Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
Chapter 2
CHAPTER 2
HARD TURNING AND GRINDING
2.1 Hard Turning
Hard turning is defined as the process of single point cutting of part pieces that have
hardness values over 45 HRc. It is similar to turning operation but the only difference is that the
hardened work piece is used here.
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Types of abrasive
Grain size
Type of bond
Wheel grade
Wheel structure
1) Type of abrasives
Corundum, emery and diamond are the most commonly used natural abrasives. Wheels
made of emery and corundum lack uniform properties. Grinding performance of such wheels is
affected because of the presence of impurities and so they are not used as such. Hence the
natural abrasives are replaced by manufactured abrasives. Manufactured abrasives have well
defined and controlled properties of roughness and hardness. Commonly used manufactured
abrasives are aluminum oxide, silicon carbide, diamond and cubic boron nitride.
Aluminum oxide
Aluminum oxide wheels are extensively used for grinding steels, ferrous alloys and other
high tensile materials. The raw material for the production of aluminum oxide is bauxite, which is
reduced metallurgical in an electric furnace to produce the abrasive. Its properties vary
depending upon the amount of impurities present. For example, a small amount of chronic oxide
improves the toughness of the abrasives. Pure aluminum is quite friable and it is used where
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sharp cutting points are to be maintained continuously through the fracture of individual grits. It
is mainly used in dry grinding of heat sensitive steels.
Silicon carbide
Silicon carbide wheels are used for grinding non-ferrous metals, non-metallic elements
and cast irons. It is also used for grinding hard and dense materials where high finish is
required. The raw materials for silicon carbide are mainly silicon dioxide and petroleum coke or
anthracite. Pure silicon carbide of green variety is more friable than the grey or black type.
Diamond
Synthetic diamonds are used to a large extent for grinding cemented carbides, ceramics
and glass. With the development of special surface coatings and controlled crystal
configurations, the use of diamond has been extended to ductile materials including steels. It is
inert to all forms of chemical attack. It has good thermal stability because of its high thermal
conductivity. It has very high melting point which results in very little reduction in its mechanical
strength.
Cubic boron nitride
Like diamonds, cubic boron nitride is produced under conditions of high pressures and
temperatures at which the hexagonal structures changes into the cubic structure. This is the
second hardest known substance. It has high strength, as there are no simple planes of sliding
in its structure. It has a high thermal stability and is inert to chemical action. They are used in
grinding hardened and difficult-to-grind steels. They have a long life and high grinding ratio,
nearly hundred times that of the conventional abrasives. They produce high quality of surface,
since the temperature produced during grinding with this abrasive is much lower than with
wheels of conventional abrasives.
2) Grain size
The grain size influences the stock removal rate and the generated surface finish. The grain
size may be broadly classified as very coarse, coarse, medium, fine and very fine. Generally,
coarser grits are used for heavy material removal where surface finish is not critical. Finer grains
are used when the material to be removed is very less and the finish is more important. Medium
sizes are used in operations which require both material removal and finish. While selecting the
grain size, penetration and the chipping of the wheel must be considered
3) Wheel grade.
Grade is frequently referred as the hardness of the wheel. The abrasive grains in the
grinding wheel are bound together by the bonding agent. The grains break off owing to
increased cutting forces. The force which holds the grains in place denotes the hardness of the
wheel. It is dependent on the kind of bond, structure of the wheel and grinding ratio. Greater the
bond content, stronger is the bond material and harder is the wheel. The hardness of grinding
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wheels have been classified as very soft, soft, medium, hard and very hard and denoted by
letters from A-Z.
Very soft
A, B, C, D, E, F, G
Soft
H, I, J, K
Medium
L, M, N, O
Hard
P, Q, R, S
Very hard
T, U, V, W, X, Y, Z
4) Wheel structure
The wheel structure denotes the density or openness of the abrasive grain spacing. The
abrasive grains and the bond do not occupy the entire volume of the grinding wheel. There are
pores in between the abrasive grains and the binding agent. Depending upon the structure, the
grinding wheels are classified as compact, semi-contact and porous groups. Open structured
wheels, in which there are fewer grains per unit volume, are used for high stock removal. Close
or dense structured wheels are used for producing high quality surface finish. The structured is
represented by numbers ranging from 0 to 15. The lower numbers indicate a dense structure
and higher numbers an open structure.
5) Type of bond
Bond is the type of material used for cementing together the abrasive grains. When the
abrasive particles become dull, they lose their grinding ability and the bonding material breaks
away. This leads to the fracture of the grains or release of the grains from the wheel, thereby
producing new grains. The different types of bond materials are as follows.
Vitrified bond
The majority of the wheels used in engineering are of vitrified bond. Vitrified bond consists of
clay and feldspar or other fluxes. Vitrified bond is suitable for high stock removal even at dry
condition because they can withstand high temperatures. Since they are baked at high
temperatures, they are not affected by the heat generated during the process. It can also be
safely used in wet grinding. It cannot be used where mechanical impact or thermal variations
are likely to occur. This bond is also not recommended for very high speed grinding because of
possible breakage of the bond under centrifugal force.
Silicate bond
This bond has silicate of soda as an important ingredient. It is used to a limited extent in
operations where the heat generated by grinding is to be kept to a minimum. It is less sensitive
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to shock and side loads than vitrified bond wheels. It is affected by dampness and alkaline
solutions.
Resin bond
Conventional abrasive resin bonded wheels are widely used for heavy duty grinding
because of their ability to withstand shock load. This bond is also known for its vibration
absorbing characteristics and finds its use with diamond and cubic boron nitride in grinding of
cemented carbide and steel respectively. Resin bond is not recommended with alkaline grinding
fluid for a possible chemical attack leading to bond weakening. Fiberglass reinforced resin bond
is used with cut off wheels which requires added strength under high speed operation.
Rubber bond
Rubber bond is made using natural or synthetic rubber in bonding material. Because of
its high strength and elasticity, it is used for cutting-off wheels grinding saws and regulating
wheels in center less grinding. It is used for obtaining finish on rolls. They generate more heat
on the job than vitrified bond wheels. If it is stored for a long time, the strength of the bond
decreases. They are affected by alkaline solutions and dampness.
Shellac bond
Shellac bond produces less temperature in grinding than vitrified bond wheels. This type
of bond is used to obtain fine finish on rolls, for cutlery grinding and for machining of stones,
ceramics, etc. They are easy to manufacture.
Metal bond
Metal bond is extensively used with super abrasive wheels. Extremely high toughness of
metal bonded wheels makes these very effective in those applications where form accuracy as
well as large stock removal is desired.
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