Dehydration 2013/10 Unit operation 2

Example 1. The initial moisture content of a food product is 77% (wet basis), and the critical moisture
content is 30% (wet basis). If the constant drying rate is 0.1 kg H2O/(m2 s), compute the time required for
the product to begin the falling rate drying period. The product has a cube shape with 5 cm sides, and the
initial product density is 950 kg/m3 .

Given
Initial moisture content =77% wet basis
Critical moisture content =30% wet basis
Drying rate for constant rate period =0.1 kg H2O/(m2 s)
Product size cube with 5-cm sides
Initial product density = 950 kg/m3

Approach
The time for constant-rate drying will depend on mass of water removed and the rate of water removal.
Mass of water removed must be expressed on dry basis, and rate of water removal must account for
product surface area.
Solution
1. The initial moisture content is 0.77 kg H2O/kg product= 3.35 kg H2O/kg solids X=1/(1-X)
1-0.77 kg H2O/kg product = .23 kg solid/kg product
2. The critical moisture content is 0.3 kg H2O/kg product= 0.43 kg H2O/kg solids
3. The amount of moisture to be removed from product during constant-rate drying will be
3.35 0.43 = 2.92 kg H2O/kg solids
4. The surface area of the product during drying will be
0.05 m x 0.05 m =2.5 x 10-3 m2/side
2.5 x 10-3 x 6 sides = 0.015 m2
5. The drying rate becomes

6. Using the product density, the initial product mass can be established.

????
7. The total amount of water to be removed becomes

8. Using the drying rate, the time for constant-rate drying becomes

Example 2. A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100C down to moisture content of 10%. If the
initial temperature of the food is 21C, calculate the quantity of heat energy required per unit weight of
the original material, for drying under atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of vaporization of water at
100C and at standard atmospheric pressure is 2257 kJ kg-1. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8
kJ kg-1 C-1 and of water is 4.186 kJ kg-1 C-1. Find also the energy requirement/kg water removed.

Calculating for 1 kg food

Initial moisture = 80%
800 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
Final moisture = 10 %,
100 g moisture are associated with 900 g dry matter, x=x'/(1- x')
Therefore (100 x 200)/900 g = 22.2 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
1kg of original matter must lose (800 - 22) g moisture = 778 g = 0.778 kg moisture.
Heat energy required for 1kg original material
= heat energy to raise temperature to 100C + latent heat to remove water
= (100 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2257 = 300.2 + 1755.9 = 2056 kJ.

Energy/kg water removed, as 2056 kJ are required to remove 0.778 kg of water,

= 2056/0.778 = 2643 kJ.

Steam is often used to supply heat to air or to surfaces used for drying. In condensing, steam gives up its
latent heat of vaporization; in drying, the substance being dried must take up latent heat of vaporization to
convert its liquid into vapour, so it might be reasoned that 1 kg of steam condensing will produce 1 kg
vapour. This is not exactly true, as the steam and the food will in general be under different pressures with
the food at the lower pressure. Latent heats of vaporization are slightly higher at lower pressures. In
practice, there are also heat losses and sensible heat changes which may require to be considered.

EXAMPLE 3. Heat energy in vacuum drying Using the same material as in Example 2, if vacuum drying
is to be carried out at 60C under the corresponding saturation pressure of 20 kPa abs. (or a vacuum of
81.4 kPa), calculate the heat energy required to remove the moisture per unit weight of raw material.

Heat energy required per kg raw material

= heat energy to raise temperature to 60C + latent heat of vaporization at 20 kPa abs.
= (60 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2358= 148.2 + 1834.5= 1983 kJ.

EXAMPLE 4. Heat energy in freeze drying If the foodstuff in the two previous examples were to be
freeze dried at 0C, how much energy would be required per kg of raw material, starting from frozen food
at 0C?

In freeze drying the latent heat of sublimation must be supplied. Pressure has little effect on the latent heat
of sublimation, which can be taken as 2838 kJ kg-1. Heat energy required per kilogram of raw material=
latent heat of sublimation
= 0.778 x 2838 = 2208 kJ.

EXAMPLE 5. Rate of evaporation on drying

The mass-transfer coefficient from a free water surface to an adjacent moving air stream has been found
to be 0.015 kg m-2 s-1. Estimate the rate of evaporation from a surface of 1 m2 at a temperature of 28C
into an air stream with a dry-bulb temperature of 40C and RH of 40% and the consequent necessary
rate of supply of heat energy to effect this evaporation.

