Waqtc Book

EMBANKMENT AND BASE
IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
APPENDIX A
Table of Contents
FIELD OPERATING PROCEDURES - SHORT FORM
Chapter
Section
AASHTO T 255
Total Evaporable Moisture Content of Aggregate by Drying; and
AASHTO T 265
Laboratory Determination of Moisture Content of Soils
AASHTO T 99
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 2.5-kg (5.5-lb)
Rammer and 305-mm (12-in.) Drop;
AASHTO T 180
Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using a 4.54-kg (10-lb)
Rammer and 457-mm (18-in.) Drop
AASHTO 272
Family of Curves One-Point Method

4
AASHTO T 85
Specific Gravity and Absorption of Coarse Aggregate
AASHTO T 224
Correction for Coarse Particles in the Soil Compaction Test
AASHTO T 310
In-Place Density and Moisture Content of Soil and Soil-Aggregate by the
Nuclear Method
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
TOTAL EVAPORABLE MOISTURE CONTENT OF AGGREGATE BY DRYING

FOP FOR AASHTO T 255 LABORATORY DETERMINATION OF MOISTURE
CONTENT OF SOILS
FOP FOR AASHTO T 265
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of moisture content of aggregate and soil in
accordance with AASHTO T 255-00 and AASHTO T 265-12. It may also be used for other
construction materials.
Overview
Moisture content is determined by comparing the wet mass of a sample and the mass of the
sample after drying to constant mass. The term constant mass is used to define when a
sample is dry.
Constant mass the state at which a mass does not change more than a given percent, after
additional drying for a defined time interval, at a required temperature.
Apparatus
Balance or scale: capacity sufficient for the principle sample mass, accurate to 0.1
percent of sample mass or readable to 0.1 g, and meeting the requirements of AASHTO
M 231
Containers, clean, dry and capable of being sealed
Suitable drying containers
Microwave safe container with ventilated lid
Heat source, controlled:

Forced draft oven
Ventilated oven
Convection oven
Heat source, uncontrolled:

Infrared heater/heat lamp, hot plate, fry pan, or any other device/method that will dry
the sample without altering the material being dried
Microwave oven (900 watts minimum)
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-1
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
Utensils such as spoons
Hot pads or gloves
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
Sample Preparation
In accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 2 obtain a representative sample in its existing
condition.
For aggregates the representative sample size is based on Table 1 or other information that
may be specified by the agency.
TABLE 1
Sample Sizes for Moisture Content of Aggregate
Nominal Maximum Minimum Sample Mass
Size*
g (lb)
mm (in.)
4.75 (No. 4)
500 (1.1)
9.5 (3/8)
1500 (3.3)
12.5 (1/2)
2000 (4)
19.0 (3/4)
3000 (7)
25.0 (1)
4000 (9)
37.5 (1 1/2)
6000 (13)
50 (2)
8000 (18)
63 (2 1/2)
10,000 (22)
75 (3)
13,000 (29)
90 (3 1/2)
16,000 (35)
100 (4)
25,000 (55)
150 (6)
50,000 (110)
* One sieve larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent of the material using an agency
specified set of sieves based on cumulative percent retained. Where large gaps in specification sieves exist,
intermediate sieve(s) may be inserted to determine nominal maximum.
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-2
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
For soils the representative sample size is based on Table 2 or other information that may be
specified by the agency.
TABLE 2
Sample Sizes for Moisture Content of Soil
Maximum Particle
Size
mm (in)
0.425 (No. 40)
4.75 (No. 4)
12.5 (1/2)
25.0 (1)
50 (2)
Minimum Sample Mass

g
10
100
300
500
1000
Immediately seal or cover samples to prevent any change in moisture content or follow the
steps in Procedure.
Procedure
Determine and record the sample mass as follows:
For aggregate, determine and record all masses to the nearest 0.1 percent of the
sample mass or to the nearest 0.1 g.
For soil, determine and record all masses to the nearest 0.1 g.
When determining the mass of hot samples or containers or both, place and tare a buffer
between the sample container and the balance. This will eliminate damage to or interference
with the operation of the balance or scale.
1. Determine and record the mass of the container (and lid for microwave drying).
2. Place the wet sample in the container.
a. For oven(s), hot plates, infrared heaters, etc.: Spread the sample in the container.
b. For microwave oven: Heap sample in the container; cover with ventilated lid.
3. Determine and record the total mass of the container and wet sample.
4. Determine and record the wet mass of the sample by subtracting the container mass
determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample determined in Step 3.
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-3
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
5. Place the sample in one of the following drying apparatus:

a. For aggregate
i. Controlled heat source (oven): at 110 5C (230 9F).
ii. Uncontrolled heat source (Hot plate, infrared heater, etc.): Stir frequently
to avoid localized overheating.
b. For soil controlled heat source (oven): at 110 5C (230 9F).
Note 1: Soils containing gypsum or significant amounts of organic material require special drying. For
reliable moisture contents dry these soils at 60C (140F). For more information see AASHTO T 265, Note 2.
6. Dry until sample appears moisture free.

7. Determine mass of sample and container.
8. Determine and record the mass of the sample by subtracting the container mass
9. Return sample and container to the heat source for additional drying.
a. For aggregate
i. Controlled heat source (oven): 30 minutes
ii. Uncontrolled heat source (Hot plate, infrared heater, etc.): 10 minutes
iii. Uncontrolled heat source (Microwave oven): 2 minutes
Caution: Some minerals in the sample may cause the aggregate to overheat, altering the
aggregate gradation.
b. For soil controlled heat source (oven): 1 hour
10. Determine mass of sample and container.
11. Determine and record the mass of the sample by subtracting the container mass
determined in Step 1 from the mass of the container and sample determined in
Step 10.
12. Determine percent change by subtracting the new mass determination (Mn) from the
previous mass determination (Mp) divide by the previous mass determination (Mp)
multiply by 100.
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-4
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
13. Continue drying, performing steps 9 through 12, until there is:
a. For Aggregate less than a 0.10 percent change after additional drying time.
b. For Soil no change after additional drying time. A sample dried overnight (15 to
16 hours) is sufficient in most cases.
14. Constant mass has been achieved, sample is defined as dry.
15. Allow the sample to cool. Immediately determine and record the total mass of the
container and dry sample.
16. Determine and record the dry mass of the sample by subtracting the mass of the container
17. Determine and record percent moisture by subtracting the final dry mass determination
(MD) from the initial wet mass determination (MW) divide by the final dry mass
determination (MD) multiply by 100.
Table 3
Methods of Drying
Aggregate
Heat Source
Controlled:
Forced draft (preferred), ventilated, or
convection oven
Uncontrolled:
Hot plate, infrared heater, etc.
Microwave
Specific Instructions
Drying intervals to
achieve constant
mass (minutes)
110 5C (230 9F)
30
Stir frequently
Heap sample and cover
with ventilated lid
10
2
Soil
Heat Source
Specific Instructions
Drying increments
(minutes)
Controlled:
Forced draft (preferred), ventilated, or
convection oven
110 5C (230 9F)
1 hour
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-5
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
Calculation
Constant Mass:
Calculate constant mass using the following formula:
100
Where:
% Change
Mp = previous mass measurement

Mn = new mass measurement
Example:
Mass of container: 1232.1 g
Mass of container and sample after first drying cycle: 2637.2 g
Mass, Mp, of possibly dry sample: 2637.2 g - 1232.1 g = 1405.1 g
Mass of container and dry sample after second drying cycle: 2634.1 g
Mass, Mn, of dry sample: 2634.1 g - 1232.1 g = 1402.0 g
1405.1
1402.0
1405.1
100
0.22%
0.22 percent is not less than 0.10 percent, so continue drying

Mass of container and dry sample after third drying cycle: 2633.0 g
Mass, Mn, of dry sample: 2633.0 g - 1232.1 g = 1400.9 g
1402.0
1400.9
1402.0
100
0.08%
0.08 percent is less than 0.10 percent, so constant mass has been reached for an
aggregate, but continue drying for soil.
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-6
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
Moisture Content:
Calculate the moisture content, as a percent, using the following formula:
100
Where:
w = moisture content, percent

MW = wet mass
MD = dry mass
Example:
Mass of container: 1232.1 g
Mass of container and wet sample: 2764.7 g
Mass, MW, of wet sample: 2764.7 g - 1232.1 g = 1532.6 g
Mass of container and dry sample (COOLED): 2633.0 g
Mass, MD, of dry sample: 2633.0 g - 1232.1 g = 1400.9 g
1532.6
1400.9
1400.9
100
131.7
1400.9
100
9.40%
9.4%
Report
Results on forms approved by the agency
MW, wet mass
MD, dry mass
w, moisture content to nearest 0.1 percent
T255_T265_short_14
E&B/ID 13-7
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T255_T265_short_14
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)
E&B/ID 13-8
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T 265 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What extra care should be taken when using a microwave to dry aggregates?
2. What is the maximum temperature that a sample should be allowed to attain for each of
the various types of ovens?
3. How is constant mass defined according to this FOP:

For Aggregate?
For Soil?
T255_T265_rev_10
E&B/ID 3-9
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T255_T265_rev_10
WAQTC
E&B/ID 3-10
AASHTO T 255/T 265 REVIEW
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 255/T265 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS

1. What extra care should be taken when using a microwave to dry aggregates?
Microwave safe containers.
2. What are the maximum temperatures that a sample should be allowed to attain when
using the various types of ovens?
239 F
3. How is constant mass defined according to this FOP:
For Aggregate?
Less than a 0.10% change after an additional:
30 minutes of drying in an oven

10 minutes of drying in a microwave
20 minutes of drying using other means
For Soil?
No change after an additional hour of drying.
T255_T265_rev
E&B/ID 3-9
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
FOP AASHTO T 99/T 180 (14)
MOISTURE-DENSITY RELATIONS OF SOILS:

USING A 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) RAMMER AND A 305 mm (12 in.) DROP
FOP FOR AASHTO T 99
USING A 4.54 kg (10 lb) RAMMER AND A 457 mm (18 in.) DROP
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of the moisture-density relations of soils and soilaggregate mixtures in accordance with two similar test methods:
AASHTO T 99-10: Methods A, B, C, and D
AASHTO T 180-10: Methods A, B, C, and D
This test method applies to soil mixtures having 40% or less retained on the 4.75 mm (No 4)
sieve for methods A or B, or, 30% or less retained on the 19 mm () with methods C or D.
The retained material is defined as oversize (coarse) material. If no minimum percentage is
specified, 5% will be used. Samples that contain oversize (coarse) material that meet percent
retained criteria should be corrected by using the FOP for AASHTO T 224. Samples of soil
or soil-aggregate mixture are prepared at several moisture contents and compacted into molds
of specified size, using manual or mechanical rammers that deliver a specified quantity of
compactive energy. The moist masses of the compacted samples are multiplied by the
appropriate factor to determine moist density values. Moisture contents of the compacted
samples are determined and used to obtain the dry density values of the same samples.
Maximum dry density and optimum moisture content for the soil or soil-aggregate mixture is
determined by plotting the relationship between dry density and moisture content.
Apparatus
Mold Cylindrical, made of metal and with the dimensions shown in Table 1 or
Table 2. It shall include a detachable collar and a base plate to which the mold can be
fastened. If permitted by the agency, the mold may be of the split type, consisting
of two half-round sections, which can be securely locked in place to form a cylinder.
Rammer Manually or mechanically-operated rammers as detailed in Table 1 or

Table 2. A manually-operated rammer shall be equipped with a guide sleeve to
control the path and height of drop. The guide sleeve shall have at least four vent
holes no smaller than 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) in diameter, spaced approximately 90 degrees
apart and approximately 19 mm (3/4 in.) from each end. A mechanically-operated
rammer will uniformly distribute blows over the sample and will be calibrated with
several soil types, and be adjusted, if necessary, to give the same moisture-density
results as with the manually operated rammer. For additional information concerning
calibration, see the FOP for AASHTO T 99 and T 180.
Sample extruder A jack, lever frame, or other device for extruding compacted
specimens from the mold quickly and with little disturbance.
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-1
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Balance(s) or scale(s) of the capacity and sensitivity required for the procedure used
by the agency.
A balance or scale with a capacity of 20 kg (45 lb) and a sensitivity of 5 g
(0.01 lb) for obtaining the sample, meeting the requirements of AASHTO M 231.
A balance or scale with a capacity of 2 kg and a sensitivity of 0.1 g is used for
moisture content determinations done under both procedures, meeting the
requirements of AASHTO M 231.
Drying apparatus A thermostatically controlled drying oven, capable of maintaining

a temperature of 110 5C (230 9F) for drying moisture content samples in
accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265.
Straightedge A steel straightedge at least 250 mm (10 in.) long, with one beveled
edge and at least one surface plane within 0.1 percent of its length, used for final
trimming.
Sieve(s) 4.75 mm (No. 4) and/or 19.0 mm (3/4 in.), conforming to AASHTO M 92.
Mixing tools Miscellaneous tools such as a mixing pan, spoon, trowel, spatula, etc.,
or a suitable mechanical device, for mixing the sample with water.
Containers with close-fitting lids to prevent gain or loss of moisture in the sample.
Table 1
Comparison of Apparatus, Sample, and Procedure Metric
Mold Volume, m
Mold Diameter, mm
Mold Height, mm
Detachable Collar Height, mm
Rammer Diameter, mm
Rammer Mass, kg
Rammer Drop, mm
Layers
Blows per Layer
Material Size, mm
Test Sample Size, kg
T 99
Methods A, C: 0.000943
0.000008
Methods B, D: 0.002124
0.000021
Methods A, C: 101.6 0.41
Methods B, D: 152.4 2.54
116.43 0.13
50.80 0.64
50.80
2.495
305
3
Methods A, C: 25
Methods B, D: 56
Methods A, B: 4.75 minus
Methods C, D: 19.0 minus
Method A: 3
Method C: 5 (1)
T 180
Methods A, C: 0.000943
0.000008
Methods B, D: 0.002124
0.000021
Methods A, C: 101.6 0.41
Methods B, D: 152.4 2.54
116.43 0.13
50.80 0.64
50.80
4.536
457
5
Methods A, C: 25
Methods B, D: 56
Methods A, B: 4.75 minus
Methods C, D: 19.0 minus
Method B: 7
Method D: 11(1)
Energy, kN-m/m3
592
2,693
(1) This may not be a large enough sample depending on your nominal maximum size for moisture content
samples.
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-2
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Table 2
Comparison of Apparatus, Sample, and Procedure English
Mold Volume, ft3
Mold Diameter, in.

