Chapter 5

Carrier transport phenomena

W.K. Chen

Transport
The net flow of electrons and holes in material is called transport
Two basic transport mechanisms

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Drift: movement of charged due to electric fields

Diffusion: the flow of charges due to density gradient

We implicitly assume the thermal equilibrium during the carrier

transport is not substantially disturbed

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Outline

Carrier drift
Carrier diffusion
Graded impurity distribution
The Hall effect

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5.1 Carrier drift

Drift: the net movement of charge due to electric fields is called drift
Drift current: The net drift of charge gives rise to a drift current

N: total number of flow charge

n: volume density of flow charge
A: cross-sectional area
: average drift velocity
l: traveling length of carrier per t

N nAl nA(t )
#
= nA ( )
=
=
t
t
t
sec

#
)
Flux density = = n (
A
sec cm 2

Flux =

Drift current density J = q = qn d

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A
( 2)
cm

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Ampere

mobility
The average drift velocity for low electric fields is directly
proportional to the electric field, similar to the terminal velocity case
in Fundamental Physics

r
Fext

Hole: F = m*p a = (+ e)E

E: electric field

r
dp = p E
r

dp: average drift velocity for holes

p: hole mobility, proportionality factor

crystal

The mobility describe how well a particle will move due to an

electric field

r
Fext = m*a Drift current due to holes J
p , drf = ( + e) p dp = ( + e) p p E

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J = q = qn d (

A
)
cm 2

F = (e) E

Flux p

r
dn = n E
r

Flux n

J n ,drf = qn = (e)n dp = (e) p ( n E )

Drift current due to electrons
Total drift current

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F = (+ e) E

J p ,drf
J n ,drf

J n ,drf = en n E
J = J n ,drf + J p ,drf = (en n + ep p )E

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Example 5.1 drift current density

GaAs sample at 300K, N a = 0, N d = 1016 cm 3
Assume complete ionization
Calulate the drift current density if applied electric field E = 10 V/cm
Solution:

complete ionization n N d = 1016 cm -3

ni2 (1.8 1016 ) 2
=
= 3.24 10 4 cm -3
p=
16
10
n
Calulate the drift current density if applied electric field E = 10 V/cm

J dft = J n ,drf + J p ,drf = (en n + ep p )E

J dft = (1.6 10 19 )(8500)(1016 )(10) = 136A/cm 2

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5.1.2 Mobility effect

F = m*p a = m*p

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eE
d
= ( + e) E = * t
mp
dt

Under thermal equilibrium

Assume the net drift velocity is a small perturbation on the random thermal
velocity, so the time between collision will not be altered appreciably

e cp
mean peak velocity d , peak = * E cp: mean time between collisions
m
p
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The average drift velocity is one half the peak value

1 e cp
average velocity d = * E
2 m p
Due to the statistic nature, the factor of does not appear in a more
accurate model

e cp
average velocity dp = * E = p E
m
p

p =
n =

dp
E

dn
E

=
=

e cp
m*p

e cn
mn*

The less the collisions, the longer the mean collision time and the higher the
mobility
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Scattering (collision) mechanisms

Two major scattering mechanisms

Phonon (lattice) scattering

A perfect periodic potential in a solid allows electrons to move
unimpeded, or with no scattering, through the crystal
The thermal vibrations of lattice atoms cause a disruption in the perfect
periodic potential, resulting the interactions between the electrons or
holes and the vibrating lattice atoms

L T 3 / 2
lattice

Ionized impurity scattering

The impurites in semiconductor at higher temperatures. The coulomb
interactions between the electrons or holes and the ionized impurities
produce scattering or collisions.

impurity
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T 3 / 2
I
NI
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total ionized impurity

N I = ( N d+ + N a )
10

Mobilitis versus temperarure

Inserts show the temperature dependence for almost intrinsic silicon

The inserts show that the parameter n is not equal to 3/2, but is 2.2, as
the first-order scattering theory predicted. However , the mobilites do
increase as the temperature increases

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Mobilties versus impurity concentrations at 300K

