Drying Operation

Meika Syahbana Rusli

Outline
 Basic drying theory
 Psychrometry
 Equilibrium moisture content
 Air drying
 Conduction Drying
Basic Drying Theory
 Three States of Water
 Heat Requirements for Vaporization
 Heat Transfer in Drying
 Mass Transfer in Drying
 Dryer Efficiencies
FIG. 1. Phase diagram for water
FIG. 2. Vapour pressure/temperature curve for water
Heat Requirements for Vaporization

The energy, which must be supplied to vaporize

the water at any temperature, depends upon this
temperature. The quantity of energy required per
kg of water is called the latent heat of
vaporization, if it is from a liquid, or latent heat of
sublimation if it is from a solid. The heat energy
required to vaporize water under any given set of
conditions can be calculated from the latent heats
given in the steam table
EXAMPLE 1. Heat energy in air drying

A food containing 80% water is to be dried at 100°C down

to moisture content of 10%. If the initial temperature of the
food is 21°C, calculate the quantity of heat energy required
per unit weight of the original material, for drying under
atmospheric pressure. The latent heat of vaporization of
water at 100°C and at standard atmospheric pressure is
2257 kJ kg-1. The specific heat capacity of the food is 3.8
kJ kg-1 °C-1 and of water is 4.186 kJ kg-1 °C-1. Find also
the energy requirement/kg water removed.
Example 1. Continued
Calculating for 1 kg food
                  Initial moisture = 80%
800 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
                   Final moisture = 10 %,
100 g moisture are associated with 900 g dry matter,
Therefore (100 x 200)/900 g = 22.2 g moisture are associated with 200 g dry matter.
1kg of original matter must lose (800 - 22) g moisture = 778 g = 0.778 kg moisture.

Heat energy required for 1kg original material

                                                 = heat energy to raise temperature to 100°C + latent
heat to remove water
                                                 = (100 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2257
                                                 = 300.2 + 1755.9
                                                 = 2056 kJ.
Energy/kg water removed, as 2056 kJ are required to remove 0.778 kg of water,
                                                 = 2056/0.778
                                                 = 2643 kJ.
 EXAMPLE 2. Heat energy in vacuum drying
Using the same material as in Example 1, if vacuum drying
is to be carried out at 60°C under the corresponding
saturation pressure of 20 kPa abs. (or a vacuum of 81.4
kPa), calculate the heat energy required to remove the
moisture per unit weight of raw material.
 Heat energy required per kg raw material
= heat energy to raise temperature to 60°C + latent heat of
vaporization at 20 kPa abs.
= (60 - 21) x 3.8 + 0.778 x 2358
= 148.2 + 1834.5
= 1983 kJ.
In freeze drying the latent heat of sublimation must be
supplied. Pressure has little effect on the latent heat of
sublimation, which can be taken as 2838 kJ kg-1.

EXAMPLE 3. Heat energy in freeze drying

If the foodstuff in the two previous examples were to be
freeze dried at 0°C, how much energy would be required
per kg of raw material, starting from frozen food at 0°C?
Heat energy required per kilogram of raw material= latent
heat of sublimation
                               = 0.778 x 2838
                               = 2208 kJ.
TABLE 1. LATENT HEAT AND SATURATION
TEMPERATURE OF WATER

Absolute pressure Latent heat of vaporization Saturation temperature

(kPa) (kJ kg-1) (°C)
1 2485 7
2 2460 18
5 2424 33
10 2393 46
20 2358 60
50 2305 81
100 2258 99.6
101.35 (1 atm) 2257 100
110 2251 102
120 2244 105
200 2202 120
500 2109 152
Heat Transfer in Drying
 In air drying the rate of heat transfer is given by:

q = hsA(Ta - Ts)                                                                         (7.1)

where q is the heat transfer rate in J s-1, hs is the surface heat-transfer

coefficient J m-2 s-1 °C-1, A is the area through which heat flow is taking place,
m2, Ta is the air temperature and Ts is the temperature of the surface which is
drying, °C.
 To take another example, in a roller dryer where moist material is spread over
the surface of a heated drum, heat transfer occurs by conduction from the drum
to the foodstuff, so that the equation is

        q = UA(Ti– Ts )

where U is the overall heat-transfer coefficient, Ti is the drum temperature

(usually very close to that of the steam), Ts is the surface temperature of the
food (boiling point of water or slightly above) and A is the area of drying surface
on the drum.
Mass Transfer in Drying
 Mass is transferred under the driving force provided by a partial
pressure or concentration difference.