From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 40C is 0.0495 kg kg-1.

Humidity of air at 40C and 40%RH = 0.0495 x 0.4

= 0.0198 kg kg-1
= Ya
From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 28C is 0.0244 kg kg-1 = Ys

Driving force = (Ys - Ya )= (0.0244 - 0.0198) kg kg-1 = 0.0046 kg kg-1

Rate of evaporation = k A(Ys - Ya) = 0.015 x 1 x 0.0046 = 6.9 x 10-5 kg s-1

Latent heat of evaporation of water at 28C = 2.44 x 103 kJ kg-1

Heat energy supply rate per square metre =
6.9 x 10-5 x 2.44 x 103 kJ s-1 = 0.168 kJ s-1 = 0.168 kW.
The problem in applying such apparently simple relationships to provide the essential rate information
for drying, is in the prediction of the mass transfer coefficients. In the section on heat transfer, methods
and correlations were given for the prediction of heat transfer coefficients. Such can be applied to the
drying situation and the heat transfer rates used to estimate rates of moisture removal. The reverse can
also be applied.

EXAMPLE 6. Heat transfer in air drying

Using the data from Example 5, estimate the heat transfer coefficient needed from the air stream to the
water surface.

Heat-flow rate = q = 168 J s -1 from Example 5.

Temperature difference = dry-bulb temperature of air - wet-bulb temperature (at food surface)
= (40 - 28) = 12C = (Ta - Ts )
Since q = h A (Ta - Ts)
168 = h x 1 x 12
h = 14 J m-2 s-1 C-1

Mass balances are also applicable, and can be used, in drying and related calculations.

EXAMPLE 7. Temperature and RH in air drying of carrots

In a low-temperature drying situation, air at 60C and 10 % RH is being passed over a bed of diced
carrots at the rate of 20 kg dry air per second. If the rate of evaporation of water from the carrots,
measured by the rate of change of weight of the carrots, is 0.16 kg s-1 estimate the temperature and RH of
the air leaving the dryer.

From the psychrometric chart

Humidity of air at 60C and 10% RH = 0.013 kg kg-1.
Humidity added to air in drying = 0.16 kg/20 kg dry air = 0.008 kg kg-1
Humidity of air leaving dryer = 0.013 + 0.008= 0.021 kg kg-1

Following on the psychrometric chart the wet-bulb line from the entry point at 60C and 10% RH up to
the intersection of that line with a constant humidity line of 0.021 kg kg-1, the resulting temperature is
41C and the RH 42%.

Because the equations for predicting heat-transfer coefficients, for situations commonly encountered, are
extensive and much more widely available than mass-transfer coefficients, the heat-transfer rates can be
used to estimate drying rates, through the Lewis ratio.
Remembering that Le = (h/csk) = 1 for the air/water system(air of the humidity encountered in ordinary
practice cs cp 1.02 kJ kg-1 C-1), therefore numerically, if h is in J m-2 s-1 C-1, and k in kg m-2 s-1, k =
h/1000, the values of h can be predicted using the standard relationships for heat-transfer coefficients.

EXAMPLE 8. Lewis relationship in air drying

In Example 5 a value for k of 0.0150 kg m-2 s-1 was used. It was also found that the corresponding heat-
transfer coefficient for this situation was 15 J m-2 s-1 C-1 as calculated in Example 6. Does this agree with
the expected value from the Lewis relationship (k = h/1000) for the air/water system?

h = 15 J m-2 s-1 C-1 = 1000 x 0.0150 = 1000 x k as the Lewis relationship predicts.

A convenient way to remember the inter-relationship is that the mass transfer coefficient from a free
water surface into air expressed in g m-2 s-1 is numerically approximately equal to the heat-transfer
coefficient from the air to the surface expressed in J m-2 s-1 C-1.
EXAMPLE 9. Time for air drying at constant rate
100 kg of food material are dried from an initial water content of 80% on a wet basis and with a surface
area of 12 m2. Estimate the time needed to dry to 50% moisture content on a wet basis, assuming
constant-rate drying in air at a temperature of 120C dry bulb and 50C wet bulb.
Under the conditions in the dryer, measurements indicate the heat-transfer coefficient to the food surface
from the air to be 18 J m-2 s-1 C-1.