Ge

Si

GaAs

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Net mobility
The probability of a scattering even in the differential time dt is the sum of
individual events

dt

Qp =

dp
E

e cp
m

*
p

dt

, n =

dn
E

dt

e cn

mn*

The net mobility due to the ionized and lattice scattering processes

High effective mass of carrier results in low mobility

The mobility will increase with the increasing collision time

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5.1.3 Conductivity
J = e(n n + ep p )E = E

V = IR, R =

J=

L
A

L
A

I
V / R EL
1
=
=

= E
A
A
A L

A
J = E

= (en n + ep p )

1
e(n n + ep p )

The conductivity and resistivity of an extrinsic semiconductor are a

function primarily of the majority carrier parameters, such carrier
concentrations and mobilities

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Resistivity versus impurity concentration at 300K

Si

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Ge, GaAs and GaP

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i = (e n + e p )ni

In the midtemperature range (extrinsic range)

We have complete ionization, the electron concentration remains
essentially constant, However, the mobility decreases with increasing
temperature
At higher temperatures
The intrinsic carrier concentration begins to dominate the electron
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Chen
16
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concentration
as well as the conductivity

Example 5.2 mobility

Compensated n - type Si at 300K,
= 16 ( - cm) 1 , Na = 1016 cm 3
Determine the donor concentration and electron mobility
Solution:

compenstaed semiconductor and complete ionization at 300K

n (Nd Na )

e n n = e n ( N d N a )
16 = (1.6 10 19 ) n ( N d 1017 )
Use the left figure with trial and error
For example if we choose
N I = N d+ N a = 3 1017 cm -3 (i.e., N d = 2 1017 cm -3 )
Then n = 510 cm 2 /V - s = 8.16 ( - cm)-1
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If we choose
N I = N d+ N a = 6 1017 cm -3 (i.e., N d = 5 1017 cm -3 )
Then n = 325 cm 2 /V - s = 20.8 ( - cm)-1

Further tial and error yields

N I = N d+ + N a = 4.5 1017 cm -3
N d = 3.5 1017 cm -3 )

n = 400 cm 2 /V - s
= 16 ( - cm)-1 (agree with given value)
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5.1.4 Velocity saturation

1
3
mth2 = kT
2
2

at T = 300 K
1
3
mth2 = (0.0259) = 0.03885eV
2
2
2(0.03885eV)
2(0.03885)(1.6 10 19 )
th =
=
105 m/s
31
m
(9.1110 )
th 107 cm/s

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Figure 5.8

For Si

At low electric fields, there is linear variation of velocity with electric field
At high electric fields, the velocity saturated at approximately 107cm/s

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GaAs : mn* = 0.067mo

Si : mn* = 1.08mo

For GaAs
Due to low effective mass, the low-electric field electron velocity in GaAs is
much larger than in Si.
At high electric fields, negative differential mobility occurs due to the scattering
of electrons into upper valley. Because of larger effective mass in the upper
valley (0.55 mo vs. 0.067 mo), the intervalley transfer mechanism results in
decreasing average drift velocity
of electrons
with electric field.
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5.2 Carrier diffusion

(1)
xo

xo l

n(x)

xo

(2)

xo

xo + l

Fn = thl
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l = th cn

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dn
dx
22

During electron travel between collisions

In a mean free time, One half of electrons at
segment (1) will move to the right and cross the xo
plane into segment (2)
One half of electrons at segment (2) will move to
the left and cross the xo plane into (segment (1))

n1

Net rate of electron flow to the right (electron flux)

xo l

l
n2
(1)

1
1
1
n1th n2th = (n1 n2 )th
2
2
2
dn
n1 n2 l
dx
1
dn
Fn ( x) = th ( l )
2
dx
Fn ( xo ) =

(2)

xo

xo + l

l = th cn

1
dn
net electron flux Fn = thl
2
dx
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Electron diffusion current