 The rate of mass transfer is proportional to the potential (pressure

or concentration) difference and to the properties of the transfer
system characterized by a mass-transfer coefficient.
 Writing these symbolically, we have

dw/dt = k'g A DY                                                     (7.2)

where w is the mass being transferred kg s-1, A is the area

through which the transfer is taking place, k'g is the mass-transfer
coefficient in this case in units kg m-2 s-1 , and Y is the humidity
difference in kg kg-1.
Dryer Efficiencies
 Basically it is a simple ratio of the minimum energy needed to the
energy actually consumed.

 The useful measure for air drying is to look at a heat balance over the
air, treating the dryer as adiabatic with no exchange of heat with the
surroundings. Then the useful heat transferred to the food for its drying
corresponds to the drop in temperature in the drying air, and the heat
which has to be supplied corresponds to the rise of temperature of the
air in the air heater. So this adiabatic air-drying efficiency, h, can be
defined by:

h = (T1 - T2)/(T1 - Ta)                                                       (7.3)

where T1 is the inlet (high) air temperature into the dryer, T2 is the
outlet air temperature from the dryer, and Ta is the ambient air
temperature. The numerator, the gap between T1 and T2, is a major
factor in the efficiency.
Example 2.
A dryer reduces the moisture content of 100 kg of a potato product
from 80% to 10% moisture. 250 kg of steam at 70 kPa gauge is
used to heat 49,800 m3 of air to 80°C, and the air is cooled to 71°C
in passing through the dryer. Calculate the efficiency of the dryer.
The specific heat of potato is 3.43 kJ kg-1 °C-1. Assume potato
enters at 24°C, which is also the ambient air temperature, and
leaves at the same temperature as the exit air.

In 100 kg of raw material there is 80% moisture, that is 80 kg water

and 20 kg dry material,
total weight of dry product = 20 x (10/9)
                                      = 22.2 kg
weight of water = (22.2 - 20)
                                      = 2.2 kg.
water removed = (80 - 2.2)
                                       = 77.8 kg.
Example 2. Continued
 Heat supplied to potato product
= sensible heat to raise potato product temperature from 24°C to 71°C
+ latent heat of vaporization.

 Now, the latent heat of vaporization corresponding to a saturation temperature of

71°C is 2331 kJ kg-1
Heat (minimum) supplied/100 kg potato
                                       = 100 x (71 - 24) x 3.43 + 77.8 x 2331
                                       = 16 x 103 + 181 x 103
                                       = 1.97 x 105 kJ.
Heat to evaporate water only = 77.8 x 2331
                                       = 1.81 x 105 kJ

 The specific heat of air is 1.0 J kg-1 °C-1 and the density of air is 1.06 kg m-3
        Heat given up by air/100 kg potato
                                              = 1.0 x (80 - 71) x 49,800 x 1.06
                                              = 4.75 x 105 kJ.
 The latent heat of steam at 70 kPa gauge is 2283 kJ kg-1
                      Heat in steam = 250 x 2283
                                              = 5.71 x 105 kJ.
Example 2. Continued
 Therefore

(a) efficiency based on latent heat of vaporisation only:

                                              = (1.81 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
                                              = 32%

(b) efficiency assuming sensible heat remaining in food after drying

is unavailable                   = (1.97 x 105)/ (5.71 x 105)
                                              = 36%

(c) efficiency based heat input and output, in drying air

                                              = (80 – 71)/ (80 – 24)
                                              = 16%
PSYCHROMETRY
 Humidity
 Wet-bulb Temperatures
 Psychrometric Charts
 Measurement of Humidity
Humidity
 The capacity of air for moisture removal depends on its humidity and its
temperature. The study of relationships between air and its associated
water is called psychrometry.
 Humidity (Y) is the measure of the water content of the air. The absolute
humidity, sometimes called the humidity ratio, is the mass of water vapour
per unit mass of dry air and the units are therefore kg kg-1, and this will be
subsequently termed just the humidity.
 Air is said to be saturated with water vapour at a given temperature and
pressure if its humidity is a maximum under these conditions. If further water
is added to saturated air, it must appear as liquid water in the form of a mist
or droplets. Under conditions of saturation, the partial pressure of the water
vapour in the air is equal to the saturation vapour pressure of water at that
temperature.
 The relative humidity (RH) is defined as the ratio of the partial
pressure of the water vapour in the air (p) to the partial pressure of
saturated water vapour at the same temperature (ps).
Therefore:
                                    RH = p/ps
and is often expressed as a percentage = 100 p/ps
 EXAMPLE 5. Partial pressure of water vapour
If the total pressure of moist air is 100 kPa (approximately
atmospheric) and the humidity is measured as 0.03 kg kg-1,
calculate the partial pressure of the water vapour.
The molecular weight of air is 29, and of water 18
So the mole fraction of water = (0.03/18)/(1.00/29 + 0.03/18)
                                          = 0.0017/(0.034 + 0.0017)
                                          = 0.048
                                                                                  
Therefore the water vapour pressure
                                          = 0.048 x 100 kPa
                                          = 4.8 kPa.

