turn turns off furnace fire, which in turn the blower.

Outdoor temp change

(disturbance) Actual
Temp.
Relay Co C
Fur nace Blower House
Desired temp. ro c
+ switch

Fig 1-7 Block diagram of Home Heating system.

A change in out door temperature is a disturbance to the home heating system. If the out side
temperature falls, the room temperature will likewise tend to decrease.

CLOSED- LOOP VERSUS OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEMS

An advantage of the closed loop control system is the fact that the use of feedback makes the
system response relatively insensitive to external disturbances and internal variations in systems
parameters. It is thus possible to use relatively inaccurate and inexpensive components to obtain
the accurate control of the given plant, whereas doing so is impossible in the open-loop case.
From the point of view of stability, the open loop control system is easier to build
because system stability is not a major problem. On the other hand, stability is a major problem
in the closed loop control system, which may tend to overcorrect errors that can cause
oscillations of constant or changing amplitude.
It should be emphasized that for systems in which the inputs are known ahead of time and in
which there are no disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop control. closed loop control
systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances it is advisable to use open-loop
control. Closed loop control systems have advantages only when unpredictable disturbances and
/ or unpredictable variations in system components used in a closed –loop control system is more
than that for a corresponding open – loop control system. Thus the closed loop control system is
generally higher in cost.

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Definitions:
Systems: A system is a combination of components that act together and perform a certain
objective. The system may be physical, biological, economical, etc.
Control system: It is an arrangement of physical components connected or related in a manner
to command, direct or regulate itself or another system.
Open loop: An open loop system control system is one in which the control action is
independent of the output.
Closed loop: A closed loop control system is one in which the control action is somehow
dependent on the output.
Plants: A plant is equipment the purpose of which is to perform a particular operation. Any
physical object to be controlled is called a plant.
Processes: Processes is a natural or artificial or voluntary operation that consists of a series of
controlled actions, directed towards a result.
Input: The input is the excitation applied to a control system from an external energy source.
The inputs are also known as actuating signals.
Output: The output is the response obtained from a control system or known as controlled
variable.
Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect
relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functional
relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Control elements: These are also called controller which are the components required to
generate the appropriate control signal applied to the plant.
Plant: Plant is the control system body process or machine of which a particular quantity or
condition is to be controlled.
Feedback control: feedback control is an operation in which the difference between the output
of the system and the reference input by comparing these using the difference as a means of
control.
Feedback elements: These are the components required to establish the functional relationship
between primary feedback signal and the controlled output.
Actuating signal: also called the error or control action. It is the algebraic sum consisting of
reference input and primary feedback.
Manipulated variable: it that quantity or condition which the control elements apply to the
controlled system.
Feedback signal: it is a signal which is function of controlled output
Disturbance: It is an undesired input signal which affects the output.
Forward path: It is a transmission path from the actuating signal to controlled output
Feedback path: The feed back path is the transmission path from the controlled output to the
primary feedback signal.
Servomechanism: Servomechanism is a feedback control system in which output is some
mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
Regulator: Regulator is a feedback system in which the input is constant for long time.
Transducer: Transducer is a device which converts one energy form into other
Tachometer: Tachometer is a device whose output is directly proportional to time rate of change
of input.
Synchros: Synchros is an AC machine used for transmission of angular position synchro motor-
receiver, synchro generator- transmitter.
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Block diagram: A block diagram is a short hand, pictorial representation of cause and effect
relationship between the input and the output of a physical system. It characterizes the functional
relationship amongst the components of a control system.
Summing point: It represents an operation of addition and / or subtraction.
Negative feedback: Summing point is a subtractor.
Positive feedback: Summing point is an adder.
Stimulus: It is an externally introduced input signal affecting the controlled output.
Take off point: In order to employ the same signal or variable as an input to more than block or
summing point, take off point is used. This permits the signal to proceed unaltered along several
different paths to several destinations.
Time response: It is the output of a system as a function of time following the application of a
prescribed input under specified operating conditions.

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DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF PHYSICAL SYSTEMS

The term mechanical translation is used to describe motion with a single degree of freedom or
motion in a straight line. The basis for all translational motion analysis is Newton‘s second law
of motion which states that the Net force F acting on a body is related to its mass M and
acceleration ‗a‘ by the equation  F = Ma
‗Ma‘ is called reactive force and it acts in a direction opposite to that of acceleration. The
summation of the forces must of course be algebraic and thus considerable care must be taken in
writing the equation so that proper signs prefix the forces.