1
dn
J n = (e) Fn = + ethl
2
dx

J n ,dif = eDn

dn
dx

electron diffusion coefficient

1
Dn = thll = th cn
2

Hole diffusion current

J p ,dif = eD p

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dp
dx

hole diffusion coefficent

l = th cp
1
D p = thl
2

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Example 5.4
n - type GaAs at 300K,
The electron concentration varies linearly from 1 1018 to 7 1018 cm 3 over a
distance of 0.10 cm
Calculate the diffusion current if diffusion coefficient Dn = 225 cm 2 /s
Solution:

n
dn
eDn
x
dx
11018 7 1017
19
= 108 A/cm2
= (1.6 10 )(225)
0.10

J n ,dif = eDn

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5.2.2 Total current density

J = en n E + ep p E + J n ,dif + eDn

dp
dn
eD p
dx
dx

J = en n E + ep p E + J n ,dif + eDnn eD p p

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5.3 Graded impurity distribution

In nonuniform doped semiconductor, there will be a diffusion of majority

electrons from the region of high concentration to the region of low
concentration.
The flow of electrons leave behind positively charged donor ions. The
separation of positive and negative charges induces a electric field

The electric field is defined as

The electric potential is related to the electric potential energy by the charge
( -e)

Ec
( e)

1
= ( EF EFi )
e
d 1 dEFi
=
Ex =
dx e dx

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N d ( x)
E f E fi

=
no = ni exp
N
(
x
)
E
E
kT
ln
d
f
fi

n
kT

dE fi
dx

kT dN d ( x)
N d ( x) dx

The induced electric field due to the nonuniform doping

kT 1 dN d ( x)
E x =
e N d ( x) dx

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Example 5.5
N d ( x) = 1016 1019 x (cm -3 ) (0 x 1m)
Solution:

(0.0259)(1019 )
kT 1 dN d ( x)
E x =
=
(1016 1019 x)
e N d ( x) dx
At x = 0, we find
E x ( x = 0) = 25.9 V/cm

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5.3.2 The Einstein relation

In thermal equilibrium, the individual electron and hole current must be zero

dn
dx
dN d ( x)
J n = 0 = en n E + eDn
dx
J n = 0 = en n E + eDn

kT 1 dN d ( x)
dN d ( x)
0 = en n
+ eDn
dx
e N d ( x) dx

Q n( x ) N d ( x )
Dn

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kT
e

Dn

Dp

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kT
e

30

The hole current must also be zero

Einstein relation

Dn

Dp

kT
e

0.0256 at T = 300 K

40 at T = 300K

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5.4 The Hall effect

The Hall effect is used
to distinguish whether a
semiconductor is n-type or ptype
To measure the majority
carrier concentration and
Majority carrier mobility

FB = q B
F = q[E + B] = 0
qE y = qE H = q x Bz

The induced electric field in the y-direction

is called the Hall field

The induced electric field produce a voltage in the y-direction is called the
Hall Voltage

VH = + E H W
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VH = xWBz
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x : drift velocity
32

Semiconductor type & concentration

For p-type semiconductor, the drift velocity is related to material parameters

dx =

Jx
Ix
=
ep (ep)(Wd )

VH =

I x Bz
epd

p=

I x Bz
edVH

VH =

I x Bz
ned

n=

I x Bz
edVH

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33

mobility
Once the majority carrier concentration is determined, we can calculate the
low-field majority carrier mobility

Q J x = ep p E x
Ix
V
= ep p x
Wd
L

p =

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IxL
epVxWd

n =

IxL
enVxWd

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Example 5.7 carrier concnetration & mobility

L = 0.1 cm, W = 10 2 cm, d = 10 3 cm
I x = 1.0 mA, Vx = 12.5 V, Bz = 500 gauss = 5 10 2 tesla, and VH = 6.25 mV
Solution:

I B
n= x z
edVH

(10 3 )(5 10 2 )
n=
= 5 10 21 m 3 = 5 1015 cm 3
19
5
3
(1.6 10 )(10 )(6.25 10 )

(10 3 )(10 3 )
IxL
= 0.10 m 2 /V - s
n =
n =
19
4
5
21
(1.6 10 )(5 10 )(12.5)(10 )(10 )
enVxWd

n = 1000 cm 2 /V - s

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Figure 5.14 Figure for Problem 5.22

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