 EXAMPLE 6. Relative humidity

If the air in Example 5 is at 60°C, calculate the relative humidity.
From steam tables, the saturation pressure of water vapour at 60°C
is 19.9 kPa.
Therefore the relative humidity = p/ps
                                            = 4.8/19.9
                                            = 0.24
                                             or 24%.
Wet-bulb Temperatures
 A useful concept in psychrometry is the wet-bulb temperature, as
compared with the ordinary temperature, which is called the dry-bulb
temperature. The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature reached by
a water surface, such as that registered by a thermometer bulb
surrounded by a wet wick, when exposed to air passing over it. The
wick and therefore the thermometer bulb decreases in temperature
below the dry-bulb temperature until the rate of heat transfer from the
warmer air to the wick is just equal to the rate of heat transfer needed to
provide for the evaporation of water from the wick into the air stream.

 Equating these two rates of heat transfer gives

hcA(Ta - Ts) = lk'gA(Ys– Ya)
hc(Ta - Ts) = lk'g(Ys– Ya)

where a and s denote actual and saturation temperatures and

humidities; hc is the heat-transfer coefficient and k'g the mass transfer
coefficient from the air to the wick surface; l is the latent heat of
evaporation of water.
Psychrometric Charts
Psychrometric Charts (Cont.)
 The two main axes are temperature (dry bulb) and humidity
(humidity ratio) . The saturation curve (Ts , Ys). is plotted on this
dividing the whole area into an unsaturated and a two-phase
region. Taking a point on the saturation curve (Ts, Ys) a line can
be drawn from this with a slope:
- (lk'g/hc) = (l/cs)

running down into the unsaturated region of the chart (that

“below” the saturation line). This is the wet bulb or adiabatic
cooling line and a net of such lines is shown. Any constant
temperature line running between the saturation curve and the
zero humidity axis can be divided evenly into fractional
humidities which will correspond to fractional relative humidities
[for example, a 0.50 ratio of humidities will correspond to a 50%
RH because of eqn. (7.4) if P » pw].
Measurement of Humidity
 Methods depend largely upon the concepts that have been presented in the
preceding sections, but because they are often needed it seems useful to set them
out specifically. Instruments for the measurement of humidity are called
hygrometers.
 Wet- and dry-bulb thermometers. The dry-bulb temperature is the normal air
temperature and the only caution that is needed is that if the thermometer bulb, or
element, is exposed to a surface at a substantially higher or lower temperature the
possibility of radiation errors should be considered.
 Dew-point meters. These measure the saturation or dew-point temperature by cooling
a sample of air until condensation occurs. The psychrometric chart or a scale on the
instrument is then used to give the humidity.
 The hair hygrometer. Hairs expand and contract in length according to the relative
humidity. Instruments are made which give accurately the length of the hair and so
they can be calibrated in humidities.
 Electrical resistance hygrometers. Some materials vary in their surface electrical
resistance according to the relative humidity of the surrounding air. Examples are
aluminium oxide, phenol formaldehyde polymers, and styrene polymers.
 Lithium chloride hygrometers. In these a solution of lithium chloride is brought to a
temperature such that its partial pressure equals the partial pressure of water vapour
in the air.
EQUILIBRIUM
MOISTURE CONTENT
 The equilibrium vapour pressure above a food is determined not only by
the temperature but also by the water content of the food, by the way in
which the water is bound in the food, and by the presence of any
constituents soluble in water. Under a given vapour pressure of water in
the surrounding air, a food attains a moisture content in equilibrium with
its surroundings when there is no exchange of water between the food
and its surroundings.
This is called its equilibrium moisture content.