Mold Height, in.
Detachable Collar Height, in.
Rammer Diameter, in.
Rammer Mass, lb
Rammer Drop, in.
Layers
Blows per Layer
Material Size, in.
Test Sample Size, lb
T 99
T 180
Methods A, C: 1/30
Methods A, C: 1/30
(0.0333) 0.0003
(0.0333) 0.0003
Methods B, D: 1/13.33
Methods B, D: 1/13.33
(0.0750) 0.00075
(0.0750) 0.00075
Methods A, C: 4.0000.016 Methods A, C: 4.0000.016
Methods B, D: 6.000 0.100 Methods B, D: 6.000 0.100
4.584 0.005
4.584 0.005
2 0.025
2 0.025
2.000 0.025
2.000 0.025
5.5 0.02
10 0.02
12
18
3
5
Methods A, C: 25
Methods A, C: 25
Methods B, D: 56
Methods B, D: 56
Methods A, B: No. 4 minus
Methods A, B: No.4 minus
Methods C, D: 3/4 minus
Methods C, D: 3/4 minus
Method A: 7
Method B: 16
Method C: 12(1) Method D: 25(1)
Energy, lb-ft/ft3
12,375
56,250
(1) This may not be a large enough sample depending on your nominal maximum size for moisture content
samples.
Molds Out of Tolerance Due to UseA mold that fails to meet manufacturing tolerances after continued
service may remain in use provided those tolerances are not exceeded by more than 50 percent; and the volume
of the mold, calibrated in accordance with T 19M/T 19, is used in the calculations.
Sample
If the sample is damp, dry it until it becomes friable under a trowel. Drying may be in air or
by use of a drying apparatus maintained at a temperature not exceeding 60C (140F).
Thoroughly break up aggregations in a manner that avoids reducing the natural size of
individual particles.
Obtain a representative test sample of the mass required by the agency by passing the
material through the sieve required by the agency. See Table 1 or Table 2 for test sample
mass and material size requirements.
Note 1: Both T 99 and T 180 have four methods (A, B, C, D) that require different masses and employ
different sieves.
Note 2: If the sample is plastic (clay types), it should stand for a minimum of 12 hours after the addition of
water to allow the moisture to be absorbed. In this case, several samples at different moisture contents
should be prepared, put in sealed containers and tested the next day. In instances where the material is
prone to degradation, i.e., granular material, a compaction sample with differing moisture contents should
be prepared for each point.
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-3
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Procedure
During compaction, the mold shall rest firmly on a dense, uniform, rigid, and stable
foundation or base. This base shall remain stationary during the compaction process.
1. Determine the mass of the clean, dry mold. Include the base plate, but exclude the
extension collar. Record the mass to the nearest 0.005 kg (0.01 lb).
2. Thoroughly mix the selected representative sample with sufficient water to dampen it to
approximately 4 to 8 percentage points below optimum moisture content. See Note 2.
For many materials this condition can be identified by forming a cast by hand.
3. Form a specimen by compacting the prepared soil in the mold (with collar attached) in
approximately equal layers. For each layer:
a. Spread the loose material uniformly in the mold.
Note 3: It is recommended to cover the remaining material with a non-absorbent sheet or damp cloth to
minimize loss of moisture.
b. Lightly tamp the loose material with the manual rammer or other similar device, this
establishes a firm surface.
c. Compact each layer with uniformly distributed blows from the rammer. See Table 1
for mold size, number of layers, number of blows, and rammer specification for the
various test methods. Use the method specified by the agency.
d. Trim down material that has not been compacted and remains adjacent to the walls of
the mold and extends above the compacted surface.
4. Remove the extension collar. Avoid shearing off the sample below the top of the mold.
A rule of thumb is that the material compacted in the mold should not be over 6 mm
( in.) above the top of the mold once the collar has been removed.
5. Trim the compacted soil even with the top of the mold with the beveled side of the
straightedge.
6. Determine the mass of the mold and wet soil to the nearest 0.005 kg (0.01 lb) or better.
7. Determine the wet mass of the sample by subtracting the mass in Step 1 from the mass in
Step 6.
8. Calculate the wet density as indicated below under Calculations.
9. Extrude the material from the mold. For soils and soil-aggregate mixtures, slice vertically
through the center and take a representative moisture content sample from one of the cut
faces, ensuring that all layers are represented. For granular materials, a vertical face will
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-4
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
not exist. Take a representative sample. This sample must meet the sample size
requirements of the test method used to determine moisture content.
Note 4: When developing a curve for free-draining soils such as uniform sands and gravels, where seepage
occurs at the bottom of the mold and base plate, taking a representative moisture content from the mixing
bowl may be preferred in order to determine the amount of moisture available for compaction.
10. Determine the moisture content of the sample in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO
T 255 / T 265.
11. Thoroughly break up the remaining portion of the molded specimen until it will again
pass through the sieve, as judged by eye, and add to the remaining portion of the sample
being tested. See Note 2.
12. Add sufficient water to increase the moisture content of the remaining soil by
approximately 1 to 2 percentage points and repeat steps 3 through 11.
13. Continue determinations until there is either a decrease or no change in the wet density.
There will be a minimum of three points on the dry side of the curve and two points on
the wet side.
Note 5: In cases of free-draining granular material, the development of points on the wet side of optimum may
not be practical.
Calculations
When the mold meets the criteria of Table 1 or Table 2 calculating unit mass can be
accomplished by multiplication using a Mold Factor, by division using a Mold volume; or by
division using a measured volume (determined by performing AASHTO T 19).
For molds not meeting the criteria of Table 1 or Table 2 but within 50%, a measured volume
must be used.
Mold Factor
1a.
Calculate the wet density, in kg/m3 (lb/ft3), by multiplying the wet mass from Step 7
by the appropriate factor chosen from the two below.
Methods A and C molds: 1060 (30)
Methods B and D molds: 471 (13.33)
Note 6: The moist mass is in kg (lb). The factors are the inverses of the mold volumes in m3 (ft3) shown in
Table 1 or Table 2. If the moist mass is in grams, use 1.060 or 0.471 for factors when computing kg/m3.
Example Methods A or C mold:

Wet mass = 1.916 kg (4.22 lb)
(1.916)(1060) = 2031 kg/m3 Wet Density* (4.22)(30) = 126.6 lb/ft3 Wet Density*
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-5
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Volume
Calculate the wet density, in kg/m3 (lb/ft3), by dividing the wet mass from Step 7 by
the appropriate volume from Table 1 or Table 2.
1b.

Wet mass = 1.916 kg (4.22 lb)
1.1916
0.000943
2023
4.22
0.0333
126.7
* Differences in wet density are due to rounding in the respective calculations.
Measured Volume
Calculate the wet density, in kg/m3 (lb/ft3), by dividing the wet mass by the measured
volume of the mold (T 19).
1c.

39
Wet mass = 1.916 kg (4.22 lb)

Measured volume of the mold = 0.000946m3 (0.0334 ft3)
1.1916
0.000946
2025
4.22
0.0334
126.3
2. Calculate the dry density as follows.
100
100

100
Where:
d = Dry density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Wet density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Moisture content, as a percentage
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-6
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Example:
w = 2030 kg/m3 (126.6 lb/ft3) and w = 14.7%
2030
14.7
100
100
100
1770
126.6
14.7
1770
126.6
14.7
1
100
100
110.4
or
2030
14.7
1
100
110.4
Moisture-Density Curve Development

When dry density is plotted on the vertical axis versus moisture content on the horizontal
axis and the points are connected with a smooth line, a moisture-density curve is developed.
The coordinates of the peak of the curve are the maximum dry density, or just maximum
density, and the optimum moisture content of the soil.
Example:
Given the following dry density and corresponding moisture content values develop a
moisture-density relations curve and determine maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content.
Moisture Content, %
11.3
12.1
12.8
13.6
14.2
117
115
113
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-7
Dry density lb/ft3
Dry Density
kg/m3
lb/ft3
1846
114.3
1868
115.7
1887
116.9
1884
116.7
1871
115.9
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
In this case, the curve has its peak at:

Maximum dry density = 1890 kg/m3 (117.0 lb/ft3)
Optimum water content = 13.2%
Note that both values are approximate, since they are based on sketching the curve to fit the
points.
Report
Maximum dry density to the closest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
Optimum moisture content to the closest 0.1 percent
T99_T180_short_14
E&B/ID 14-8
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
T 99 / T 180 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe how the plotted data is used to determine optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density.
2. How many blows of the rammer are required per lift for the various procedures and
methods?
3. Describe how the sample for moisture content is obtained.
4. What sample mass is required for Method A of the T 99 test?
For Method C of the T 180 test?
T99_T180_rev_09
E&B/ID 4-13
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T99_T180_rev_09
WAQTC
E&B/ID 4-14
T 99 / T 180 REVIEW
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
T 99_ T 180 REVIEW

1. Describe how the plotted data is used to determine optimum moisture content and
maximum dry density.
Dry density is plotted on the vertical axis while the moisture content is plotted on the
horizontal axis. The plotted points are then connected, in a smooth curve, to create a
moisture-density curve. The peak of the curve is the optimum moisture and maximum dry
density for that curve.
2. How many blows of the rammer are required per lift for the various procedures and
methods?
Methods A & C = 25 blows per lift.
Methods B & D = 56 blows per lift.
3. Describe how the sample for moisture content is obtained.
With the cylinder in an upright position, slice vertically through the center of the cylinder
and take a representative sample from all layers represented.
4. What sample mass is required for Method A of the T 99 test?
7 lbs.
For Method C of the T 180 test?
12 lbs.
T99_T180_rev
E&B/ID 5-13
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
FOP AASHTO T 272 (12)
FAMILY OF CURVES ONE-POINT METHOD

Scope
This procedure provides for a rapid determination of the maximum density and optimum
moisture content of a soil sample, utilizing a family of curves and a one-point determination
in accordance with AASHTO T 272-10. This procedure is related to the FOP for AASHTO
T 99/T 180.
One-point determinations are made by compacting the soil in a mold of a given size with a
specified rammer dropped from a specified height. Four alternate methods A, B, C, and D
are used and correspond to the methods described in the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180.
The method used in AASHTO T 272 must match the method used in the FOP for AASHTO
T 99/T 180.
Apparatus
See the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180.
Sample
Sample size determined according to the FOP for AASHTO T 310. In cases where the
existing family cannot be used a completely new curve will need to be developed and the
sample size will be determined by the FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180.
Procedure
Calculations
Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content Determination
1. If the moisture-density one-point falls on one of the curves in the existing family of
curves, the maximum dry density and optimum moisture content defined by that curve
shall be used.
2. If the moisture-density one-point falls within the family of curves but not on an existing
curve, a new curve shall be drawn through the plotted single point, parallel and in
character with the nearest existing curve in the family of curves. The maximum dry
density and optimum moisture content as defined by the new curve shall be used.
T272_short_12
E&B/ID 15-1
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
3. The one-point must fall either between or on the highest or lowest curves in the family. If
it does not, then a full curve must be developed.
4. If the one-point plotted within or on the family of curves does not fall in the 80 to 100
percent of optimum moisture content, compact another specimen, using the same
material, at an adjusted moisture content that will place the one point within this range.
5. If the family of curves is such that the new curve through a one-point is not well defined
or is in any way questionable, a full moisture-density relationship shall be made for the
soil to correctly define the new curve and verify the applicability of the family of curves.
Note 1: New curves drawn through plotted single point determinations shall not become a permanent part
of the family of curves until verified by a full moisture-density procedure following the FOP for AASHTO
T 99/T 180.
EXAMPLE
T272_short_12
E&B/ID 15-2
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Example
A moisture-density procedure (FOP for AASHTO T 99/T 180) was performed. A dry
density of 114.4 lb/ft3 and a corresponding moisture content of 11.4 percent were determined.
This point was plotted on the appropriate family between two previously developed curves.
The dashed curve beginning at the moisture-density one-point was sketched between the
two existing curves. A maximum dry density of 117.0 lb/ft3 and a corresponding optimum
moisture content of 13.5 percent were estimated.
Report
Maximum dry density to the closest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
Optimum moisture content to the closest 0.1 percent
T272_short_12
E&B/ID 15-3
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T272_short_12
WAQTC
E&B/ID 15-4
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 272 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. To what other procedure(s) is this procedure related?
2. How are the two procedures used together?
3. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a family of curves.
T272_rev_09
E&B/ID 5-5
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T272_rev_09
WAQTC
AASHTO T 272 REVIEW
E&B/ID 5-6
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 272 REVIEW

1. With what other procedure(s) is this procedure related?
Field Operating Procedure AASHTO T 99 & AASHTO T 180.
2. How are the two procedures used together?
One-point determinations are made using AASHTO T 99 & T 180.
3. Describe the limitations of using the one-point determination with a family of curves?
The plotted point must plot between 80 100% of the family of curves optimum moisture
content on the dry side of the curve.
Not well defined or questionable curves should not be used, and a new, full moisture
density curve shall be made.
T272-rev
E&B/ID 6-7
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

FOP FOR AASHTO T 85
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of specific gravity and absorption of coarse
aggregate in accordance with AASHTO T 85-14. Specific gravity may be expressed as bulk
specific gravity (Gsb), bulk specific gravity, saturated surface dry (Gsb SSD), or apparent
specific gravity (Gsa). Gsb and absorption are based on aggregate after soaking in water. This
procedure is not intended to be used with lightweight aggregates.
Terminology
Absorption the increase in the mass of aggregate due to water being absorbed into the pores
of the material, but not including water adhering to the outside surface of the particles,
expressed as a percentage of the dry mass. The aggregate is considered dry when it has
been maintained at a temperature of 110 5C (230 9F) for sufficient time to remove all
uncombined water.
Saturated Surface Dry (SSD) condition of an aggregate particle when the permeable voids
are filled with water, but no water is present on exposed surfaces.
Specific Gravity the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of a material to the mass of the
same volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Apparent Specific Gravity (Gsa) the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of the impermeable
portion of aggregate to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated
temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of aggregate (including
the permeable and impermeable voids in the particles, but not including the voids between
particles) to the mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Bulk Specific Gravity (SSD) (Gsb SSD) the ratio of the mass, in air, of a volume of
aggregate, including the mass of water within the voids filled to the extent achieved by
submerging in water for 15 to 19 hours (but not including the voids between particles), to the
mass of an equal volume of gas-free distilled water at a stated temperature.
Apparatus
Balance or scale: with a capacity of 5 kg, sensitive to 1 g. Meeting the requirements

of AASHTO M 231.
T85_short_14
E&B/ID 16-1
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Sample container: a wire basket of 3.35 mm (No. 6) or smaller mesh, with a capacity
of 4 to 7 L (1 to 2 gal) to contain aggregate with a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm
(1 1/2 in.) or smaller; or a larger basket for larger aggregates, or both.
Water tank: watertight and large enough to completely immerse aggregate and basket,
equipped with an overflow valve to keep water level constant.
Suspension apparatus: wire used to suspend apparatus shall be of the smallest

practical diameter.
Sieves 4.75 mm (No. 4) or other sizes as needed, conforming to AASHTO M 92.
Large absorbent towel
Sample Preparation
1. Obtain the sample in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 2 (see Note 1).
2. Mix the sample thoroughly and reduce it to the approximate sample size required by
Table 1 in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 248.
3. Reject all material passing the appropriate sieve by dry sieving.
4. Thoroughly wash sample to remove dust or other coatings from the surface and re-screen
the washed dry sample over the appropriate sieve. Reject all material passing that sieve.
5. The sample shall meet or exceed the minimum mass given in Table 1.
Note 1: If this procedure is used only to determine the Bulk Gsb of oversized material for the FOP for
AASHTO T 99 / T 180 and in the calculations for the FOP for AASHTO T 224, the material can be
rejected over the appropriate sieve. For T 99 / T 180 Methods A and B, use the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve;
T 99 / T 180 Methods C and D use the 19 mm (3/4 in).
Table 1
Nominal Maximum Size*
Minimum Mass of Test
mm (in.)
Sample, g (lb)
12.5 (1/2) or less
2000 (4.4)
19.0 (3/4)
3000 (6.6)
25.0 (1)
4000 (8.8)
37.5 (1 1/2)
5000 (11)
50 (2)
8000 (18)
63 (2 1/2)
12,000 (26)
75 (3)
18,000 (40)
* One sieve larger than the first sieve to retain more than 10 percent of the material using an agency
specified set of sieves based on cumulative percent retained. Where large gaps in specification sieves
exist, intermediate sieve(s) may be inserted to determine nominal maximum size.
T85_short_14
E&B/ID 16-2
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Procedure
1. Dry the test sample to constant mass at a temperature of 110 5C (230 9F) and cool in
air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours.
Note 2: Where the absorption and specific gravity values are to be used in proportioning concrete
mixtures in which the aggregates will be in their naturally moist condition, the requirement for initial
drying to constant mass may be eliminated, and, if the surfaces of the particles in the sample have been
kept continuously wet until test, the 15-to-19 hour soaking may also be eliminated.
2. Immerse the aggregate in water at room temperature for a period of 15 to 19 hours.