The three basic elements used in linear mechanical translational systems are ( i ) Masses (ii)
springs iii) dashpot or viscous friction units. The graphical and symbolic notations for all three
are shown in fig 1-8

Fig 1-8 a) Mass Fig 1-8 b) Spring Fig 1-8 c) Dashpot

The spring provides a restoring a force when a force F is applied to deform a coiled spring a
reaction force is produced, which to bring it back to its freelength. As long as deformation is
small, the spring behaves as a linear element. The reaction force is equal to the product of the
stiffness k and the amount of deformation.

Whenever there is motion or tendency of motion between two elements, frictional forces exist.
The frictional forces encountered in physical systems are usually of nonlinear nature. The
characteristics of the frictional forces between two contacting surfaces often depend on the
composition of the surfaces. The pressure between surfaces, their relative velocity and others.
The friction encountered in physical systems may be of many types
( coulomb friction, static friction, viscous friction ) but in control problems viscous friction,
predominates. Viscous friction represents a retarding force i.e. it acts in a direction opposite to
the velocity and it is linear relationship between applied force and velocity. The mathematical
expression of viscous friction F=BV where B is viscous frictional co-efficient. It should be
realized that friction is not always undesirable in physical systems. Sometimes it may be
necessary to introduce friction intentionally to improve dynamic response of the system. Friction
may be introduced intentionally in a system by use of dashpot as shown in fig 1-9. In
automobiles shock absorber is nothing but dashpot.

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a b
Applied force
F
Piston

The basic operation of a dashpot, in which the housing is filled with oil. If a force f is applied to
the shaft, the piston presses against oil increasing the pressure on side ‗b‘ and decreasing
pressure side ‗a‘ As a result the oil flows from side ‗b‘ to side ‗a‘ through the wall clearance. The
friction coefficient B depends on the dimensions and the type of oil used.

Outline of the procedure

For writing differential equations
1. Assume that the system originally is in equilibrium in this way the often-troublesome
effect of gravity is eliminated.
2. Assume then that the system is given some arbitrary displacement if no distributing force
is present.
3. Draw a freebody diagram of the forces exerted on each mass in the system. There should
be a separate diagram for each mass.
4. Apply Newton‘s law of motion to each diagram using the convention that any force
acting in the direction of the assumed displacement is positive is positive.
5. Rearrange the equation in suitable form to solve by any convenient mathematical means.
Lever
Lever is a device which consists of rigid bar which tends to rotate about a fixed point
called ‗fulcrum‘ the two arms are called ―effort arm‖ and ―Load arm‖ respectively. The lever
bears analogy with transformer

F2 Load

L1 L2

Fulcrum

effort F1
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It is also called ‗mechanical transformer‘

Equating the moments of the force
F1 L1 = F2 L 2
F 2 = F1 L1
L2

Rotational mechanical system

The rotational motion of a body may be defined as motion about a fixed axis. The variables
generally used to describe the motion of rotation are torque, angular displacement , angular
velocity () and angular acceleration()
The three basic rotational mechanical components are 1) Moment of inertia J
2 ) Torsional spring 3) Viscous friction.
Moment of inertia J is considered as an indication of the property of an element, which stores the
kinetic energy of rotational motion. The moment of inertia of a given element depends on
geometric composition about the axis of rotation and its density. When a body is rotating a
reactive torque is produced which is equal to the product of its moment
of inertia (J) and angular acceleration and is given by T= J = J d2 
d t2
A well known example of a torsional spring is a shaft which gets twisted when a torque is
applied to it. Ts = K,  is angle of twist and K is torsional stiffness.

There is viscous friction whenever a body rotates in viscous contact with another body. This
torque acts in opposite direction so that angular velocity is  given by
T = f  = f d2  Where  = relative angular velocity between two bodies.
d t2 f = co efficient of viscous friction.

Newton‘s II law of motion states

 T = J d2 .
d t2

Gear wheel

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In almost every control system which involves rotational motion gears are necessary. It is often
necessary to match the motor to the load it is driving. A motor which usually runs at high speed
and low torque output may be required to drive a load at low speed and high torque.