 It is possible, therefore, to plot the equilibrium vapour pressure against

moisture content or to plot the relative humidity of the air in equilibrium
with the food against moisture content of the food. Often, instead of the
relative humidity, the water activity of the food surface is used. This is
the ratio of the partial pressure of water in the food to the vapour
pressure of water at the same temperature.
The equilibrium curves obtained vary with different types of foodstuffs
and examples are shown in Fig. 4.
FIG. 4. Equilibrium moisture contents
AIR DRYING

 Drying Rate Curve

 Calculation of Constant Drying Rates
 Falling Rate Drying
 Calculation of Drying Time
PENGERING UDARA
 Kurva Tingkat Pengeringan
 Perhitungan Tarif Pengeringan Konstan
 Tingkat Pengeringan Jatuh
 Perhitungan Waktu Pengeringan
Drying Rate Curve

In many cases, a substantial part of the water is found to

be loosely bound. This water can, for drying purposes,
be considered as free water at the surface.
A comparison of the drying rates of sand, a material with
mostly free water, with meat containing more bound
water shows the effect of the binding of water on drying
rates. Drying rate curves for these are shown in Fig. 5.
Kurva Tingkat Pengeringan
Dalam banyak kasus, sebagian besar air ditemukan terikat
dengan longgar. Air ini dapat, untuk tujuan pengeringan,
dianggap sebagai air bebas di permukaan. Perbandingan
laju pengeringan pasir, bahan yang sebagian besar airnya
bebas, dengan daging yang mengandung lebih banyak air
terikat menunjukkan efek pengikatan air terhadap laju
pengeringan. Kurva laju pengeringan untuk ini ditunjukkan
pada Gambar. 5.
FIG. 5. Drying rate curves
Constan Drying Rate

 The behaviour in which the drying behaves as though

the water were at a free surface, is called constant-rate
drying. If w is the mass of the material being dried then
for constant rate drying:

dw/dt = constant.
 However in food, unlike impervious materials such as
sand, after a period of drying at a constant rate it is
found that the water then comes off more slowly. A
complete drying curve for fish, adapted from
Jason (1958), is shown in Fig. 6. The drying temperature
was low and this accounts for the long drying time.
Tingkat pengeringan konstan
 Perilaku di mana pengeringan berperilaku seolah-olah air berada di
permukaan yang bebas, disebut pengeringan dengan laju konstan.
Jika w adalah massa material yang dikeringkan maka untuk laju
pengeringan konstan:
dw / dt = konstan.
 Namun dalam makanan, tidak seperti bahan kedap air seperti pasir,
setelah periode pengeringan dengan laju konstan ditemukan bahwa
air kemudian mengalir lebih lambat. Kurva pengeringan lengkap
untuk ikan, diadaptasi dari Jason (1958), ditunjukkan pada Gambar.
6. Suhu pengeringan rendah dan ini menyumbang waktu
pengeringan yang lama.
FIG. 6. Drying curve for fish
FIG. 7. Generalized drying curve
Falling Drying Rate
 The change from constant drying rate to a slower rate occurs at
different moisture contents for different foods. However, for many
foods the change from constant drying rate occurs at a moisture
content in equilibrium with air of 58-65% relative humidity, that is at
aw = 0.58-0.65. The moisture content at which this change of rate
occurs is known as the critical moisture content, Xc .

 The end of the constant rate period, when X = Xc at the break point
of drying-rate curves, signifies that the water has ceased to behave
as if it were at a free surface and that factors other than vapour-
pressure differences are influencing the rate of drying. Thereafter
the drying rate decreases and this is called the falling-rate period of
drying. The rate-controlling factors in the falling-rate period are
complex, depending upon diffusion through the food, and upon the
changing energy-binding pattern of the water molecules. Very little
theoretical information is available for drying of foods in this region
and experimental drying curves are the only adequate guide to
design.
Tingkat Pengeringan Jatuh
Perubahan dari laju pengeringan yang konstan ke laju yang lebih lambat terjadi
pada kadar air yang berbeda untuk makanan yang berbeda. Namun, untuk banyak
makanan perubahan dari laju pengeringan konstan terjadi pada kadar air dalam
kesetimbangan dengan udara kelembaban relatif 58-65%, yaitu pada aw = 0,58-
0,65. Kadar air di mana perubahan laju ini terjadi dikenal sebagai kadar air kritis,
Xc.

Akhir periode laju konstan, ketika X = Xc pada titik putus kurva laju pengeringan,
menandakan bahwa air telah berhenti berperilaku seolah-olah berada di permukaan
bebas dan bahwa faktor-faktor selain perbedaan tekanan uap mempengaruhi
tingkat pengeringan. Setelah itu, laju pengeringan menurun dan ini disebut periode
laju pengeringan. Faktor-faktor pengontrol laju pada periode laju jatuh adalah
kompleks, tergantung pada difusi melalui makanan, dan pada perubahan pola
pengikatan energi dari molekul air. Sangat sedikit informasi teoretis yang tersedia
untuk mengeringkan makanan di wilayah ini dan kurva pengeringan eksperimental
adalah satu-satunya panduan yang memadai untuk mendesain.
Calculation of Constant Drying Rates
 In the constant-rate period, the water is being evaporated from what
is effectively a free water surface. The rate of removal of water can
then be related to the rate of heat transfer, if there is no change in
the temperature of the material and therefore all heat energy
transferred to it must result in evaporation of water. The rate of
removal of the water is also the rate of mass transfer, from the solid
to the ambient air. These two - mass and heat transfer - must
predict the same rate of drying for a given set of circumstances.