Note 3: When testing coarse aggregate of large nominal maximum size requiring large test samples, it
may be more convenient to perform the test on two or more subsamples, and then combine the values
obtained.
3. Place the empty basket into the water bath and attach to the balance. Inspect the
immersion tank to ensure the water level is at the overflow outlet height. Tare the
balance with the empty basket attached in the water bath.
4. Remove the test sample from the water and roll it in a large absorbent cloth until all
visible films of water are removed. Wipe the larger particles individually. If the test
sample dries past the SSD condition, immerse in water for 30 min, and then resume the
process of surface-drying.
Note 4: A moving stream of air may be used to assist in the drying operation, but take care to avoid
evaporation of water from aggregate pores.
5. Determine the SSD mass of the sample, and record this and all subsequent masses to the
nearest 0.1 g or 0.1 percent of the sample mass, whichever is greater. Designate this
mass as B.
6.
Immediately place the SSD test sample in the sample container and weigh it in water
maintained at 23.0 1.7C (73.4 3F). Shake the container to release entrapped air
before recording the weight. Re-inspect the immersion tank to insure the water level is at
the overflow outlet height. Designate this submerged weight as C.
Note 5: The container should be immersed to a depth sufficient to cover it and the test sample during
mass determination. Wire suspending the container should be of the smallest practical size to minimize
any possible effects of a variable immersed length.
7. Remove the sample from the basket. Ensure all material has been removed. Place in a
container of known mass.
8. Dry the test sample to constant mass in accordance with the FOP for AASHTO T 255 /
T 265 (Aggregate section) and cool in air at room temperature for 1 to 3 hours.
Designate this mass as A.
T85_short_14
E&B/ID 16-3
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Calculations
Perform calculations and determine values using the appropriate formula below. In these
formulas, A = oven dry mass, B = SSD mass, and C = weight in water.
Bulk specific gravity (Gsb)
Bulk specific gravity, SSD (Gsb SSD)
Apparent specific gravity (Gsa)
Absorption
Absorption
100
Sample Calculations
Sample
1
2
3
Sample
1
2
3
A
2030.9
1820.0
2035.2
B
2044.9
1832.5
2049.4
Gsb
2.742
2.739
2.730
C
1304.3
1168.1
1303.9
Gsb SSD
2.761
2.758
2.749
B-C
740.6
664.4
745.5
A-C
726.6
651.9
731.3
Gsa
2.795
2.792
2.783
B-A
14.0
12.5
14.2
Absorption
0.7
0.7
0.7
These calculations demonstrate the relationship between Gsb, Gsb SSD, and Gsa. Gsb is
always lowest, since the volume includes voids permeable to water. Gsb SSD is always
intermediate. Gsa is always highest, since the volume does not include voids permeable to
water. When running this test, check to make sure the values calculated make sense in
relation to one another.
T85_short_14
E&B/ID 16-4
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Report
Specific gravity values to 3 decimal places
Absorption to 0.1 percent
T85_short_14
E&B/ID 16-5
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T85_short_14
WAQTC
E&B/ID 16-6
Pub. October 2014
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 85 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. What size sample is required for aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
25 mm (1 in.)?
2. When is soaking required? For how long must material be soaked?
3. When, in the process, are dry and SSD masses determined?
T85_rev_09
E&B/ID 6-9
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T85_rev_09
WAQTC
AASHTO T 85 REVIEW
E&B/ID 6-10
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T85 REVIEW

1. What size sample is required for aggregate with a nominal maximum size of
25 mm (1 in.)?
9 lbs.
2. When is soaking required? For how long must material be soaked?
When material has not been in a naturally moist condition for the previous 15-19 hrs. or in
a continuously watered stockpile for the previous 15-19 hrs.
15 to 19 hours.
3. When, in the process, are dry and SSD masses determined?
Dry masses are determined at the end of the procedure.
SSD mass is the first mass determined.
T85_rev
E&B/ID 7-9
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
CORRECTION FOR COARSE PARTICLES IN THE SOIL COMPACTION TEST

Scope
This procedure covers the adjustment of the maximum dry density determined by FOP for
AASHTO T 99 / T 180 to compensate for coarse particles retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) or
19.0 mm (3/4 in.) sieve. For Methods A and B of the FOP for AASHTO T 99 / T 180 the
adjustment is based on the percent, by mass, of material retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve and the bulk specific gravity (Gsb) of the material retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve. A maximum of 40 percent of the material can be retained on the 4.75 mm (No. 4)
sieve for this method to be used. For Methods C and D of the FOP for AASHTO T 99 / T
180, the adjustment is based on the percent, by mass, of material retained on the 19.0 mm
(3/4 in.) sieve and the bulk specific gravity (Gsb) of the material retained on the 19.0 mm (3/4
in.) sieve. A maximum of 30 percent of the material can be retained on the 19.0 mm (3/4 in.)
sieve for this method to be used. Whether the split is on the 4.75 mm (No. 4) or the 19.0 mm
(3/4 in.) sieve, all material retained on that sieve is defined as oversized material.
This method applies to soils with percentages up to the maximums listed above for oversize
particles. A correction may not be practical for soils with only a small percentage of oversize
material. The agency shall specify a minimum percentage below which the method is not
needed. If not specified, this method applies when more than 5 percent by weight of oversize
particles is present.
This procedure covers the lab-to-field corrections in accordance with AASHTO T 224-10
(see AASHTO T 224 for field-to-lab corrections).
Adjustment Equation Moisture
Along with density, the moisture content can be corrected. The moisture content can be
determined by the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265, other agency approved methods, or the
nuclear density gauge moisture content reading from the FOP for AASHTO T 310. If the
nuclear gauge moisture reading is used, or when the moisture content is determined on the
entire sample (both fine and oversized particles), the use of the adjustment equation is not
needed. Combined moisture contents with material having an appreciable amount of silt or
clay should be performed using FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265 (Soil). Moisture contents
used from FOP for AASHTO T 310 must meet the criteria for that method.
When samples are split for moisture content (oversized and fine materials) the following
adjustment equations must be followed:
1. Split the sample into oversized material and fine material.
2. Dry the oversized material following the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265 (Aggregate).
If the fine material is sandy in nature, dry using the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265
(Aggregate), or other agency approved methods. If the fine material has any appreciable
T224_short_12
E&B/ID 17-1
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
amount of clay, dry using the FOP for AASHTO T 255 / T 265 (Soil) or other agency
approved methods.
3. Calculate the dry mass of the oversize and fine material as follows:
MC
Where:
MD = mass of dry material (fine or oversize particles).
Mm = mass of moist material (fine or oversize particles).
MC = moisture content of respective fine or oversized, expressed as a decimal.
4. Calculate the percentage of the fine and oversized particles by dry weight of the total
sample as follows: See Note 2.
100
100
15.4
15.4
5.7
73%
100
7.03
7.034
2.602
73%
And
100
Or for Pc:
100
15.4
5.7
5.7
27%
100
7.03
2.602
2.602
27%
100
Where:
= percent of fine particles, of sieve used,
by weight.
Pc = percent of oversize particles, of sieve
used, by weight.
MDF = mass of fine particles.
MDC = mass of oversize particles.
Pf
T224_short_12
E&B/ID 17-2
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
5. Calculate the corrected moisture content as follows:
100
10.6%
73.0%
2.1%
100
27.0%
8.3%
MCT = corrected moisture content of combined

fines and oversized particles, expressed
as a % moisture.
MCF = moisture content of fine particles,
as a % moisture.
MCC = moisture content of oversized particles,
as a % moisture.
Note 1: Moisture content of oversize material can be assumed to be two (2) percent for most construction
applications.
Note 2: In some field applications agencies will allow the percentages of oversize and fine materials to be
determined with the materials in the wet state.
Adjustment Equation Density

6. Calculate the corrected dry density of the total sample (combined fine and oversized
particles) as follows:
100
100
Where:
Dd =
corrected total dry density (combined fine and oversized particles)

kg/m3 (lb/ft 3)
Df =
dry density of the fine particles kg/m3 (lb/ft3), determined in the lab
Pc=
percent of oversize particles, of sieve used, by weight.
Pf =
percent of fine particles, of sieve used, by weight.
k =
Metric: 1,000 * Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) (oven dry basis)

of coarse particles (kg/m3).
k=
English: 62.4 * Bulk Specific Gravity (Gsb) (oven dry basis)

of coarse particles (lb/ft3)
T224_short_12
E&B/ID 17-3
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
Note 3: If the specific gravity is known, then this value will be used in the calculation. For most
construction activities the specific gravity for aggregate may be assumed to be 2.600.
Calculation
Sample Calculations:
Metric:
2329 kg/m3
Maximum laboratory dry density (Df):

Percent coarse particles (Pc): 27%
Percent fine particles (Pf):
73%
(2.697) (1000) = 2697 kg/m3
Mass per volume coarse particles (k):

100
100 2329
2329
27%
628,131,300
628,883
2697
2418.1
T224_short_12
2418
100
2697
2697
73%
100
27%
2697
73%
2329
100
0.01001
0.03134
E&B/ID 17-4
2418.1
2418
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
English:
Maximum laboratory dry density (Df):
140.4 lb/ft3
Percent coarse particles (Pc): 27%

Percent fine particles (Pf): 73%
(2.697) (62.4) = 168.3 lb/ft3
Mass per volume of coarse particles (k):
100
100 140.4
140.4
27%
100
168.3
168.3
100
2,362,932
3790.8
12285.9
2,362,932
16,076.7
146.98
27%
168.3
73%
140.4
73%
0.51994
100
0.16043
100
0.68037
147.0
Report
Adjusted maximum dry density to the closest 1 kg/m3 (0.1 lb/ft3)
Adjusted optimum moisture to the 0.1 percent
T224_short_12
E&B/ID 17-5
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T224_short_12
WAQTC
E&B/ID 17-6
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 224 REVIEW (12)
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the purpose of this procedure.
2. The adjustment is based on the mass of material retained on what size sieve?
3. What effect does increased coarse particles have on moisture content?
4. The fine particles in a soil-aggregate mixture have a dry density of 138.6 lb/ft3 English
units and a moisture content of 6.4 percent. The coarse particles make up 22 percent of
the material, having a Gsb of 2.631 and 1.7 percent moisture.
What is the corrected maximum density?
What is the corrected moisture?
T224_rev_12
E&B/ID 7-9
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
T224_rev_12
WAQTC
E&B/ID 7-10
AASHTO T 224 REVIEW (12)
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 224 REVIEW

1. Describe the purpose of this procedure.
To adjust the maximum dry density as determined by AASHTO T 99 or 180.
2. The adjustment is based on the mass of material retained on what size sieve?
To compensate for coarse particles retained on the No. 4 or 3/4 inch sieve.
3. What effect does an increase in the percent of coarse particles have on moisture content?
The dry density will increase while the moisture content will decrease.
4. A soil-aggregate mixture has a maximum dry density of fine particles of 138.6 lb/ft3 and a
moisture content of 6.4%. The coarse particles make up 22 percent of the material, and
have a Gsb of 2.631 at a moisture content of 1.7%.
What is the corrected maximum dry density?
CALCULATION
Dd = ____100 Df k______
[(Df)(Pc) + (k)(Pf)]
Where: Dd = corrected total dry density
Df = dry density of the fine particles
Pc = percent of oversized particles
Pf = percent of fine particles
k = Gsb *(62.4 lbs/ft)
Given:
Df = 138.6 lbs/ft
Pc = 22%
Gsb = 2.631
MCF = 6.4%
MCC = 1.7%
SOLUTION
Pf = 100 Pc = 100 22 = 78%
k = 62.4 lbs/ft x 2.631 = 164.17 lbs/ft = 164.2 lbs/ft
Dd = _(100)(138.6)(164.2)___ = ___2,275,812______ = 2,275,812 = 143.5 lbs/ft
(138.6)(22) + (164.2)(78) (3,049.2) + (12,807.6) 15,856.8
T224_rev
E&B/ID 8-7
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 224 REVIEW
What is the corrected moisture?

CALCULATION
MCT = [(MCF x Pf) + (MCC x PC)]/ 100
Where: MCT = Corrected Moisture Content
MCF = Moisture content of fines
MCC = Moisture content of coarse
SOLUTION
MCT = [(6.4 x 78) + (1.7 x 22)]/ 100
= [499.2 + 37.4]/100
= [536.6]/100
= 5.4%
T224_rev
E&B/ID 8-8
October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
IN-PLACE DENSITY AND MOISTURE CONTENT OF SOIL AND SOILAGGREGATE BY NUCLEAR METHODS (SHALLOW DEPTH)
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of density, moisture content, and relative
compaction of soil, aggregate, and soil-aggregate mixes in accordance with AASHTO T 31013. This field operating procedure is derived from AASHTO T 310. The nuclear moisturedensity gauge is used in the direct transmission mode.
Apparatus
Nuclear density gauge with the factory matched standard reference block.
Drive pin, guide/scraper plate, and hammer for testing in direct transmission mode.
Transport case for properly shipping and housing the gauge and tools.
Instruction manual for the specific make and model of gauge.
Radioactive materials information and calibration packet containing:

Daily Standard Count Log.
Factory and Laboratory Calibration Data Sheet.
Leak Test Certificate.
Shippers Declaration for Dangerous Goods.
Procedure Memo for Storing, Transporting and Handling Nuclear Testing
Equipment.
Other radioactive materials documentation as required by local regulatory
requirements.
Sealable containers and utensils for moisture content determinations.
Radiation Safety
This method does not purport to address all of the safety problems associated with its use.
This test method involves potentially hazardous materials. The gauge utilizes radioactive
materials that may be hazardous to the health of the user unless proper precautions are taken.
Users of this gauge must become familiar with the applicable safety procedures and
governmental regulations. All operators will be trained in radiation safety prior to operating
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-1
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
nuclear density gauges. Some agencies require the use of personal monitoring devices such
as a thermoluminescent dosimeter or film badge. Effective instructions together with routine
safety procedures such as source leak tests, recording and evaluation of personal monitoring
device data, etc., are a recommended part of the operation and storage of this gauge.
Calibration
Calibrate the nuclear gauge as required by the agency. This calibration may be performed by
the agency using manufacturers recommended procedures or by other facilities approved by
the agency. Verify or re-establish calibration curves, tables, or equivalent coefficients every
12 months.
Standardization
1. Turn the gauge on and allow it to stabilize (approximately 10 to 20 minutes) prior to
standardization. Leave the power on during the days testing.
2. Standardize the nuclear gauge at the construction site at the start of each days work
and as often as deemed necessary by the operator or agency. Daily variations in
standard count shall not exceed the daily variations established by the manufacturer
of the gauge. If the daily variations are exceeded after repeating the standardization
procedure, the gauge should be repaired and/or recalibrated.
3. Record the standard count for both density and moisture in the Daily Standard Count
Log. The exact procedure for standard count is listed in the manufacturers
Operators Manual.
Note 1: New standard counts may be necessary more than once a day. See agency requirements.
Overview
There are two methods for determining in-place density of soil / soil aggregate mixtures. See
agency requirements for method selection.
Method A Single Direction
Method B Two Direction
Procedure
1. Select a test location(s) randomly and in accordance with agency requirements. Test
sites should be relatively smooth and flat and meet the following conditions:
a. At least 10 m (30 ft) away from other sources of radioactivity
b. At least 3 m (10 ft) away from large objects
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-2
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
c. The test site should be at least 150 mm (6 in.) away from any vertical
projection, unless the gauge is corrected for trench wall effect.
2. Remove all loose and disturbed material, and remove additional material as necessary
to expose the top of the material to be tested.
3. Prepare a flat area sufficient in size to accommodate the gauge. Plane the area to a
smooth condition so as to obtain maximum contact between the gauge and the
material being tested. For Method B, the flat area must be sufficient to permit
rotating the gauge 90 or 180 degrees about the source rod.
4. Fill in surface voids beneath the gauge with fines of the material being tested passing
the 4.75 mm (No. 4) sieve or finer. Smooth the surface with the guide plate or other
suitable tool. The depth of the filler should not exceed approximately 3 mm (1/8 in.).
5. Make a hole perpendicular to the prepared surface using the guide plate and drive pin.
The hole shall be at least 50 mm (2 in.) deeper than the desired probe depth, and shall
be aligned such that insertion of the probe will not cause the gauge to tilt from the
plane of the prepared area. Remove the drive pin by pulling straight up and twisting
the extraction tool.
6. Place the gauge on the prepared surface so the source rod can enter the hole without
disturbing loose material.
7. Insert the probe in the hole and lower the source rod to the desired test depth using
the handle and trigger mechanism.
8. Seat the gauge firmly by partially rotating it back and forth about the source rod.
Ensure the gauge is seated flush against the surface by pressing down on the gauge
corners, and making sure that the gauge does not rock.
9. Pull gently on the gauge to bring the side of the source rod nearest to the
scaler / detector firmly against the side of the hole.
10. Perform one of the following methods, per agency requirements:
a. Method A Single Direction: Take a test consisting of the average of two, one
minute readings, and record both density and moisture data. The two wet
density readings should be within 32 kg/m3 (2.0 lb/ft3) of each other. The
average of the two wet densities and moisture contents will be used to
compute dry density.
b. Method B Two Direction: Take a one-minute reading and record both density
and moisture data. Rotate the gauge 90 or 180 degrees, pivoting it around the
source rod. Reseat the gauge by pulling gently on the gauge to bring the side
of the source rod nearest to the scaler/detector firmly against the side of the
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-3
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
hole and take a one-minute reading. (In trench locations, rotate the gauge
180 degrees for the second test.) Some agencies require multiple one-minute
readings in both directions. Analyze the density and moisture data. A valid
test consists of wet density readings in both gauge positions that are within
50 kg/m3 (3.0 lb/ft3). If the tests do not agree within this limit, move to a new
location. The average of the wet density and moisture contents will be used to
compute dry density.
11. If required by the agency, obtain a representative sample of the material, 4 kg (9 lb)
minimum, from directly beneath the gauge full depth of material tested. This sample
will be used to verify moisture content and / or identify the correct density standard.
Immediately seal the material to prevent loss of moisture.
The material tested by direct transmission can be approximated by a cylinder of soil
approximately 300 mm (12 in.) in diameter directly beneath the centerline of the
radioactive source and detector. The height of the cylinder will be approximately the
depth of measurement. When organic material or large aggregate is removed during
this operation, disregard the test information and move to a new test site.
12. To verify the moisture content from the nuclear gauge, determine the moisture
content with a representative portion of the material using the FOP for AASHTO
T 255/T 265 or other agency approved methods. If the moisture content from the
nuclear gauge is within 1 percent, the nuclear gauge readings can be accepted.
Retain the remainder of the sample at its original moisture content for a one-point
compaction test under the FOP for AASHTO T 272, or for gradation, if required.
Note 2: Example: A gauge reading of 16.8 percent moisture and an oven dry of 17.7 percent are within
the 1 percent requirements. Moisture correlation curves will be developed according to agency
guidelines. These curves should be reviewed and possibly redeveloped every 90 days.
13. Determine the dry density by one of the following.

a. From nuclear gauge readings, compute by subtracting the mass (weight) of the
water (kg/m3 or lb/ft3) from the wet density (kg/m3 or lb/ft3) or compute using
the percent moisture by dividing wet density from the nuclear gauge by
1 + moisture content expressed as a decimal.
b. When verification is required and the nuclear gauge readings cannot be
accepted, the moisture content is determined by the FOP for AASHTO
T 255/T 265 or other agency approved methods. Compute dry density by
dividing wet density from the nuclear gauge by 1 + moisture content
expressed as a decimal.
Percent Compaction
Percent compaction is determined by comparing the in-place dry density as determined

by this procedure to the appropriate agency density standard. For soil or soil-aggregate
mixes, these are moisture-density curves developed using the FOP for AASHTO
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-4
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
T 99/T 180. When using curves developed by the FOP for AASHTO T 99 / T 180, it
may be necessary to use the FOP for AASHTO T 224 and FOP for AASHTO T 272 to
determine maximum density and moisture determinations.
For coarse granular materials, the density standard may be density-gradation curves
developed using a vibratory method such as AKDOT&PFs ATM 212, ITDs T 74,
WSDOTs TM 606, or WFLHDs Humphrys.
See appropriate agency policies for use of density standards.
Calculation
Wet density readings from gauge: 1963 kg/m3 (121.6 lb/ft3)
1993 kg/m3 (123.4 lb/ft3)
Avg: 1978 kg/m3 (122.5 lb/ft3)
Moisture readings from gauge: 14.2% and 15.4% = Avg 14.8%
Moisture content from the FOPs for AASHTO T 255/ T 265: 15.9%
Moisture content is greater than 1 percent different so the gauge moisture cannot be used.
Calculate the dry density as follows:
100
100

100
Where:
d = Dry density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Wet density, kg/m3 (lb/ft3)
w = Moisture content from the FOPs for AASHTO T 255 / T 265, as a percentage
1978
122.5
15.9 100
100
1978
122.5
15.9
1
100
Corrected for moisture Dry Density: 1707 kg/m3 (105.7 lb/ft3)
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-5
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 (13)
Calculate percent compaction as follows:

% Compaction
100
Report
Location of test, elevation of surface, and thickness of layer tested.
Visual description of material tested.
Make, model and serial number of the nuclear moisture-density gauge.
Wet density to 0.1 lb/ft3.
Moisture content as a percent, by mass, of dry soil mass to 0.1 percent.
Dry density to 0.1 lb/ft3.
Standard density to 0.1 lb/ft3.
Percent compaction.
Name and signature of operator.
T310_short_13
E&B/ID 19-6
Pub. October 2013
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the calibration and standardization process.
2. What precautions must be taken in selecting a test location?
3. Describe the procedure leading up to the taking of test measurements.
4. What is the difference between Method A and Method B?
5. What is the purpose of determining moisture content by other means than the nuclear
gauge?
T310_rev_09
E&B/ID 9-11
Pub. October 2012
EMBANKMENT AND BASE

IN-PLACE DENSITY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 310 REVIEW
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Describe the calibration and standardization process.
Calibrate the nuclear gauge, as required by the agency, every 12 months.
Standardize the nuclear gauge at the start of each day or when weather conditions
change drastically. Warm gauge up for 10 20 minutes and then take standard count as
per the manufacturers recommendation, and record both moisture and density in the
Daily Standard Count Log.
2. What precautions must be taken in selecting a test location?
The test location shall be at least 30 ft. away from any other radioactive source,
10 ft. away from any large object, and 6 inches away from any vertical projections.
3. Describe the procedure leading up to the taking of test measurements.
Remove all loose material from the test site. Prepare a flat area large enough to
accommodate the test procedure to be used. Fill surface voids, up to 1/8 in depth.
Using the guide plate, drive the pin perpendicular to the surface at least 2 deeper than
the test to be taken. Remove pin without damaging the hole. Place gauge over hole and
lower to desired test depth without deforming the sides of the hole. Pull the gauge back
towards the operator until it is seated against the back side of the hole. Check the gauge
for being level by putting hands on opposite corners of the gauge to see if it rocks or
moves. Gauge is ready to start collecting test information.
4. What is the difference between Method A and Method B?
Method A: Gauge takes reading in one direction, minimum of 2, 1 minute counts, and the
difference between the wet density readings should be within 2 lbs./ft.
Method B: Gauge takes reading in 2 directions, either 90 or 180 from the original
reading, a minimum of 1, 1 minute reading in each direction, and the differences between
the wet density readings should be within 3 lbs./ft.
5. What is the purpose of determining moisture content by other means than the nuclear
gauge?
To ensure that the moisture content of the gauge is within 1% of these procedures due
to moisture source decay.
T310_rev_09
E&B/ID 9-11
Pub. October 2012
COLORADO DEPARTMENT OF TRANSPORTATION

SOILS, EXCAVATION, & EMBANKMENT INSPECTION
March, 2015
Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 - Road Construction Basics ................................................................................ 2
Chapter 2 - Preliminary Investigations ............................................................................... 4
Geotechnical Explorations .............................................................................................. 4
Borrow Sources............................................................................................................... 6
Chapter 3 Basic Soil Mechanics ...................................................................................... 7
Gradation Analyses ......................................................................................................... 7
Atterberg Limits ............................................................................................................ 11
AASHTO Soil Classification ........................................................................................ 12
Soil Compaction ........................................................................................................... 14
Generalized Soil Properties .......................................................................................... 16
Chapter 4: Roadway and Embankment Construction Methods ....................................... 18
Foundation Preparation and Excavation ....................................................................... 18
Embankment Fill........................................................................................................... 19
Placement and Lift Thickness Requirements................................................................ 21
Moisture Conditioning and Compaction Requirements ............................................... 22
Grade Control and Proof Rolling .................................................................................. 25
Chapter 5 Common Soil Problems That Can Effect Construction ................................ 27
Soft Clay Deposits Consolidation and Stability ........................................................ 27
Swelling Soil and Heaving Bedrock ............................................................................. 30
Collapsible Soils ........................................................................................................... 32
Muck Excavation .......................................................................................................... 33
Geosynthetics for Problem Soil Treatment ................................................................... 34
Appendix 1:
Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils

FOP for AASHTO T89
Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils
FOP for AASHTO T90
Appendix 2: AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification Example and Partial Group Index
Determination
Appendix 3:
Determination of Zero Air Voids Density of Soils with Varying Moisture

Content and Specific Gravity
List of acronyms and abbreviations
American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials
AASHTO
Colorado Department of Transportation
CDOT
Colorado Procedure
CP
Expanded Polystyrene Geofoam
EPS Foam
Mechanistic Empirical Pavement Design
M-E Pavement
Design
Liquid Limit
LL
Non Plastic
NP
No Value
NV
Optimum Moisture Content
OMC
Plasticity Index:
PI
Plastic Limit:
PL
Western Alliance for Quality Transportation Construction:
WAQTC
ii
Introduction
Inspection and testing during embankment and roadway construction is one method that is used to
improve the quality and performance of our highways. This process provides documentation that
materials and construction procedures conform to project plans and specifications. The Colorado
Department of Transportation (CDOT) certifies soils and embankment inspectors through the Western
Alliance for Quality Transportation Construction (WAQTC). In addition to the WAQTC certification
materials, CDOT desires to have our inspectors familiar with construction practices, geological
conditions, testing procedures, and construction specifications that are unique for Colorado.
The goal of this manual is to help familiarize our inspectors with the equipment, testing, and
construction practices utilized by CDOT for road and embankment construction. This manual provides
background knowledge to help prepare our inspectors to perform their responsibilities during
construction. The second portion of CDOTs soils and embankment certification process includes
demonstrating a familiarity of the materials contained in this manual by passing a written exam with
questions related to its content.
Chapter 1 - Road Construction Basics

Constructing a roadway through a corridor typically requires alternating cut and fill sections to bring the
roadway to the specified alignment and grade (Figures 1 and 2). Roadway designers make an attempt to
balance cut and fill sections to avoid the need for importing embankment fill materials, and to avoid
disposal of excess material after construction is completed.
Figure 1: Generalized embankment cross section.
Figure 2: Generalized roadway cut cross section.
Roadway/Embankment Foundation The native materials onto which a road or embankment is

constructed. These materials need to be adequately prepared to provide a stable foundation for the
roadway and/or embankment. Preparation typically involves clearing and grubbing, followed by
moisture conditioning and compaction. Preparation may also involve in-situ stabilization or even overexcavation and replacement if the materials consist of weak or poor quality soils.
Embankment Fill The materials used to raise grade to build the roadway up to a specified elevation
and to provide support for the roadway and pavement section. Embankment fill material will vary from
project to project based on geological conditions (i.e. the material that is locally available), project
requirements, specifications, and cost.
Sub-Base A layer of aggregate material laid on the subgrade (or completed embankment), onto which
the base course layer is placed.
Base Course A layer of clean sand and gravel that is designed as part of the pavement section to
provide strength and increase the life span of the pavement. This layer also provides drainage and
separation between the pavement and the underlying fill materials.
Side Slope The slope formed between the edges of the roadway shoulder and the toe of the
embankment. The angle permitted for construction will vary depending on the materials used in the
embankment, the quality of the foundation soils, quantity of fill materials available, and the height of the
embankments on the project.
Cut Slope A designed slope that results from removing a high section of topography to accommodate
the roadway alignment. The angle permitted for construction will vary depending on materials present
within the cut section (i.e. stability), and the need to balance cut and fill quantities (cut slope angles may
be increased/decreased to provide the required amount of fill materials for a project).
It is important for the inspector to become familiar with the structure of the roadway, the different soil
types that are expected to be encountered in cut slopes and the foundations, and the types of soils that
are specified for constructing the embankment and pavement section. Changed conditions or a change
in expected materials may require modification of the construction requirements to improve the quality
of the finished roadway.
Chapter 2 - Preliminary Investigations

Before roadway or embankment construction even begins, designers and engineers need to become
familiar with the types of soils and bedrock that will be encountered on a project. An understanding of
groundwater conditions is also necessary. It is necessary to understand foundation conditions for the
roadway and embankments, to characterize the materials in cut sections, and to characterize materials in
potential borrow source areas. A subsurface investigation is conducted prior to design of any road
construction project to gain an understanding of the geological conditions present, and to identify the
materials available for construction. These investigations assist engineers in designing embankments
and roadways to perform adequately with the materials available and the ground conditions present.
Geotechnical Explorations
General guidelines for geotechnical explorations are presented in Chapter 4 of the 2015 Colorado
Mechanistic Empirical (M-E) Pavement Design Manual and Chapter 200 of the 2015 CDOT Field
Materials Manual: Soil Survey/Preliminary Soil Profile. These manuals provide information on several
methods used to characterize the subsurface conditions within a project site or alignment and provide
guidelines for collection of soil and bedrock samples for testing and classification. Geotechnical
explorations can include drilling soil borings into the subsurface, excavating test pits, and/or the use of
geophysical methods to characterize the subsurface conditions. The primary purpose of conducting
geotechnical explorations is to identify, delineate, and classify various geological units and soil types
through a corridor, and to collect soil samples for laboratory testing.
Photograph 1: Subsurface explorations and soil sampling being conducted with a drill rig.
4
With this information designers can determine which materials are/are not suitable for use as
construction materials, what areas are suitable to build roadways and embankments on, and what areas
will require special treatment and stabilization during construction. This information is then conveyed
to contractors through the Plans and Specifications that are developed for a project. CDOT soil
inspectors need to become familiar with the unique earthwork requirements specified for their given
projects.
Chapter 4 of the 2015 Colorado M-E Pavement Design Manual and Chapter 200 of the 2015 CDOT
Field Materials Manual also provide general guidelines for the minimum recommended spacing and
depth of geotechnical explorations. For new roadway and embankment construction projects, the
following recommendations are given:
Test holes should not be spaced more than 1,000 feet apart along a corridor alignment
through at-grade or fill sections. In continuous cut sections, test holes should not be spaced
more than 500 feet apart (Figure 3).
Subsurface characterization of the upper 5 to 8 feet of the subgrade is required for the M-E
Pavement Design Methodology (cuts and at-grade sections). Therefore, it is recommended
that borings extend a minimum of 5 to 8 feet below the final proposed grade (Figure 3). It is
also recommended that occasional borings extend to the water table or at least to 10 feet in
depth to characterize deeper materials below the planned subgrade elevation.
For embankments higher than 20 feet, test holes should extend a minimum of 5 feet into
bedrock or similar hard stratum (Figure 3).
Test holes should extend through the highest portion of a cut section and extend to a
minimum depth of 5 to 8 feet below the proposed finished grade (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Generalized roadway profile illustrating minimum required geotechnical test hole spacing and
depth requirements.
In addition to these requirements, it is recommended that additional explorations be conducted to
capture known changes in geological conditions within a corridor. Some projects may require more
extensive investigations; in particular high-speed multi-lane facilities in rough terrain or through areas
with complex geological conditions.
Borrow Sources
Another purpose of conducting preliminary geotechnical explorations is to identify potential borrow
sources for materials that can be used for new highway construction. Borrow pits are permitted areas
where approved material is excavated or acquired from stockpiles. If CDOT has the permits to a borrow
pit and offers the pit to a contractor it is designated an available source. Any borrow sources other than
an available source is considered a contractor source, and it is the contractors responsibility to obtain
any necessary permits and certify that no hazardous materials exist in the source.
Geotechnical explorations are required to identify, sample, and classify potential borrow source areas.
Representative soil samples must be submitted to a Region/Central lab for classification and testing
before being approved for use in embankment construction. A pit sketch and sampling request must be
submitted to the Region Materials Engineer for approval.
Chapter 3 Basic Soil Mechanics