Driving wheel

N1

N2
Driven wheel

Analogous Systems
Consider the mechanical system shown in fig A and the electrical system shown in fig B

The differential equation for mechanical system is

d2 x dx
M + + B + K X = f (t) -----------1
dt2 dt

The differential equation for electrical system is

d2 q d2 q
q
L + +R + = e ---------- 2
dt 2 dt2 c
Com paring equations (1) and ( 2) w e see tha t for the two systems the differential equations are of
identical form such systems are called ― analogous systems and the terms which occupy the
corresponding positions in differential equations are analogous quantities‖

The analogy is here is called force voltage analogy

Table for conversion for force voltage analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

Force (torque) Voltage

Mass (Moment of inertia) Inductance

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Viscous friction coefficient Resistance

Spring constant Capacitance

Displacement Charge

Velocity Current.

Force – Current Analogy

Another useful analogy between electrical systems and mechanical systems is based on force –
current analogy. Consider electrical and mechanical systems shown in fig.

For mechanical system the differential equation is given by

d2x dx
M + +B + K X = f (t) ----------- 1
2
dt dt

For electrical system

C d2x 1 d 
+ + + = I(t)
dt 2 R dt 2
L
Comparing equations (1) and (2) we find that the two systems are analogous systems. The
analogy here is called force – current analogy. The analogous quantities are listed.

Table of conversion for force – current analogy

Mechanical System Electrical System

Force( torque) Current

Mass( Moment of inertia) Capacitance

Viscous friction coefficient Conductance

Spring constant Inductance

Displacement Flux
( angular)
Velocity (angular) Voltage

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Illustration 1:For a two DOF spring mass damper system obtain the mathematical model where

F is the input x1 and x2 are responses.

k2 b2 (D amper)
Draw the free body diagram for mass
m1 and m2 separately as shown in figure
m2 x2 (Response) 1.10 (b)

Apply NSL for both the masses

k1 b1 separately and get equations as given in
(a) and (b)

m1 x1 (Response)

F
Figure 1.10 (a)

. .
k2 x2 b2 x2 k 2 x2 b2 x2

m2 m2
x2
k1 x2 k1 x1 b1 . x b x.1 1 2
..
. . k1 (x1 -x2 ) b1 2
(x1 -x )
k1 x2 k1 x1 b1 x1 b1 x2

m1
x1 m1
F
F
Figure 1.10 (b)

From NSL  F= ma

For mass m1
.. . .
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m1 x1 = F - b1 (x1 -x2 ) - k1 (x1 -x2 ) --- (a)

For mass m2
.. . . .
m2 x 2= b1 (x2 -x )1 + k1 (x 2-x )1 - b2 x 2- k 2 x2 --- (b)

Illustration 2: For the system shown in figure 2.16 (a) obtain the mathematical model if x1 and

x2 are initial displacements.

Let an initial displacement x1 be given to mass m1 and x2 to mass m2 .

K1

m1
X1
K2

m2
K3 X2

Figure 1.11 (a)

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K1 X1
K1 X1

m1
m1
X1 X1
K2 X2 K2 X1 K (X – X )
2 2 1

K2 X2 K2 X1
K2 (X2 – X1)
m2
m2
X2
K3 X2 X2
K3 X2
Figure 2.16 (b)
Based on Newton‘s second law of motion:  F = ma
For mass m1
..
m1 x1 = - K1 x1 + K2 (x2 -x1 )
..
m1 x1 + K1 x1 – K2 x2 + K 2 x1 = 0
..
m1 x1 + x1 (K 1 + K2 ) = K 2 x2 ----- (1)

For mass m2
..
m x = - K x – K (x – x )
2 2 3 2 2 2 1

..
m2 x2 + K 3 x2 + K2 x2 – K2 x1

m2 ..
x2 + x2 (K 2 + K3 ) = K2 x1 ----- (2)

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Mathematical models are:

..
m1 x 1 + x1 (K1 + K
2 ) = 2K2 x ----- (1)
..
m2 x 2 + x2 (K2 + K
3 ) = 2K1 x ----- (2)

1.Write the differential equation relating to motion X of the mass M to the force input u(t)

X
(output)
K1 K2
M U(t)
(input)

2. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure

X (output)
X1
K B2 F(t)
(input)
M
3. Write the differential equations for the mechanical system shown in figure.
B1
X1 X2
K1 f12
M1 M2
f(t) f2
f1
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4. Write the modeling equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

Xi K
X

M M
force f(t)
Xo
B

5. For the systems shown in figure write the differential equations and obtain the transfer
functions indicated.

Yk
K F

Xi Xo Xi Xo C

6. Write the differential equation describing the system. Assume the bar through which
force is applied is not flexible, has no mass or moment of inertia, and all
displacements are small.

f(t) b
K
X

a M

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7. Write the equations of motion in terms of given mechanical quantities.