 Considering mass transfer, which is fundamental to drying, the

driving force is the difference of the partial water vapour pressure
between the food and the air. The extent of this difference can be
obtained, knowing the temperatures and the conditions, by
reference to tables or the psychrometric chart. Alternatively, the
driving force may be expressed in terms of humidity driving forces
and the numerical values of the mass-transfer coefficients in this
case are linked to the others through the partial pressure/humidity
relationships such as eqns. (7.4) and (7.5).
Perhitungan Tarif Pengeringan
Konstan
Dalam periode laju konstan, air diuapkan dari apa yang secara efektif merupakan
permukaan air bebas. Laju pembuangan air kemudian dapat dikaitkan dengan laju
perpindahan panas, jika tidak ada perubahan dalam suhu material dan oleh karena itu
semua energi panas yang ditransfer ke sana harus menghasilkan penguapan air. Laju
pemindahan air juga merupakan laju perpindahan massa, dari padatan ke udara sekitar.
Dua - perpindahan massa dan panas ini - harus memprediksi kecepatan pengeringan
yang sama untuk keadaan tertentu.

Mengingat perpindahan massa, yang merupakan hal mendasar untuk pengeringan,

kekuatan pendorong adalah perbedaan tekanan uap air parsial antara makanan dan
udara. Luasnya perbedaan ini dapat diperoleh, mengetahui suhu dan kondisi, dengan
mengacu pada tabel atau grafik psikrometri. Atau, gaya penggerak dapat dinyatakan
dalam hal gaya penggerak kelembaban dan nilai numerik dari koefisien perpindahan
massa dalam kasus ini dihubungkan dengan yang lain melalui hubungan tekanan /
kelembaban parsial seperti persamaan. (7.4) dan (7.5).
Example 8.
Rate of evaporation on drying

The mass-transfer coefficient from a free water surface to an adjacent moving air
stream has been found to be 0.015 kg m-2 s-1. Estimate the rate of evaporation from
a surface of 1 m2 at a temperature of 28°C into an air stream with a dry-bulb
temperature of 40°C and RH of 40% and the consequent necessary rate of supply of
heat energy to effect this evaporation.
From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 40°C is 0.0495 kg kg-1.
Humidity of air at 40°C and 40%RH = 0.0495 x 0.4
                                                    = 0.0198 kg kg-1
                                                    = Ya
From charts, the humidity of saturated air at 28°C is 0.0244 kg kg-1 = Ys
Driving force                                = (Ys - Ya )
                                                    = (0.0244 - 0.0198) kg kg-1
                                                    = 0.0046 kg kg-1
Rate of evaporation                        = k'gA(Ys - Ya)
                                                    = 0.015 x 1 x 0.0046
                                                    = 6.9 x 10-5 kg s-1
Latent heat of evaporation of water at 28°C = 2.44 x 103 kJ kg-1
Heat energy supply rate per square metre = 6.9 x 10-5 x 2.44 x 103 kJ s-1
                                                    = 0.168 kJ s-1
                                                    = 0.168 kW.
Contoh 8. Tingkat penguapan
saat pengeringan
Koefisien perpindahan massa dari permukaan air bebas ke aliran udara bergerak yang berdekatan ditemukan 0,015 kg
m-2 s-1. Perkirakan laju penguapan dari permukaan 1 m2 pada suhu 28 ° C ke dalam aliran udara dengan suhu bohlam
kering 40 C dan RH 40% dan konsekuensinya diperlukan tingkat pasokan energi panas untuk efek ini penguapan.

Dari grafik, kelembaban udara jenuh pada 40 ° C adalah 0,0495 kg kg-1.