Soil and embankment inspectors need to understand basic information about soils, testing procedures to
classify soils, and how different soil types behave when they are used as an engineered material (i.e
compaction, drainage, stability, etc.). This chapter provides a summary of basic soil mechanics and
laboratory testing procedures used to determine soil index and engineering properties.
The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has developed a
system for classifying soils into groups based on their different index properties. This classification
system is referred to as AASHTO M-145, and is described below. The classification system is based on
a soils grain size distribution and Atterberg limits. These index properties, the tests used determine
them, and a summary of the classification system are also described below.
Gradation Analyses
A gradation analysis is a method used to quantitatively determine the distribution of particle sizes in
soils, aggregate, or soil-aggregate mixtures. Colorado Procedure (CP) 21, Mechanical Analysis of Soils,
describes the procedure to run this test. An oven-dried soil sample that consists of a variety of particle
sizes is passed through a series of sieves with different sized openings. The material that is collected or
retained on each sieve is then weighed, and the percent mass of each particle size for the soil sample is
calculated, then plotted on a grain size curve. The various sieve sizes that are used to classify the grain
size distribution of a soil are included in Tables 1 and 2 below. This test is also referred to as a grain
size analysis, particle size analysis, or sieve analysis. An example grain size curve is provided in Figure
4.
Table 1: Standard Sieve Sizes Used for Gradation Analyses (ASTM Classification)
Notes:
Sieve Size/Number
Number of Openings per

Square Inch
3-inch
--
1- -inch
--
-inch
--
-inch
--
#4
# 10
10
# 20
20
# 40
40
# 50
50
# 100
100
# 200
200
< # 200
--
Soil Type
Gravel
Course Sand
Fine Sand
Fines
(Silt and Clay)
Cobbles are defined as particle sizes between 3 inches and 12 inches in diameter.
Boulders are defined as particle sizes larger than 12 inches in diameter.
Table 2: Standard Sieve Sizes Used for Gradation Analyses (AASHTO Classification)
Sieve Size/Number
Number of Openings per

Square Inch
Soil Type
3-inch
--
1-inch
--
-inch
--
-inch
--
#4
# 10
10
# 40
40
Coarse Sand
# 200
200
Fine Sand
< # 200
--
Fines
(Silt and Clay)
Gravel
SIEVE ANALYSIS AASHTO T 27

Hydrometer Analysis
SIEVE ANAYLSIS
U.S. Standard Sieves
3"
1 1/2"
3/4"
3/8"
NO. 4
NO. 10
Time Readings
NO. 20
NO. 40 NO. 50
NO. 100
NO. 200
Percent Passing
100
% Gravel: 28.7
10
1
Diameter (mm)
% Course Sand: 25.5

% Fine Sand:
9.5
0.1
0.01
% Fines (Silt and Clay): 36.3
Figure 4: Example grain size curve (ASTM Classification).

A sufficient amount of soil needs to be sampled to run a representative gradation test. The minimum
mass of material required is dependent on the Nominal Maximum Size of aggregate or particle in the
sample. The Nominal Maximum Size is defined as the smallest sieve opening through which the entire
amount of specimen passes. For example, if 100 percent of a specimen passes the 1- -inch sieve, and
material begins to collect on the next smallest sieve, the nominal maximum size of the sample is 1- inch. Table 3 below summarizes the minimum test sample masses that are required for a gradation test
given various nominal maximum particle sizes.
10
Table 3: Required Test Sample Masses for Gradation Analyses

of Aggregate Given Various Nominal Maximum Particle Sizes
Nominal
Maximum
Size of Aggregate
CDOT Required Minimum Test Sample Masses
Pounds
Grams
3- -inch
33.0
15,000
3 -inch
27.5
12,500
2- -inch
22.0
10,000
2 -inch
16.5
7,500
1- -inch
11.0
5,000
1 -inch
5.5
2,500
-inch
4.4
2,000
-inch
3.3
1,500
-inch
2.2
1,000
< -inch
0.66
300
Note: All test sample masses are dry masses.

Atterberg Limits
The Atterberg limits define the range of moisture contents in which a soil behaves as a plastic. As the
moisture content of a clayey soil increases, the material behavior will change from a solid, to a semisolid, to plastic, and eventually to a liquid (Figure 5). The specific moisture contents that need to be
determined for AASHTO M-145 soil classification are the plastic limit (PL) and the liquid limit (LL).
The plastic limit of a soil is the lowest water content at which the soil remains plastic. The liquid limit is
the moisture content at which the soil behavior changes from a plastic to a liquid state. The range of
moisture contents that a soil behaves as a plastic is referred to as the plasticity index (PI), and is taken as
the difference between the liquid limit moisture content and the plastic limit moisture content:
(PI = LL PL).
11
Figure 5: Graphical representation of soil behavior with increased moisture content.

Plastic limits are always less than or equal to the liquid limit. It is not possible to have a negative
plasticity index. Soils that do not exhibit plastic behavior (clean granular soils) will have a value of zero
for the PI, and are referred to as Non Plastic (NP). These soils will have No Value (NV) prescribed for
their liquid limit and plastic limit. Soils with higher clay content are characterized by higher liquid
limits and higher plasticity indices. If a soil can be rolled into threads after moisture is added, or after
the sample is partially dried if it is initially too wet to roll, then the material is considered plastic. If the
material cannot be easily rolled, it is likely non-plastic.
The two test procedures used to define the Atterberg limits of a soil are AASHTO T 89, Determining the
Liquid Limit of Soils, and AASHTO T 90, Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils.
These test procedures and the calculations used to determine the liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity
index are provided in Appendix 1.
AASHTO Soil Classification
The AASHTO Soil Classification system classifies soils into eight major groups based on their grain
size distribution and Atterberg limits. These groups are designated A-1 through A-8 (Table 4). Soils
that fall within the lower numbered groups are granular (sands and gravels), contain less than 35 percent
fines, and tend to be either non-plastic or low plasticity (A-1, A-2, and A-3 soils). Soils that classify
within the higher numbered groups have a higher fines content (silt and clay sized particles) and are
generally characterized by higher plasticity (A-4, A-5, A-6, and A-7 soils). Peat classifies as an A-8
soil, and this material is characterized by an organic content of 15 percent or more.
12
Table 4: AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification System

Based on Grain Size Analyses and Atterberg Limit Values
General
Classification
Group
Classification
Silt and Clay Materials

(More than 35%
passing No. 200 Sieve)
Granular Materials
(35% or less passing No. 200 Sieve)
A-1
A-2
A-7
A-3
A-1-a
A-1-b
No. 10
50 max
--
No. 40
30 max
No. 200
15 max
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
A-7-5
A-7-6
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
50 max
51 min
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
25 max
10 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
36 min
36 min
36 min
36 min
--
--
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
6 max
NP
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
Stone fragments,
gravel, and sand
Fine
sand
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
LL
(Liquid Limit)
PI
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
significant
constituents
General subgrade
rating
Notes:
Silty or clayey gravel and sand
Excellent to good
Silty soils
Clayey soils
Fair to poor
A-8 soils are not included on Table 4, but classify as peat or highly organic soils, and are
not suitable for subgrade.
Plasticity index of A-7-5 subgroup is equal to or less than LL minus 30.
Plasticity index of A-7-6 subgroup is greater than LL minus 30.
13
To classify a soil using AASHTO M-145, gradation information and the Atterberg limits of a soil must
be determined. The sieves used for this classification system are the No. 10, the No. 40, and the No. 200
sieves. To use this classification system, an individual can determine the correct soil classification by
process of elimination. An example showing how to classify soils using the AASHTO M-145 system is
provided in Appendix 2.
In addition to the major groups and subgroups listed above, additional classification using the liquid
limit, plasticity index, and percent fines can be conducted to determine a soils partial group index. The
partial group index is a number placed in parentheses after an AASHTO group number: e.g. A-6(5)
indicates an A-6 group soil with a partial group index of 5. This number provides an indication of the
percent fines a soil contains, the level of plasticity of the fines, and gives an indication of the quality of
the soil as a subgrade material. Higher partial group indices indicate poorer quality soils (i.e. an A-6
with a partial group index of 30 is a poorer quality soil than an A-6 with a partial group index of 5). The
procedure to determine the partial group index of a soil is also covered in Appendix 2.
It is important for the inspector to familiarize themselves with this soil classification system. Project
specifications will often require specific soil types be used for various types of backfill (i.e. retaining
wall backfill, embankment fill, pipe bedding etc.). For example, many projects will require that Select
Material be used in the upper 2 feet of an embankment prior to placing aggregate base course or
pavement. The following AASHTO soil groups qualify as Select Material: A-1, A-2-4, and A-3.
Soil Compaction
The foundation soils and the materials used to construct embankments must be properly compacted
during construction to improve stability, increase the strength of the soils, reduce the likelihood of postconstruction settlement, and increase the long term performance of the roadway. To determine the
degree of compaction of an engineered fill, a soils optimum moisture content and maximum dry density
are used as a reference or benchmark. The following discussion is included to help the inspector
understand this concept.
Any soil sample, native or engineered, is composed of solid particles (gravel, sand, silt, and/or clay) and
void space/pore space. If the soil is completely dry (zero percent moisture) then the void spaces are
filled with air. If a soil is completely saturated, then the void spaces are 100 percent filled with water.
Compaction is by definition, the densification of a soil by removal of air/void space through mechanical
energy. To adequately compact any soil with conventional construction equipment, water must be
added to the soil to increase the degree of compaction that can be achieved. Water acts as a softening
agent and allows soil particles to slip over one another and move into a denser configuration.
14
As water is added to a completely dry soil, the degree of compaction that can be achieved increases. In
other words, the density of the soil that can be achieved increases. However, if too much water is added
the soil then begins to behave as a liquid. The soil will simply pump or deform with compactive effort,
and an increase to densification can no longer be achieved. The moisture content at which the maximum
density of a soil can be attained is referred to as the optimum moisture content. When a soil is
compacted at its optimum moisture content, it can be compacted to its maximum dry density.
The test procedures that are used to determine a soils maximum dry density and optimum moisture
content are the Standard and Modified Proctor tests. These tests are described in AASHTO T99 and
T180, respectively: Moisture-Density Relations of Soils. A fundamental knowledge of these test
procedures and interpretation of the data is already required for WAQTC certification; therefore, the test
procedures and data interpretation will not be repeated in this manual.
Zero Air Voids Density
Zero Air Voids Density represents the dry density that would be obtained at various moisture contents if
the soil could be compacted to eliminate all air voids present; i.e., when all voids between soil particles
are filled with moisture. It is not possible to achieve this level of compaction with conventional
construction equipment. At a given moisture content and specific gravity of the soil particles, the zero
air voids density represents the maximum density that can be obtained for a given soil. Appendix 3
provides a table summarizing zero air void densities of soils with varying moisture content and specific
gravities. Equations to calculate the zero air void densities of soils is also provided in Appendix 3. The
maximum dry density of a soil cannot exceed the zero air void or 100% saturation curve for a given soil
(Figure 6).
Figure 6: Example zero air voids curve with relation to Standard and Modified Proctor curves shown
for a soil.
15
If the results of a density test fall above the zero air voids line for a soil; then a new proctor curve needs
to be developed for the material tested. Similarly, if the results of a density test indicate the percent
compaction is greater than 5 percent above the maximum dry density for that soil, then the soils proctor
curve should be verified. Some generalized compaction properties of the AASHTO soil groups are
included in Table 5 below.
Table 5: Generalized Compaction Characteristics of AASHTO Soils
Soil Group
General Optimum
Moisture Ranges
General Maximum Dry

Density Ranges
A-1
Up to 9%
120 lbs/ft3 minimum
A-2
9 to 12%
120 to 130 lbs/ft3
A-3
9 to 12%
120 to 130 lbs/ft3
A-4
12 to 17%
110 to 120 lbs/ft3
A-5
22 to 30%
80 to 100 lbs/ft3
A-6
17 to 28%
80 to 110 lbs/ft3
A-7
17 to 28% or greater
80 to 110 lbs/ft3
Generalized Soil Properties

There are three divisions of particle sizes that are determined from a gradation analysis: gravel, sand
(course and fine), and fines (silt and clay). Sand and gravel are granular soils that are non-cohesive with
particles that are visible to the naked eye. Soils composed primarily of sand and gravel have high
strength, a high porosity (i.e. good drainage), and are not prone to long-term post-construction
settlement. These soils are also easier to work with to gain adequate compaction during construction.
Soils composed primarily of sand; however, are highly erodible.
Natural deposits of granular soils are described based on their in-situ density using the following terms:
very loose, loose, medium dense, dense, and very dense. The denser the soil deposit, the higher the
strength. This information is collected with field tests during a subsurface investigation program.
Silt and clay are classified as fines, or particles that pass the No. 200 sieve for a gradation analysis.
These particles are not distinguishable by the naked eye. Silt is the courser portion of the fines content
16
(particle sizes varying from 0.002 mm to 0.075 mm). Soils composed primarily of silt are non-cohesive
and are characterized by low plasticity. Soils composed primarily of silt are also highly erodible, and
the same density terms used to describe sand also apply to silty soils.
Clay is cohesive and can have a high variability in plasticity, depending on the mineralogy of the clay
particles present. Clay represents particles smaller than 0.002 mm, or 2 microns (m) in a soil sample.
The terms that are used to describe clayey soils refer to their consistency or cohesiveness: very soft,
soft, medium stiff, stiff, very stiff, and hard. The cohesion of a clay soil is an indication of its strength,
and softer clay soils are characterized by a lower cohesion or lower strength. This information is also
collected with field tests during a subsurface investigation program.
Both silt and clay soils are characterized by low permeability (i.e. water does not flow through these
soils quickly and they do not drain well). They have lower strength than sand and gravel, and they can
be prone to long-term post-construction settlement. These soils are more difficult to work with during
construction to achieve adequate compaction. Because of their low permeability, it is more difficult to
moisture condition these soils uniformly to achieve near-optimum moisture conditions for adequate
compaction.
The presence of fines within sandy or gravelly soils results in a decrease in strength, a decrease in
permeability, and an increase in the likelihood of post-construction settlement.
17
Chapter 4: Roadway and Embankment Construction Methods