From the data

Xo = 0.8/(1 - 0.8) = 4 kg kg-1,

Xf = 0.5/(1 - 0.5) = 1 kg kg-1,

and from the psychrometric chart, Ys = 0.087 and Ya = 0.054 kg kg-1

From the Lewis relationship k = 18 g m-2 s-1 = 0.018 kg m-2 s-1

w or Ls = 100(1 - 0.8) = 20 kg

t = w ( Xo - Xf) / [k A(Ys -Ya)]= 20(4 - 1)/[0.018 x 12 x (0.087 - 0.054)]= 60/7.128 x 10 = 8417 s

= 2.3 h (to remove 60 kg of water).

During the falling-rate period, the procedure outlined above can be extended, using the drying curve for
the particular material and the conditions of the dryer. Sufficiently small differential quantities of
moisture content to be removed have to be chosen, over which the drying rate is effectively constant, so
as to give an accurate value of the total time. As the moisture content above the equilibrium level
decreases so the drying rates decrease, and drying times become long.

Problem 1. In a particular situation, the heat transfer coefficient from a food material to air has been
measured and found to be 25 J m-2 s-1 C-1. If this material is to be dried in air at 90C and 15% RH,
estimate the maximum rate of water removal.

Problem 2. A cabinet dryer is being used to dry a food product from 68% moisture content (wet basis) to
5.5% moisture content (wet basis). The drying air enters the system at 54C and 10% RH and leaves at
30C and 70% RH. The product temperature is 25C throughout drying. Compute the quantity of air
required for drying on the basis of 1 kg of product solids.

Problem 3. A product enters a tunnel dryer with 56% moisture content (wet basis) at a rate of 10 kg/h.
The tunnel is supplied with 1500 kg dry air/h at 50C and 10% RH, and the air leaves at 25C in
equilibrium with the product at 50% RH. Determine the moisture content of product leaving the dryer.

Problem 4. A countercurrent tunnel dryer is being used to dry apple slices from an initial moisture
content (wet basis) of 70% to 5%. The heated air enters at 100C with 1% RH and leaves at 50C. If the
product temperature is 20C throughout the dryer and the specifi c heat of product solids is 2.2 kJ/(kg C),
determine the quantity of heated air required for drying the product at a rate of 100 kg/h. Determine the
relative humidity of outlet air.
Problem 5. A cabinet dryer is to be used for drying of a new food product. The product has an initial
moisture content of 75% (wet basis) and requires 10 minutes to reduce the moisture content to a critical
level of 30% (wet basis). Determine the final moisture of the product if a total drying time of 15 minutes
is used.

Problem 6. Pistachios are to be dried using a countercurrent dryer operating at steady state. The nuts are
dried from 80% (wet basis) to 12% (wet basis) at 25C. Air enters the heater at 25C (dry bulb
temperature) and 80% relative humidity. The heater supplies 84 kJ/kg dry air. The air exits the dryer at
90% relative humidity. For this given information solve the following parts:
a. What is the relative humidity of the air leaving the heater section of the dryer?
b. What is the temperature (dry bulb temperature) of air leaving the dryer?
c. What is the flow rate (m 3 /s) of air required to dry 50 kg/h of pistachio nuts?

Problem 7. A sample of a food material weighing 20 kg is initially at 450% moisture content dry basis. It
is dried to 25% moisture content wet basis. How much water is removed from the sample per kg of dry
solids?

Problem. 8 Air enters a counter flow drier at 60C dry bulb temperature and 25C dew point temperature.
Air leaves the drier at 40C and 60% relative humidity. The initial moisture content of the product is 72%
(wet basis). The amount of air moving through the drier is 200 kg of dry air/h. The mass flow rate of the
product is 1000 kg dry solid per hour. What is the final moisture content of the dried product (in wet
basis)?

Problem 9. The falling rate portion of the drying time for a particle of skim milk begins at the critical
moisture content of 25%, and the final moisture content is 4%. The air used for drying is
120C and was heated from ambient air of 20C and 40% RH. The particle size at the critical moisture
content is 20 microns, and the specific heat of the product solids is 2.0 kJ/kg K. The mass diffusivity for
water within the product particle is 3.7 x 10-12 m2/s, and the density of the product particle is 1150 kg/m3 .
a. If the equilibrium moisture content for the product is 3.5%, estimate the time for the falling rate portion
of drying.
b. If 5000 m3/min of heated air is needed for product drying, determine the thermal energy needed to heat
the air to 120C.