Kelembaban udara pada 40 ° C dan 40% RH = 0,0495 x 0,4
= 0,0198 kg kg-1
= Ya

Dari grafik, kelembaban udara jenuh pada suhu 28 ° C adalah 0,0244 kg kg-1 = Ys
Kekuatan pendorong = (Ys - Ya)
= (0,0244 - 0,0198) kg kg-1
= 0,0046 kg kg-1
Tingkat penguapan = k'gA (Ys - Ya)
= 0,015 x 1 x 0,0046
= 6,9 x 10-5 kg ​s -1
Panas laten penguapan air pada suhu 28 ° C = 2,44 x 10^3 kJ kg-1
Tingkat pasokan energi panas per meter persegi = 6,9 x 10-5 x 2,44 x 103 kJ s-1
= 0.168 kJ s-1
= 0.168 kW.
Falling rate Drying
 The highest rate of drying is normally the constant rate situation,
then as drying proceeds the moisture content falls and the access of
water from the interior of the food to the surface affects the rate and
decreases it. The situation then is complex with moisture gradients
controlling the observed drying rates. Actual rates can be measured,
showing in the idealized case a constant rate continuing up to the
critical moisture content and thereafter a declining rate as the food,
on continued drying, approaches the equilibrium moisture content
for the food.

 This is clearly shown by the drying curve of Fig. 7.7 and at low
moisture contents the rates of drying become very low. The actual
detail of such curves depends, of course, on the specific material
and conditions of the drying process.
Pengeringan tingkat Jatuh
Laju pengeringan tertinggi biasanya adalah situasi laju konstan,
kemudian saat pengeringan berlangsung, kadar air turun dan akses air
dari bagian dalam makanan ke permukaan memengaruhi laju dan
menurunkannya. Situasinya kemudian kompleks dengan gradien
kelembaban mengendalikan laju pengeringan yang diamati. Laju aktual
dapat diukur, yang menunjukkan dalam kasus ideal laju konstan
berlanjut hingga kadar air kritis dan setelah itu laju menurun ketika
makanan, saat pengeringan terus-menerus, mendekati kadar air
kesetimbangan untuk makanan.

Ini ditunjukkan dengan jelas oleh kurva pengeringan pada Gambar 7.7
dan pada kadar air rendah laju pengeringan menjadi sangat rendah.
Detail kurva yang sebenarnya tergantung, tentu saja, pada bahan dan
kondisi spesifik dari proses pengeringan.
Calculation of Drying Times
 Drying rates, once determined experimentally or predicted from
theory, can then be used to calculate drying times so that drying
equipment and operations can be designed. In the most general
cases, the drying rates vary throughout the dryer with time as drying
proceeds, and with the changing moisture content of the material.
So the situation is complicated. However, in many cases a simplified
approach can provide useful results. One simplification is to assume
that the temperature and RH of the drying air are constant.

 In this case, for the constant-rate period, the time needed to remove
the quantity of water which will reduce the food material to the
critical moisture content Xc (that corresponding to the end of the
constant-rate period and below which the drying rate falls) can be
calculated by dividing this quantity of moisture by the rate.
Perhitungan Waktu
Pengeringan
Laju pengeringan, setelah ditentukan secara eksperimental atau diprediksi dari
teori, kemudian dapat digunakan untuk menghitung waktu pengeringan
sehingga peralatan dan operasi pengeringan dapat dirancang. Dalam kasus
yang paling umum, kecepatan pengeringan bervariasi di seluruh pengering
dengan waktu seiring pengeringan, dan dengan perubahan kadar air bahan.
Jadi situasinya rumit. Namun, dalam banyak kasus pendekatan yang
disederhanakan dapat memberikan hasil yang bermanfaat. Salah satu
penyederhanaan adalah dengan menganggap bahwa suhu dan RH dari udara
pengeringan konstan.
Dalam hal ini, untuk periode laju konstan, waktu yang diperlukan untuk
menghilangkan jumlah air yang akan mengurangi bahan makanan menjadi
kadar air kritis Xc (yang sesuai dengan akhir periode laju konstan dan di
bawahnya laju pengeringan jatuh) dapat dihitung dengan membagi jumlah
kelembaban ini dengan kurs.
Calculation of Drying Times (cont.)
 So                t  =  w (Xo- Xc) / (dw /dt)const.                           (7.6)

where   (dw /dt )const. = k'gA(Ys -Ya)

and Xo is the initial moisture content and Xc the final moisture
content (the critical moisture content in this case) both on a dry
basis, w is the amount of dry material in the food and (dw/dt )const
is the constant-drying rate.
 Where the drying rate is reduced by a factor f then this can be
incorporated to give:
                    Dt = w (DX)/ f(dw /dt)const.                                       (7.7)