Foundation Preparation and Excavation
The first stage of foundation preparation for embankment and roadway construction is clearing and
grubbing. Clearing and grubbing operations involve the removal of trees, shrubs, sod, and other
deleterious materials from the construction area. Specifically, clearing refers to the removal of trees,
brush, and boulders; and grubbing to the removal of roots and stumps. CDOT specifications require that
all sod, trees, bushes, boulders, and organic matter be removed from the foundation area of the roadway
prior to the placement of any fill material.
After clearing and grubbing are completed, excavation in cut sections can begin, and the foundations for
embankment fill areas are prepared. The cleared ground surface is broken up by plowing, scarifying, or
ripping to a minimum depth of 6 inches. This can be accomplished through use of dozers or graders
with ripper attachments, or a tractor pulling a disk. Once the ground surface is scarified, it must be
moisture conditioned and compacted to the specified embankment density and moisture content.
Photographs 2 and 3: Foundation preparation by means of using a dozer with a ripper attachment or a
tractor with a disk to open the subgrade soils.
Excavation in cut areas can be accomplished by a variety of methods. Where soils or rippable bedrock
are present in cuts (i.e. very low to low strength bedrock such as claystones, friable sandstones, and
shales), dozers and excavators can be used to loosen the material and scrapers can be used to haul the
material to fill areas. Where more competent bedrock is present in a cut section, the use of hydraulic
hammers, rock pickers, and/or controlled blasting techniques are necessary to excavate the material.
18
Photographs 4 and 5: Dozer with ripper attachment being used to loosen material in a cut section.
Excavator with hydraulic hammer being used to remove competent bedrock from a cut section.
To prepare the foundation area in cut sections, CDOT requires that cuts in bedrock be excavated
between 0.5 and 1 foot below the final planned subgrade elevation. Approved embankment fill is then
used to bring the excavated areas back to finished grade. Undrained pockets or depressions cannot
remain in the excavated area and must be graded to drain.
Excavation is generally classified in CDOT project specifications using the following terms:
Unclassified Excavation the excavation of all materials within the right of way including any
materials removed to grade ditches. This can include soil, bedrock, and/or boulders.
Muck Excavation the removal and disposal of mixtures of soils and organic matter that is not
suitable for foundation or embankment material. This material is removed to a depth determined
by an engineer and backfilled to finished grade with approved material properly compacted.
Rock Excavation the removal of competent or durable rock that cannot be removed through the
use of rippers. Rock excavation typically involves controlled blasting methods, and is generally
required for the removal of igneous, metamorphic, and high-strength strongly cemented
sedimentary rocks. Rock excavation also includes the removal of boulders having a volume of
cubic yard or more.
Stripping the removal of overburden or other material from borrow pits to expose a source
material that is intended to be mined and used as embankment fill.
Embankment Fill
Embankment fill is approved material acquired from excavations or borrow pits that is hauled and
placed in fill areas. If the material is obtained from outside of the right of way, it is referred to as
Borrow. Use of material in embankments is contingent upon it meeting specific requirements for the
19
project (i.e. gradation requirements, soil classification, strength, etc.). The material must also be
compacted to the specified density and moisture content. CDOT does not allow material to be placed
that when compacted, will be characterized by a dry density of less than 90 pounds per cubic foot.
CDOT defines three types of embankment fill, described below:
Soil Embankment material characterized by 50 percent or more passing the No. 4 sieve. Soil
embankments must be constructed with moisture density control in accordance with CDOT
Standard Special Provision of Specification Section 203.07.
Rock Embankment materials with 50 percent or more retained on the No. 4 sieve. All particles
shall be smaller than 6 inches. Rock embankments can be constructed without moisture density
control in accordance with CDOT Standard Specification Section 203.08.
Rock Fill material consisting of sound, durable stones, boulders, or broken rock having
diameters of 6 inches or greater. At least 50 percent of the rock must have a volume of two
cubic feet or more. Moisture density control is not required for the placement of rock fills.
Claystone and other soil-like, non-durable, slake susceptible bedrock units cannot be treated as sound
rock and must be pulverized, placed, and compacted similar to soil in an embankment. These materials
cannot be used as rock fill or as rock embankment.
Broken concrete, asphalt, or other solid particles greater than 6 inches can be used as fill within an
embankment if approved on the project. However, these materials cannot be placed within embankment
areas that support the roadway shoulders or pavement structure. If recycled asphalt and concrete greater
than 6 inches are used, they may be placed within the embankment shoulders outside of the supported
roadway. However, they cannot be placed within 2 feet of the final finished side slope surface.
It is critical for soil inspectors to be aware of the types of soil/fill that are permitted for various
components of a construction project. If borrow is to be used, the borrow area should be checked to
observe if all clearing and grubbing has been completed at the pit site. In addition, soil inspectors need
to observe the materials being delivered from a borrow source. The same is true for soils that are
excavated from the project corridor or from within the right of way that are to be used as fill soils. Soils
in their natural state tend to be in layers; therefore, drastic changes in the borrow material brought to a
project site needs to be noted and monitored. Keeping track of where questionable material is placed
can help isolate areas that may require rework. In addition, different material types will have different
compaction characteristics, and the correct proctor needs to be used to test relative compaction in the
field. Not all materials derived from cut slopes or from borrow pits may be permitted to be used as
embankment fill on the project. Excavation areas where the material is known to be unsuitable for
embankment construction will be indicated on the project plans.
20
Placement and Lift Thickness Requirements

Embankment material is spread through a fill section in layers called lifts. Maintaining exact grade is
not required when placing lifts; however, lift thickness must be controlled to achieve adequate
compaction. The maximum lift thickness that is permitted is dependent on the material being used to
construct the embankment.
Soil embankments must be placed in loose lifts not to exceed 8 inches. Before a subsequent lift is
placed, each lift must be adequately compacted in accordance with the compaction requirements
specified for the particular project. Rock embankments are placed similarly to soil embankment;
however, moisture density testing is not required. Rather, an engineer makes a determination on site if
adequate compaction is attained.
If embankments are constructed of nondurable claystone or similar bedrock types, the material must be
pulverized to a maximum dimension of 12 inches and placed in lifts not to exceed 12 inches thick. The
material must be watered to promote slaking and breakdown of the particles prior to compaction.
Rock fills are constructed in lifts not to exceed 3 feet in thickness. For rock fills, lift thickness is
typically equivalent to the average particle size (up to 3 feet thick). These materials shall not be placed
within 2 feet of the subgrade (i.e the top of the embankment fill at the transition to the pavement section;
the pavement section may or may not include sub-base and/or base course).
Where broken concrete or asphalt is used, lift thickness cannot exceed 1-1/2 times the maximum particle
size up to the following maximum permitted dimensions: concrete pieces cannot exceed 2 feet in any
dimension; asphalt pieces cannot exceed 12 inches in any dimension. Each layer or lift of material
composed of recycled concrete and asphalt must be separated by 6 inches of compacted and approved
embankment material.
Regardless of the type of material being placed, frozen materials shall not be used in the construction of
embankments. Any standing water within the embankment footprint shall also be drained prior to
placing material for construction.
Where embankments are to be placed on existing slopes steeper than 4-horizontal-to-1-vertical (4H:1V),
the embankment layers must be continually benched into the existing slope as it is built. Benches must
be keyed into the slope and be a minimum of 8 feet wide (Figure 7).
21
Figure 7: Generalized embankment cross section illustrating proper benching requirements when a new
embankment is constructed onto an existing slope steeper than 4H:1V.
Moisture Conditioning and Compaction Requirements
Moisture conditioning and compaction requirements are applicable to soil embankments and if nondurable bedrock particles are to be used for embankment fill. Moisture conditioning requires the use of
water trucks if the material is too dry. To achieve the desired effect for compaction, the spray bars on
the water trucks should distribute water evenly over the material that is to be compacted. If the material
is too wet to achieve compaction, then it must be disked or scarified, then allowed to aerate to reduce the
moisture content.
Photograph 6: Water truck being used to moisture condition soils in preparation for compaction.
22
The compaction requirements for a project are dependent on grain size characteristics of the soils being
used as embankment fill. The following information is taken from CDOT Standard Special Provision
for Specification Section 203.07 and summarizes moisture and compaction requirements for soils placed
in embankments on most CDOT projects:
All embankment material shall be compacted to not less than 95 percent relative compaction. Maximum
dry density of all soil types encountered or used will be determined in accordance with AASHTO T 99 as
modified by Colorado Procedure 23. Soils shall be compacted at 2 percent of Optimum Moisture
Content (OMC) as determined by AASTHO T 99. Soils having greater than 35 percent passing the 75
m (No. 200) sieve shall be compacted to 0 to 3 percent above OMC. Soils which are unstable at the
above moisture content shall be compacted at lower moisture content to the specified density.
Compaction is achieved in the field through control of lift thickness, and through the use of appropriate
compaction equipment for the materials being placed. For granular soils, steel vibratory rollers and
pneumatic rubber tired rollers are the most appropriate compactors. Steel vibratory rollers either have
single or dual drums with control over the amplitude and frequency of vibrations. The drums must be
filled with ballast, and the vibration may need to be adjusted to achieve the desired compaction. If the
amplitude or frequency is set incorrectly, the material being compacted may be pushed away or forced
in front of the drums rather than being directed downward to densify the material. This is referred to as
a roll front and is an indication that compaction is not being achieved. Pneumatic rollers have rubber,
air-filled tires used for compaction. The tires should be smooth without tread, and should all be
uniformly inflated. The tire pressure influences the degree of compaction that can be achieved. In
addition, the weight of pneumatic rollers can be adjusted by adding water or sand to the ballast box to
adjust the compactive effort achieved.
Photographs 7 and 8: Dual drummed steel vibratory roller and rubber-tired pneumatic roller.
23
Sheepsfoot compactors are used to compact fill materials composed of cohesive (clayey) soils and clayrich non-durable bedrock. These compactors roll on steel metal drums with long, steel projections.
CDOT Specifications require that the projections must be at least 4 inches long. The weight of these
compactors can also be adjusted by adding sand or water to the ballast box on the compactor. If
claystone is being used as embankment fill, CDOT requires a minimum weight of 30 tons. CDOT also
requires that sheepsfoot compactors be operated at a uniform speed of 3 miles per hour or less.
Photograph 9: Sheepsfoot compactor.

Instead of relying on vibration to achieve compaction, sheepsfoot rollers accomplish compaction
through a kneading action of clay soils. When clay soils are compacted at the appropriate moisture
content, the projections will sink into the material and penetrate into the preceding lift that was placed.
As the soil is densified with multiple passes from the compactor, the projections will penetrate less until
the roller begins to ride on top of the compacted lift. This is referred to as walking out (Figure 8).
24
Figure 8: Diagram illustrating proper penetration and eventual walking out of the projections from a
sheepsfoot compactor following multiple passes.
If clay soils are too wet, the soils will either pump or begin to collect between the roller projections, and
compaction will not be achieved. Similarly, if clay soils are too dry the projections will not penetrate
into the lift adequately, and compaction of the base of the lift will not be achieved.
The degree of compaction is tested in the field using the nuclear density gauge (AASHTO T310 /
Colorado Procedure 80-08). Density tests are taken a minimum of once every 2,000 cubic yards of
material placed. A one-point moisture/density (proctor curve) verification test shall be performed every
5 tests to verify the use of the correct moisture/density curve. The test sites should be selected
randomly, and should be representative of the materials placed in the surrounding areas.
Grade Control and Proof Rolling
As cuts and fills progress during a road construction project, the grade and slopes should be checked
periodically. Grade and elevations should be checked at known stations by referring to cross sections in
the project plan sets. If the final lift of the embankment is to be select material, the proceeding lift will
be rolled with a sheepsfoot to leave the top 2 inches rough. If no select material is required, the
contractor will bring the embankment to final grade prior to placing sub-base (if required) and base
course (if required). The final surface will be fine-bladed with a grader, and rolled smooth with a steel
25
drum roller to seal the surface of the top lift and provide protection against weather and construction
traffic. Blue-topped stakes will be used to set the grade at the edges of the embankments. The final
grade and crown can be checked using a string line or 10-foot straight edge and the blue top stakes. The
side slopes of the embankment must also be checked to confirm they were constructed in accordance
with the plans. Variations in the final grade elevations in both cut and fill sections shall not be more
than 0.08 foot (1 inch). Where asphalt or concrete pavement are to be placed, the final grade plane shall
not vary by more than 0.04 foot (1/2-inch).
Prior to placing any sub-base, base course, or pavement (if pavement is to be placed directly on the
prepared subgrade or completed embankment), the completed surface is proof rolled with pneumatic tire
equipment. Proof rolling is required after the required compaction of the embankment/subgrade has
been achieved and it has been built to the required grade. A minimum axle load of 18 kips per axle is
required, and a weigh ticket must be submitted to prove this requirement is met. Proof rolling must be
performed within 48 hours prior to placing any sub-base, base course, or pavement; or if the condition of
the final surface changes due to weather or other circumstances. Soft spots can be identified by nonuniform deflection in localized areas during the proof rolling operations. These areas must be ripped,
dried or wetted as necessary, and recompacted to the appropriate density.
Photograph 10: Proof rolling operation being completed by a filled water truck.
26
Chapter 5 Common Soil Problems That Can Effect Construction

Geological conditions may exist within a corridor that lead to difficult highway and embankment
construction. In addition to making construction difficult, some soil deposits, if they go unnoticed or are
left untreated, can contribute to post-construction problems such as differential movement of the
embankments that support a roadway, or even failure of the pavement structure and/or the
embankments. This chapter provides a brief overview of common soil problems that need to be
addressed during design or construction to improve the quality of the finished roadways. Basic
information for how these soil problems are addressed or mitigated are also included. Problem soils
require special attention beyond the generalized earthwork preparation and compaction specifications
found in CDOTs Standard Specifications. A project will have Special Provisions written into the
specifications to address soil problems that are expected to be encountered within a corridor.
Soft Clay Deposits Consolidation and Stability
Thick deposits of soft clay within an embankment foundation can pose a number of problems during
construction. Soft clays in Colorado can be encountered in stream flood plains, wetland areas, and in
areas where claystone bedrock is capped by a thick weathered layer referred to as residual soil. Soft
clays will generally have a high moisture content (some in excess of the liquid limit), and as a result,
may not have the strength or cohesion to adequately support a roadway or a new embankment.
A major issue that soft clays pose is consolidation, which can lead to post-construction settlement if
mitigation is not implemented during construction. Consolidation is the process where a saturated clay
deposit is placed under a surcharge load (i.e. adding 20 feet of fill material for construction of an
embankment), and the increased load results in an expulsion of pore water from the clay. As the pore
water is expelled, the clay deposit (and anything built over top of it) begins to settle and deform.
Because clays have a very low permeability, this process takes a significant amount of time (in some
instances several years), and settlement of the overlying embankment and roadway occurs gradually but
continually. If the thickness or strength of a clay deposit varies beneath a long stretch of embankment,
differential settlement can occur. In other words, thicker sections will settle a higher magnitude and
over a longer time duration than thinner deposits; resulting in uneven rates and magnitudes of
deformation to the overlying embankment and roadway structure.
Consolidation can be mitigated through a process known as accelerated embankment consolidation. A
combination of strategies can be implemented to pre-consolidate a clay deposit to a desired magnitude
before the pavement structure is built:
Installation of wick drains into the deposit, which decreases the flow paths for pore water
expulsion, thus accelerating the process.
27
Constructing an excess surcharge to pre-load the deposit. In other words, if a 20-foot