X2
Force f K1
a b
M1 M2

B1
K2
X1
8. Write the force equations for the mechanical systems shown in figure.

B1
J1
T(t) 
9. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

K
T(t) J1 J2

1 2
10. Write the force equation for the mechanical system shown in figure.

1 K 2 K 3 K
1 2 3

TorquECeE/STJBIT J1 J2 J3 Page 21

B1 B2 B3
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11. Torque T(t) is applied to a small cylinder with moment of inertia J1 which rotates with in a
larger cylinder with moment of inertia J2. The two cylinders are coupled by viscous friction B1.
The outer cylinder has viscous friction B2 between it and the reference frame and is restrained by
a torsion spring k. write the describing differential equations.

J2 K

J1
B2
Torque T1, 1 B1

12. The polarized relay shown exerts a force f(t) = Ki. i(t) upon the pivoted bar. Assume the relay
coil has constant inductance L. The left end of the pivot bar is connected to the reference frame
through a viscous damper B1 to retard rapid motion of the bar. Assume the bar has negligible
mass and moment of inertia and also that all displacements are small. Write the describing
differential equations. Note that the relay coil is not free to move.

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13. Figure shows a control scheme for controlling the azimuth angle of an armature controlled
dc. Motion with dc generator used as an amplifier. Determine transfer function
L (s)
. The parameters of the plant are given below.
u (s)

Motor torque constant = KT in N.M /amp

Motor back emf constant = K B in V/ rad / Sec
Generator gain constant = KG in v/ amp
Motor to load gear ratio = N2
N1
Resistance of the circuit = R in ohms.

Inductance of the circuit = L in Henry

Moment of inertia of motor = J

Viscous friction coefficient = B

Field resistance = Rf

Field inductance = Lf

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14. The schematic diagram of a dc motor control system is shown in figure where Ks is error
detector gain in volt/rad, k is the amplifier gain, K b back emf constant, K t is torque

constant, n is the gear train ratio = 2 = Tm Bm = motion friction constant

1 T2
Jm = motor inertia, K L = Torsional spring constant JL = load inertia.

15. Obtain a transfer function C(s) /R(s) for the positional servomechanism shown in figure.
Assume that the input to the system is the reference shaft position (R) and the system output is
the output shaft position ( C ). Assume the following constants.
Gain of the potentiometer (error detector ) K 1 in V/rad
Amplifier gain ‗ K p ‘ in V / V
Motor torque constant ‗ K T ‘ in V/ rad
Gear ratio N1 N2
Moment of inertia of load ‗J‘

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Viscous friction coefficient ‗f‘

16. Find the transfer function E0 (s) / I(s)

C1
I E0
C2 R Output
input

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Recommended Questions :

1. Name three applications of control systems.

2. Name three reasons for using feedback control systems and at least one reason for not
using them.
3. Give three examples of open- loop systems.
4. Functionally, how do closed – loop systems differ from open loop systems.
5. State one condition under which the error signal of a feedback control system would not
be the difference between the input and output.
6. Name two advantages of having a computer in the loop.
7. Name the three major design criteria for control systems.
8. Name the two parts of a system‘s response.
9. Physically, what happens to a system that is unstable?
10. Instability is attributable to what part of the total response.
11. What mathematical model permits easy interconnection of physical systems?
12. To what classification of systems can the transfer function be best applied?
13. What transformation turns the solution of differential equations into algebraic
manipulations ?
14. Define the transfer function.
15. What assumption is made concerning initial conditions when dealing with transfer
functions?
16. What do we call the mechanical equations written in order to evaluate the transfer
function ?
17. Why do transfer functions for mechanical networks look identical to transfer functions
for electrical networks?
18. What function do gears and levers perform.
19. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motor‘s transfer function?

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