and this has to be integrated piecemeal down to X = Xf where

subscript f denotes the final water content, and f expresses the ratio
of the actual drying rate to the maximum drying rate corresponding
to the free surface-moisture situation.
Perhitungan Waktu
Pengeringan (lanjutan)
Jadi t = w (Xo-Xc) / (dw / dt) const. (7.6)
dimana (dw / dt) const. = k'gA (Ys -Ya)
dan Xo adalah kadar air awal dan Xc adalah kadar air akhir (kadar air kritis
dalam kasus ini) baik pada basis kering, w adalah jumlah bahan kering dalam
makanan dan (dw / dt) const adalah pengeringan konstan menilai.
Jika laju pengeringan dikurangi oleh faktor f maka ini dapat dimasukkan untuk
memberikan:
Dt = w (DX) / f (dw / dt) const. (7.7)
dan ini harus diintegrasikan sedikit demi sedikit hingga X = Xf di mana subskrip
f menunjukkan kadar air akhir, dan f menyatakan rasio kecepatan pengeringan
aktual dengan laju pengeringan maksimum yang sesuai dengan situasi
kelembaban permukaan bebas.
EXAMPLE 9.
Time for air drying at constant rate
100 kg of food material are dried from an initial water content of 80% on a wet
basis and with a surface area of 12 m2. Estimate the time needed to dry to 50%
moisture content on a wet basis, assuming constant-rate drying in air at a
temperature of 120°C dry bulb and 50°C wet bulb.
Under the conditions in the dryer, measurements indicate the heat-transfer
coefficient to the food surface from the air to be 18 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.

From the data

 Xo = 0.8/(1 - 0.8) = 4 kg kg-1,
Xf  = 0.5/(1 - 0.5)  = 1 kg kg-1,
and from the psychrometric chart, Ys = 0.087 and Ya = 0.054 kg kg-1
From the Lewis relationship (Eqn. 7.5) k'g = 18 g m-2 s-1 = 0.018 kg m-2
w  = 100(1 - 0.8) = 20 kg
Now we have    (dw /dt )const. = k'gA(Ys -Ya)
and so                            t  = w ( Xo - Xf) / [k'gA(Ys -Ya)]
(Using eqn. (7.3)
t   = 20(4 - 1)/[0.018 x 12 x (0.087 - 0.054)]
    = 60/7.128 x 10-3
    = 8417 s
    = 2.3 h (to remove 60 kg of water).
CONTOH 9. Waktu untuk
pengeringan udara pada laju
konstan
100 kg bahan makanan dikeringkan dari kadar air awal 80% secara basah dan dengan luas permukaan 12
m2. Perkirakan waktu yang dibutuhkan untuk mengeringkan hingga 50% kadar air pada basis basah, dengan
asumsi kecepatan pengeringan konstan di udara pada suhu 120 ° C bohlam kering dan 50 ° C bohlam basah.
Di bawah kondisi dalam pengering, pengukuran menunjukkan koefisien perpindahan panas ke permukaan
makanan dari udara menjadi 18 J m-2 s-1 ° C-1.
Dari data
Xo = 0,8 / (1 - 0,8) = 4 kg kg-1,
Xf = 0,5 / (1 - 0,5) = 1 kg kg-1,
dan dari grafik psikrometri, Ys = 0,087 dan Ya = 0,054 kg kg-1
Dari hubungan Lewis (Persamaan 7.5) k'g = 18 g m-2 s-1 = 0,018 kg m-2
w = 100 (1 - 0,8) = 20 kg
Sekarang kita memiliki const (dw / dt). = k'gA (Ys -Ya)
dan t = w (Xo - Xf) / [k'gA (Ys -Ya)]
(Menggunakan persamaan (7.3)
t = 20 (4 - 1) / [0,018 x 12 x (0,087 - 0,054)]
= 60 / 7,128 x 10-3
= 8417 s
= 2,3 jam
(untuk menghilangkan 60 kg air).
EXAMPLE 9.
Time for drying during falling rate

Continuing Example 7.17, for the particular food material, the critical
moisture content, Xc, is 100% and the equilibrium moisture content
under the conditions in the dryer is 15% and the drying curve is that
illustrated in Fig. 7.7. Estimate the total time to dry down to 17%, all
moisture contents being on a dry basis.

Equation (7.7) Dt    =    w ( DX) / [f(dw /dt)const]

can be applied, over small intervals of moisture content and

multiplying the constant rate by the appropriate reduction factor (f)
read of from Fig. 7.7. This can be set out in a table. Note the
temperature and humidity of the air were assumed to be constant
throughout the drying.
CONTOH 9. Waktu untuk
pengeringan selama laju jatuh
Contoh lanjutan 7.17, untuk bahan makanan tertentu, kadar air kritis, Xc, adalah 100%
dan kadar air kesetimbangan di bawah kondisi dalam pengering adalah 15% dan kurva
pengeringan adalah yang diilustrasikan pada Gambar 7.7. Perkirakan total waktu untuk
mengering hingga 17%, semua kadar air menjadi kering.