embankment is to be built, 40 feet of material can be placed to increase the load on the deposit,
and accelerate the consolidation process before the road is constructed. Once the
predicted/desired amount of settlement is achieved (this is monitored through time with survey
and instrumentation); the surcharge is removed and the final pavement structure is built.
Time: whether using wick drains or surcharging, or if both procedures are used; time is required
to allow settlement to occur before the roadway structure is built.
Photograph 11: Accelerated consolidation being achieved through the use of wick drains and
surcharging.
If the deposit is near the ground surface and not too thick to be removed cost effectively, the material
can also simply be removed from the embankment foundation and replaced with an approved fill
material. This process is known as over-excavation and replacement. Another option that can be used
to reduce the effects of consolidation is to reduce the surcharge of the embankment through the use of
Expanded Polystyrene Geofoam blocks (EPS foam) in place of soil or rock fill.
28
Photograph 12: Light-weight EPS foam blocks being used to bridge over soft clay deposits for new
embankment construction.
Soft clays also pose stability problems for new embankment construction. If a high embankment is
placed over a soft clay deposit, and the material is loaded beyond its shear strength, bearing capacity
failures of the embankment or a landslide can result. These issues may not manifest during construction,
but can come into play months or years down the road if the deposit becomes overly saturated with an
excessive amount of rainfall or snow melt.
Photograph 13: Landslide that developed as a result of embankment construction over a weak clay
deposit.
Mitigation of soft clay deposits that can lead to embankment stability problems can be addressed using a
variety of methods that are dependent on a number of factors including but not limited to cost,
construction access, subsurface conditions, and material properties. Drains can be installed in the
29
material, buttresses can constructed at the toe of an embankment to prevent movement (i.e. slope
flattening), the embankment can be constructed of light-weight fill materials to reduce the load on the
deposit (EPS foam), the soil can be treated to improve its strength (deep soil mixing, grout injection), or
reinforcement elements can be installed to increase the stability of the ground such as geotextiles, piles,
drilled shafts, or ground anchors.
Swelling Soil and Heaving Bedrock
Swelling soils are clay-rich soils that exhibit a volume change with increases or decreases to their
moisture content. These soils are very common in Colorado, and are derived from weathering of certain
claystone bedrock formations. Heaving bedrock operates by the same mechanism; but is differentiated
because the swelling occurs from intact bedrock layers rather than from unconsolidated soil deposits.
Swelling soils and heaving bedrock contain clay particles with a specific mineral referred to as
montmorillonite. This mineral is characterized by a platy or layered structure that absorbs water,
causing the individual layers to expand. This expansion can increase the volume of a deposit by more
than 20 percent; and the swelling action can exert thousands of pounds of force onto overlying
structures.
Once a pavement or structure is placed over these soils; natural evaporation is restricted, which can
cause moisture to build up in the subsurface. In addition, if pavement cracks develop through time and
allow water infiltration into the subsurface, an increase in moisture content can occur. The underlying
soils then expand, and buckling and differential heave can occur to the overlying structures.
Photographs 14 and 15: Damage to asphalt pavement and separation along a concrete construction joint
as a result of swelling soils.
30
Problems due to swelling soils and heaving bedrock most often occur in cut areas, where dry claystone
bedrock or residual soils can be exposed, and in transitions from cut to fill areas. However, swelling
soils can also result in problems in fill areas if clay soils with expansion potential are used as
embankment fill. CDOT requires that soils with more than 35 percent fines be compacted at a moisture
content between zero and three percent above optimum moisture to help reduce the magnitude of swell
that can occur post-construction.
Remedial measures to address swelling soil generally involve reducing the likelihood of water
infiltration; as an increase in moisture content is required to initiate swell. The crown of the roadway is
generally sloped to promote runoff and eliminate ponding water. In addition, drainage ditches are
constructed below the subgrade level in low areas and are graded to allow rapid runoff of surface water.
Other methods to mitigate swelling soil include over-excavation and replacement; where potential
expansive layers are removed to a specified depth and replaced with non-expansive material compacted
to the appropriate density. Chemical treatment of the subgrade soils with lime, flyash, or combinations
of these materials have also been used to successfully reduce the swell potential of these soils.
Photograph 16: Mixing a lime slurry into subgrade soils to reduce the swell potential.
It should be noted that chemical soil treatment by the use of lime or other cement agents can result in a
different type of heave for soils characterized by a high sulfate content. Sulfate can react with the lime
(or other calcium based products) resulting in the growth of ettringite and/or thaumasite crystals in the
soil. The growth of these crystals in the soil also results in a volume expansion and heave to overlying
structures.
31
The soil inspector needs to be aware if swelling soils are encountered within a corridor; and what, if any,
mitigation measures were specified to address these soils during construction.
Collapsible Soils
Collapsible soils (also known as hydrocompactive soils) are typically dry, fine-grained soils with a
honeycomb skeletal fabric with open pore spaces between the individual soil particles. The soil is
typically characterized by a high dry strength and can support loading conditions from overburden
stresses in addition to structures. However, once the soil becomes wet, a water content threshold can be
reached which can dissolve or weaken the soil binding agents, resulting in rapid densification of the soil
particles into the open void structure, and subsequent settlement.
Contrary to consolidation, soil collapse can occur relatively rapidly. However, a thick deposit of
collapsible soil may experience continued collapse for several years as the subsurface moisture content
slowly increases with time. Similar to consolidation and swelling soils, the magnitude and time frame of
soil collapse is rarely uniform across a deposit. Therefore, differential settlement often occurs to
structures and roadways built over these deposits if mitigation was not implemented during construction.
Photograph 17: Sinkhole development as a result of collapsible soil deposits settling at depth.
Proactive mitigation techniques for collapsible soils include pre-wetting and/or pre-densification; or
over-excavation and replacement. Pre-wetting involves intentionally saturating the soil deposits prior to
construction by sprinkler irrigation, flood irrigation, trenching, ponding water, or pumping water into the
subsurface through the use of injection wells. Pre-densification can be used alone, or in combination
with pre-wetting. For shallow deposits, dynamic compaction with construction equipment can be
conducted. For deep deposits; injection of compaction grout in combination with pre-wetting is one
32
method that has successfully treated collapsible soils. Compaction grout is a stiff, high-slump grout that
is injected at high pressures to actively displace and densify soils at depth.
Passive mitigation techniques include measures to reduce water infiltration into the subsurface where
these deposits may exist through the use of surface and subsurface drainage systems. The use of lowpermeability fill materials (clay) can also reduce surface water infiltration.
Muck Excavation
Muck is defined as a soil with a minimum of 15 percent decomposed organic materials by weight.
Muck is typically dark in color and smells of rotting vegetation. This material can be found in low-lying
flood plains adjacent to stream channels and in wetland areas. When muck soils are expected to be
encountered on a project or are identified during a subsurface exploration program, the project plan
sheets will delineate areas where treatment is required.
Muck is very low strength soil, and is not suitable as a subgrade or foundation material to build new
embankments or pavement structures on. Continued decomposition of organic materials in muck can
result in voids being formed in the deposit, which can lead to differential settlement and stability
problems post-construction. Typically muck is addressed during construction by over-excavation and
replacement with approved material. This material must be removed to the depth indicated in the plans
and specifications, or deeper if necessary. Soil inspectors must observe the areas being excavated and
document whether or not all of the poor quality soil has been removed from an embankment foundation.
Photograph 18: Muck being excavated from a project site.

33
Geosynthetics for Problem Soil Treatment

In some situations, poor subgrade conditions may be present within a corridor where either a demanding
schedule or high cost prohibits remedial measures such as over-excavation and replacement, or deep soil
treatment. Geosynthetics are a cost-effective means to address soft and low-strength subgrade soils and
can be installed relatively quickly on a construction project. These materials can also be used to bridge
an embankment over standing water where high ground water conditions cannot be economically dealt
with through grading or drainage construction.
Geosynthetics include a variety of materials that are used for different applications. Products common
to embankment construction and their applications are included in Table 6 below:
Table 6: Common Applications for Geosynthetics in Embankment Construction
Applications
Geotextiles
Separators
Reinforcement
Filtration
Drainage
Geogrids
Geocomposites
X
X
X
Geotextiles consist of synthetic fibers that are either woven or matted together in a random, non-woven
fashion. Some are also knitted. The woven materials are characterized by a higher tensile strength. The
use of synthetic fibers increases their durability for permanent use in earthwork construction. Geotextiles
are porous and allow water to flow across their plane.
Geogrids are polymers formed into an open, grid-like pattern. These materials are stretched in the
manufacturing process to improve their physical properties (tensile strength and deformation
characteristics). While they can be used as a drainage medium, geogrids are almost exclusively used as
reinforcement to improve the strength of soils.
Geocomposites consist of a combination of geotextiles and geogrids (or other geotextiles that are not
listed here) to provide a material with a variety of properties for multiple applications.
34
Figure 9: Photographs of various types of geosynthetics. From left to right: woven geotextiles,
geogrid, and geocomposite.
A separator may be needed where the embankment fill specified for a project is composed of a different
gradation characteristic than the foundation soils (i.e. placing a granular fill over a soft clay layer). If
high ground water conditions and a soft clay deposit exists within an embankment foundation, it is
necessary to install a drainage layer at the base of the embankment (i.e. a clean granular soil such as
gravel). However; if the clay is very soft, an excessive amount of gravel may be required to bridge over
the deposit; as the gravel may sink into the clay with repeated construction loading. In this example, a
geotextile fabric or geocomposite can be placed as a separator over the clay subgrade soils to eliminate
this problem and avoid excessive costs associated with hauling and placing excess gravel until it finally
bridges over top the poor subgrade soils.
The use of geosynthetics over soft subgrade soils is also a method to reinforce or increase the strength of
the embankment foundation. Certain types of geotextiles and geogrids are manufactured to have a high
tensile strength to resist deformation from settlement or subgrade failure in the form of a bearing
capacity failure. The installation of a layer at the base of an embankment acts as a rigid layer to resist
movement or deformation of the subgrade soils.
35
Photograph 19: Geotextile installation over soft, unstable subgrade soils.

Drainage and filtration would be required where a roadway is constructed into a slope that is
characterized by high ground water conditions or springs (Figure 10). A drainage fabric can be installed
to intercept a seep and direct the water flow beneath the embankment to discharge at the toe. Similarly,
a drainage layer such as gravel can be used for this application; however, the material may need to be
wrapped in a geotextile to prevent fines from infiltrating and plugging the gravel; reducing the
permeability and life of the drainage material (i.e. filtration).
Figure 10: Geosynthetic application for drainage and filtration to direct groundwater flow beneath an
embankment.
If geosynthetics are specified and included on a roadway and embankment construction project, the
CDOT soils inspector must be familiar with the properties of the material specified and its application.
CDOT uses the New York DOTs Approved Products List for geosynthetic approval on projects. It is
36
important to document that the materials that arrive on site have the properties (i.e. drainage
characteristics, tensile strength, etc.) that are required in the specifications. The inspector also must
document whether the Contractor installed the materials in accordance with either the project
specifications or with the manufacturers recommendations.
37
Appendix 1:
Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils FOP for AASHTO T89
Determining the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils FOP for AASHTO T90
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 89 (14)
DETERMINING THE LIQUID LIMIT OF SOILS

FOP FOR AASHTO T 89
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of the liquid limit of a soil in accordance with
AASHTO T 89-13. It is used in conjunction with the FOP for AASHTO T 90, Determining
the Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index of Soils. The three values are used for soil
classification and other purposes.
Apparatus
Dish: preferably unglazed porcelain or similar mixing dish, about 115 mm (4.5 in.) in
diameter.
Spatula: having a blade 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in.) long and about 20 mm (3/4 in.) wide.
Liquid Limit Device: manually or mechanically operated, consisting of a brass cup,

carriage, and base plate and conforming to the critical dimensions shown in AASHTO
T 89 Figure 1.
Grooving Tool: used to cut the soil in the liquid limit device cup and conforming to the
critical dimensions shown in AASHTO T 89 Figure 1.
Gauge: either part of the grooving tool or a separate metal bar, 10.0 0.2 mm (0.394
0.008 in.) thick and approximately 50 mm (2 in.) long.
Containers: corrosion resistant, suitable for repeated heating and cooling, having close
fitting lids to prevent the loss of moisture. One container is needed for each moisture
content determination.
Balance: conforming to AASHTO M 231, class G1, sensitive to 0.01 g with a minimum
capacity of 100 g.
Oven: thermostatically controlled, capable of maintaining temperatures of 110 5C

(230 9F).
Graduated cylinders for measuring distilled or demineralized water.
T89_short_14
T 89-1
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 89 (14)
Adjustment of Liquid Limit Device

The liquid limit device shall be inspected to determine that the device is in good working
order; that the pin connecting the cup is not worn to permit side play; that the screws
connecting the cup to the hanger are tight; that the points of contact on the cup and base are
not excessively worn; that the lip of the cup is not excessively worn; and that a groove has
not been worn in the cup. The grooving tool shall be inspected to determine that the critical
dimensions are correct.
Note 1: Wear is considered excessive when the point of contact on the cup or base exceeds
approximately 13 mm (0.5 in.) in diameter, or when any point on the rim of the cup is worn to
approximately 1/2 the original thickness. A slight groove in the center of the cup is not objectionable. If
the groove becomes pronounced, the cup shall be replaced. A base that is excessively worn may be
refinished as long as it is maintained within the tolerances specified.
Adjust the height of drop of the cup so that the point on the cup that comes in contact with
the base rises to a height of 10.0 0.2 mm (0.394 0.008 in.).
Note 2: Check the height of the drop, before each new sample, by turning the crank at two revolutions
per second while holding the gauge in position against the cup. If a ringing or clicking sound is heard
without the cup rising from the gauge, the adjustment is correct. If no ringing is heard or if the cup rises
from gauge, readjust the height of the drop. If the cup rocks on the gauge during this checking
operation, the cam follower pivot is excessively worn and should be replaced.
Sample
Samples must be prepared per the FOP for AASHTO T 87 or T 146. Obtain a sample with a
mass of about 100 g taken from the portion of the material passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40)
sieve.
The mass required depends upon the method chosen. Method A (multi-point method)
requires approximately 100 g. Method B (single point method) requires approximately 50 g.
T89_short_14
T 89-2
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 89 (14)
Procedure Method A (Multi-Point)

1. Place the sample in the dish and thoroughly mix with 15 to 20 mL of distilled or
demineralized water by alternately and repeatedly stirring, kneading, and chopping with a
spatula. Further additions of water shall be in increments of 1 to 3 mL. Each increment
shall be thoroughly mixed with the soil before another increment is added. Once testing
has begun, no additional dry soil should be added to the moistened soil. The cup of the
Liquid Limit device shall not be used for mixing soil and water. If too much water is
added, the sample shall either be discarded or mixed and kneaded until natural
evaporation lowers the moisture content.
Note 3: Some soils are slow to absorb water. It is possible to add water so fast that a false LL value is
obtained. This can be avoided by allowing more mixing and/or time. Also, tap water may be used for
routine testing if comparative tests indicate no differences in results between using tap water and
distilled or demineralized water.
2. Add sufficient water to form a uniform mass of a stiff consistency.

3. Place enough material in the cup so that, when squeezed and spread with the spatula, the
soil will rest in the cup above the spot where the cup rests on the base and will be 10 mm
thick at the point of maximum thickness. Use as few strokes of the spatula as possible,
taking care to prevent the entrapment of air bubbles in the sample.
4. Divide the soil in the cup with a firm stroke of the grooving tool. Avoid tearing of the
sides of the groove or slipping of the soil cake on the cup. Up to six strokes are permitted
with a stroke from front to back or from back to front counting as 1 stroke. The depth of
the groove should be increased with each stroke, and only the last stroke should scrape
the bottom of the cup.
5. Lift and drop the cup by turning the crank at a rate of approximately two revolutions per
second until the two halves of the soil pat come together along a distance of about 13 mm
(0.5 in.). Do not hold the base while the crank is turned. Record the number of shocks
required to close the groove this distance.
Note 4: Some soils tend to slide on the cup instead of flowing. If this occurs, water should be added,
the sample remixed, and the procedure repeated. If the soil continues to slide on the cup, the test is not
applicable and a note should be made that the liquid limit could not be determined.
6. Use the spatula to obtain a moisture content sample by slicing through the soil pat
perpendicularly to the groove. Remove the sample extending edge to edge and including
the portion of the groove that flowed together. Place it into a suitable container and cover
for subsequent moisture determination.
7. Determine the moisture percentage of the moisture content sample in accordance with the
FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265 (Soil).
8. Place the soil remaining in the cup back in the mixing dish and add 1 to 3 mL of water, or
use previously prepared portions to which sufficient water has been added to result in a
more fluid condition.
T89_short_14
T 89-3
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 89 (14)
9. Repeat Steps 3 through 8, a minimum of two times. The object is to have a determination
in all three shock ranges 25-35, 20-30, and 15-25 and span a range of at least 10 shocks.
Flow Curve Method A

Prepare a flow curve on a semi-logarithmic graph with moisture content on the arithmetic
vertical axis and the number of shocks on the logarithmic horizontal axis. The flow curve is
a straight line drawn as closely as possible through three or more plotted points.
Liquid Limit Method A
Determine the liquid limit. The moisture content at the intersection of the flow curve and the
25 shock line is the liquid limit.
Procedure Method B (Single-Point)
1. Place the sample in the dish and thoroughly mix with 8 to 10 mL of distilled or
demineralized water, and following the mixing procedure in Method A, Step 1.
2. Follow the procedure in Method A except that the soil pat should be prepared with water
to produce a consistency that will close the two halves of the soil pat at least 13 mm (0.5
in.) within 22 to 28 shocks of the cup.
Note 5: Groove closures occurring between 15 and 40 blows may be accepted if variations of 5 percent
of the true liquid limit are tolerable.
3. Return the soil remaining in the cup to the mixing dish and, without adding any
additional water, repeat Step 2. If the closure again occurs within the acceptable range
and is within 2 shocks of the first, obtain a moisture content specimen as described in
Method A.
T89_short_14
T 89-4
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 89 (14)
4. Determine the moisture content of the moisture content sample in accordance with the
FOP for AASHTO T 255/T 265 (Soil).
Liquid Limit Method B

Calculate the liquid limit as follows:
LL = (wN)(N/25) 0.121
Table 1
N
(N/25) 0.121
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
0.985
0.990
0.995
1.000
1.005
1.009
1.014
LL = (wN)(N/25) 0.121
Where:
LL
wN
N
= liquid limit
= moisture content of sample at N blows
= number of blows
Example:
wN = 16.0 %
and
16.0
N = 23
.
15.8%,
16%
Or using Table 1 (when number of shocks to closure of gap is 22-28):
16.0
0.990
15.8%,
16%
Report
LL rounded to the nearest 1 percent.
T89_short_14
T 89-5
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 90 (14)
DETERMINING THE PLASTIC LIMIT AND PLASTICITY INDEX OF SOILS

FOP FOR AASHTO T 90
Scope
This procedure covers the determination of the plastic limit and plasticity index of soil in
accordance with AASHTO T 90-14. It is used in conjunction with the FOP for AASHTO
T 89, Determining the Liquid Limit of Soils. The three values are used for soil classification
and other purposes. Two procedures, hand rolling and an alternate rolling method are
covered. The hand rolling method is to be used as the referee method.
Apparatus
Dish: preferably unglazed porcelain or similar mixing dish, about 115 mm (4.5 in.) in
diameter.
Spatula: having a blade 75 to 100 mm (3 to 4 in.) long and about 20 mm (3/4 in.) wide.
Rolling Surface:
A ground glass plate or piece of smooth, unglazed paper.
Plastic Limit Rolling Device: (Optional) A device made of acrylic conforming to the
dimensions shown in AASHTO T 90 Figure 1.
Paper for Rolling Device: Unglazed paper that does not add foreign matter to the soil
during the rolling process. Paper is attached to both the top and bottom plates of the
rolling device by either adhesive or self-adhesive backing. Remove all adhesive from the
rolling device after each test to prevent buildup.
Containers: corrosion resistant, suitable for repeated heating and cooling, having close
fitting lids to prevent the loss of moisture before initial mass determination and while
sample is cooling before final mass determination. One container is needed for each
moisture content determination.
Balance: conforming to AASHTO M 231, class G1, sensitive to 0.01 g with a minimum
capacity of 100 g.
Oven: thermostatically controlled, capable of maintaining temperatures of 110 5C

(230 9F).
T90_short_14
T 90-1
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 90 (14)
Sample
The plastic limit procedure is often run in conjunction with the liquid limit procedure. If this
is the case, the plastic limit sample should be obtained from the soil prepared for the liquid
limit test at any point in the process at which the soil is plastic enough to be easily shaped
into a ball without sticking to the fingers excessively when squeezed. Obtain approximately
8 g of soil to run the plastic limit test.
If the plastic limit only is to be determined, the sample must be prepared according to
AASHTO T 58 or T 146. Obtain about 20 g of material passing the 0.425 mm (No. 40)
sieve. Mix the soil with distilled or demineralized water until the mass becomes plastic
enough to be easily shaped into a ball. Obtain approximately 8 g of soil to run the plastic
limit test.
Note 1: Tap water may be used for routine testing if comparative tests indicate no differences in results
between using tap water and distilled or demineralized water.
Procedure
1. Determine and record the mass of the container and lid
2. Pull a 1.5 to 2 g mass test sample from the initial 8 g.
3. Squeeze and form the test sample into an ellipsoidal-shape mass.
4. Use one of the following methods to roll the mass.
Hand Rolling MethodRoll the mass between the fingers or palm and the rolling
surface with just sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter
along its length. The sample must be rolled into the 3 mm (1/8 in.) thread in no
longer than 2 minutes.
Alternate Rolling Method, Plastic Limit Device MethodPlace the soil mass on the
bottom plate. Place the top plate in contact with the soil mass. Roll the mass between
the plates with sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter
along its length, apply a slight downward force and a back and forth motion so that
top plate contacts the side rails within 2 minutes. During this rolling process, do not
allow the soil thread to contact the side rails. Rolling multiple threads at once is
allowed.
5. Break the thread into six or eight pieces when the diameter of the thread reaches 3 mm
(1/8 in.).
6. Squeeze the pieces together between the thumbs and fingers of both hands into an
ellipsoidal-shape mass and reroll.
T90_short_14
T 90-2
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 90 (14)
Continue this process of alternately rolling to a thread 3 mm (1/8 in.) in diameter, cutting
into pieces, gathering together, kneading and rerolling until the thread crumbles under the
pressure required for rolling and the soil can no longer be rolled into a thread 3 mm in
diameter.
Crumbling may occur when the thread has a diameter greater than 3 mm (1/8 in.). This
shall be considered a satisfactory end point, provided the soil has been previously rolled
into a thread 3 mm (1/8 in.) in diameter. The crumbling will manifest itself differently
with various types of soil. Some soils fall apart in many pieces; others form an outside
tubular layer that splits at both ends; splitting progresses toward the middle, and the
thread falls apart in small platy particles. Heavy clay requires much pressure to deform
the thread, particularly as it approaches the plastic limit, and the thread breaks into a
series of barrel-shaped segments each 6 to 9 mm (1/4 to 3/8 in.) long. At no time shall
the tester attempt to produce failure at exactly 3 mm (1/8 in.) diameter. It is permissible,
however, to reduce the total amount of deformation for feebly plastic soils by making the
initial diameter of the ellipsoidal-shaped mass nearer to the required 3 mm (1/8 in.) final
diameter.
7. Gather the portions of the crumbled soil together, place in the moisture content container
and cover.
8. Repeat steps one through seven until 8 g of sample have been tested and placed in the
covered container.
9. Determine the moisture content of the sample in accordance with the FOP for
AASHTO T 255/T 265 (Soil) and record the results.
Plastic Limit
The moisture content, as determined in Step 9 above, is the Plastic Limit. It is advisable to
run several trials on the same material to ensure a proper determination of the Plastic Limit of
the soil.
T90_short_14
T 90-3
Pub. October 2014
FIELD OPERATING
PROCEDURE LIBRARY
WAQTC
AASHTO T 90 (14)
Plasticity Index
The Plasticity Index (PI) of the soil is equal to the difference between the Liquid Limit (LL)
and the Plastic Limit (PL).
PI = LL PL
Examples:
#1
#2
LL = 34 and PL = 17
PI = 34 17 = 17
Container
1
2
Container
Mass, g
14.44
14.18
LL = 16 and PL = 10
PI = 16 10 = 6
Example Calculation
Container
and Wet
Wet Soil
Soil Mass, g
Mass, g
22.65
8.21
23.69
9.51
Water Mass, g
1.20
0.88
Moisture Content
17.1
10.2
Container
and Dry
Soil Mass, g
21.45
22.81
Dry Soil
Mass, g
7.01
8.63
Plastic Limit
17
10
Report
PL and PI rounded to the nearest 1 percent
T90_short_14
T 90-4
Pub. October 2014
Appendix 2:
AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification Example
and Partial Group Index Determination
AASHTO M-145 Soil Classification System

General
Classification
Group
Classification

(More than 35%
Granular Materials
A-1
A-2
A-7
A-3
A-1-a
A-1-b
No. 10
50 max
--
No. 40
30 max
No. 200
15 max
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
A-7-5
A-7-6
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
50 max
51 min
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
25 max
10 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
36 min
36 min
36 min
36 min
--
--
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
6 max
NP
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
Stone fragments,
gravel, and sand
Fine
sand
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
LL
(Liquid Limit)
PI
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
significant
constituents
General subgrade
rating
Excellent to good
Silty soils
Fair to poor
EXAMPLE: What is the classification of the soil with the following index properties?
Gradation (% Passing):
#10 = 72.1
#40 = 53.3
#200 = 38.2
Liquid Limit = 33
Plastic Index = 8
Clayey soils
Use a process of elimination to determine the soil classification. In this example, the percent
passing the number 200 sieve is greater than 35. All A-1, A-2, and A-3 soils can be eliminated:
General
Classification

(More than 35%
Granular Materials
Group
Classification
A-1
A-2
A-7
A-3
A-1-a
A-1-b
No. 10
50 max
--
No. 40
30 max
No. 200
15 max
A-4
A-5
A-6
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
A-7-5
A-7-6
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
50 max
51 min
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
25 max
10 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
36 min
36 min
36 min
36 min
--
--
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
6 max
NP
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
Stone fragments,
gravel, and sand
Fine
sand
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
LL
(Liquid Limit)
PI
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
significant
constituents
General subgrade
rating
Excellent to good
Silty soils
Fair to poor
Clayey soils
The Plastic Index of this soil is below 11; therefore, all A-6 and A-7 soils can also be eliminated:
General
Classification

(More than 35%
Granular Materials
Group
Classification
A-1
A-2
A-6
A-3
A-1-a
A-1-b
No. 10
50 max
--
No. 40
30 max
No. 200
15 max
A-4
A-7
A-5
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
A-7-5
A-7-6
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
50 max
51 min
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
25 max
10 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
36 min
36 min
36 min
36 min
--
--
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
6 max
NP
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
Stone fragments,
gravel, and sand
Fine
sand
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
LL
(Liquid Limit)
PI
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
significant
constituents
General subgrade
rating
Excellent to good
Silty soils
Fair to poor
Clayey soils
Finally, the Liquid Limit is less than 41; therefore, the A-5 Soil Group can also be eliminated:
General
Classification

(More than 35%
Granular Materials
Group
Classification
A-1
A-2
A-4
A-3
A-1-a
A-1-b
No. 10
50 max
--
No. 40
30 max
No. 200
15 max
A-6
A-7
A-5
A-2-4
A-2-5
A-2-6
A-2-7
A-7-5
A-7-6
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
50 max
51 min
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
--
25 max
10 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
35 max
36 min
36 min
36 min
36 min
--
--
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
40 max
41 min
6 max
NP
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
10 max
10 max
11 min
11 min
Stone fragments,
gravel, and sand
Fine
sand
Sieve Analysis
Percent Passing:
Characteristics of
fraction passing
No. 40 sieve
LL
(Liquid Limit)
PI
(Plasticity Index)
Usual types of
significant
constituents
General subgrade
rating
Excellent to good
Gradation (% Passing):
#10 = 72.1
#40 = 53.3
#200 = 38.2
The resulting soil classification is A-4.
Liquid Limit = 33
Plastic Index = 8
Silty soils
Fair to poor
Clayey soils
Partial Group Index Determination

A soils Liquid Limit, Plasticity Index, and percent passing the No. 200 sieve are used to
determine the partial group index. The liquid limit partial group number, and the
plasticity index partial group number are determined separately, then added together and
rounded to a whole number to determine the partial group index for a soil.
The liquid limit partial group number is determined by the liquid limit and the percent
passing the No. 200 sieve. The equation to calculate the liquid limit partial group number
is:
(F-35)[0.2+0.005(LL-40)]
where:
F = % passing the No. 200 sieve

LL = Liquid Limit of the soil
If the% passing the # 200 sieve is < 35%, then the LL partial group index will be 0.
The plasticity index partial group number is determined by the plasticity index and the %
passing the No. 200 sieve. The equation to calculate the plasticity index partial group
number is:
0.01[(F-15) (PI-10)]
where:
F = % passing the No. 200 sieve

PI = Plasticity Index of the soil
Partial Group Index = LL Partial Group Number + Plasticity Index Partial Group Number
(Rounded to the nearest whole number)
Example Problem:
What is the partial group index of the soil with the following characteristics?
F = 45.1%
LL= 38
PI = 26
The initial soil classification for the soil is an A-6.
For Liquid Limit Partial Group Number:
= (F-35) [0.2+0.005(LL-40)]
= (45.1- 35) [0.2+0.005(38-40)]
= (10.1) [0.2+ (-0.01)]
= (10.1) [.19]
= 1.92
For Plasticity Index Partial Group Number:
= 0.01[(F-15) (PI-10)]
= 0.01[(45.1-15) (26-10)
= 0.01[(30.1) (16)]
= 0.01[481.6]
= 4.82
Answer: LL partial group number = 1.92
PI partial group number = 4.82
Partial Group Index = 1.92 + 4.82 = 6.74 = 7
Completed classification is A-6(7)
Appendix 3:
Determination of Zero Air Voids Density of Soils
with Varying Moisture Content and Specific Gravity
The zero air voids density (Dz) for a soil at a given moisture content is calculated using
the equation below. The specific gravity of the soil particles must be known to calculate
the zero air voids density that can be achieved at that specific moisture content. The zero
air voids curve is typically plotted on the proctor curve at each percent moisture point to
provide a reference for checking relative compaction in the field. This curve is also
referred to as the 100% saturation curve.
Dz =
(S.G. soil) (62.4 lbs/ft)

1+ (S.G. soil) (% Moisture of proctor point)
100
Where:
S.G. = Specific Gravity of the soil

Dz = Zero Air Voids Density at a specific moisture content
Example:
S.G. soil =
Percent moisture =
Dz =
Dz =
2.650
11.2%
(2.650) (62.4 lbs/ft)

1 + (2.650) (11.2)
100
165.4 lbs/ft
1.296
Dz = 127.6 lbs/ft at 11.2% Moisture

The Zero Air Voids Density Tabulation shown on the next page provides a quick
reference to determine the zero air voids density that would be obtained at various
moisture contents given typical specific gravity values for soil. When a specific gravity
test is not conducted for a soil; this table can be used to estimate the zero air voids
density. For sands, specific gravity is typically 2.65. For clays, specific gravity can
range from 2.70 to 2.75.
Table A-1:
Zero Air Voids Density Tabulation Given Various
Moisture Contents and Common Specific Gravities for Soils

Waqtc Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waqtc Book

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Waqtc Book

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

Family of Curves One-Point Method

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

TOTAL EVAPORABLE MOISTURE CONTENT OF AGGREGATE BY DRYING

Containers, clean, dry and capable of being sealed

Suitable drying containers

Microwave safe container with ventilated lid

Heat source, controlled:

Heat source, uncontrolled:

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

Utensils such as spoons

Hot pads or gloves

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

Minimum Sample Mass

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

5. Place the sample in one of the following drying apparatus:

6. Dry until sample appears moisture free.

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

110 5C (230 9F)

110 5C (230 9F)

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

Mp = previous mass measurement

0.22 percent is not less than 0.10 percent, so continue drying

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

w = moisture content, percent

Results on forms approved by the agency

MW, wet mass

MD, dry mass

w, moisture content to nearest 0.1 percent

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 (14)

Pub. October 2014

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 REVIEW

3. How is constant mass defined according to this FOP:

Pub. October 2012

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T 265 REVIEW

Pub. October 2012

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

AASHTO T 255/T265 REVIEW

REVIEW QUESTION ANSWERS

30 minutes of drying in an oven

EMBANKMENT AND BASE

FOP AASHTO T 99/T 180 (14)