Persamaan (7,7) Dt = w (DX) / [f (dw / dt) const]

dapat diterapkan, dalam interval kecil kadar air dan mengalikan laju konstan dengan
faktor reduksi (f) yang sesuai dari Gambar. 7.7. Ini bisa diatur dalam tabel. Perhatikan
suhu dan kelembaban udara diasumsikan konstan selama pengeringan.
Example 9. Cont.

Moisture content X 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.17

w(X1 - X2) 4 4 4 4 0.6

f 0.86 0.57 0.29 0.11 0.005

1/f(dw/dt)const. 1.63 x 2.46 x 4.84 x 1.28 x 2.81 x

     = 1/ f(7.128 x 10-3) 102 102 102 103 104

t 652 984 1936 5120 16860

Σt = 25552 s = 7.09 h (to remove 16.6 kg of water) = time at falling rate

Therefore total drying time = (2.3 + 7.09) h = 9.39 h.

CONDUCTION DRYING

 So far the drying considered has been by hot air.

Other methods of drying which are quite commonly encountered are
drying by contact with a hot surface; a continuous version of this is
the drum or roller dryer where the food is coated as a thin paste
over the surface of a slowly revolving heated horizontal cylinder. In
such a case, the food dries for as much of one revolution of the
cylinder as is mechanically feasible, after which it is scraped off and
replaced by fresh wet material.

 The amount of drying is substantially controlled by the rate of heat

transfer and estimates of the heat transfer rate can be used for
calculations of the extent of drying.
PENGERINGAN KONDUKSI
Sejauh ini pengeringan dianggap oleh udara panas. Metode
pengeringan lain yang cukup umum dijumpai adalah pengeringan
dengan kontak dengan permukaan yang panas; versi kontinu dari ini
adalah pengering gendang atau rol tempat makanan dilapisi sebagai
pasta tipis di atas permukaan silinder horizontal yang dipanaskan
dengan putaran lambat. Dalam kasus seperti itu, makanan mengering
sebanyak satu putaran silinder sebagaimana layak secara mekanis,
setelah itu dikikis dan diganti dengan bahan basah yang segar.

Jumlah pengeringan secara substansial dikendalikan oleh laju

perpindahan panas dan perkiraan laju perpindahan panas dapat
digunakan untuk perhitungan tingkat pengeringan.
EXAMPLE 10. Moisture content of
breakfast food after drum drying

 A drum dryer is being used to dry a starch-based breakfast food.

The initial moisture content of the food is 75% on a wet basis, the
drum surface temperature is 138°C and the food layer outer surface
100°C. The estimated heat transfer coefficient from the drum
surface to the drying food is 800 J m-2 s-1 °C-1.

 Assume that the thickness of the food on the drum is 0.3 mm and
the thermal conductivity of the food is 0.55 J m-1 s-1 °C-1. If the
drum, 1 m diameter and 1 m in length, is rotating at 2 rev/min and
the food occupies three-quarters of the circumference, estimate the
moisture content of the film being scraped off. Assume the critical
moisture content for the food material is 14% on a dry basis, and
that conduction heat transfer is through the whole film thickness to
give a conservative estimate.
CONTOH 10. Kadar air
makanan sarapan setelah
pengeringan drum
Pengering drum digunakan untuk mengeringkan makanan sarapan
berbasis pati. Kadar air awal makanan adalah 75% secara basah, suhu
permukaan drum adalah 138 ° C dan lapisan makanan permukaan luar
100 ° C. Diperkirakan koefisien perpindahan panas dari permukaan
drum ke makanan pengering adalah 800 J m-2 s-1 ° C-1.

Asumsikan bahwa ketebalan makanan pada drum adalah 0,3 mm dan

konduktivitas termal dari makanan adalah 0,55 J m-1 s-1 ° C-1. Jika
drum, berdiameter 1 m dan panjang 1 m, diputar pada 2 putaran /
menit dan makanan menempati tiga perempat keliling, perkirakan
kadar air film yang dikikis. Asumsikan kadar air kritis untuk bahan
makanan adalah 14% secara kering, dan transfer panas konduksi
melalui seluruh ketebalan film untuk memberikan perkiraan konservatif.
Example 10. Cont.

Initial moisture content = 75 % wet basis

                                  = 0.75/(1 -0.75)
                                  = 3 kg kg-1 dry basis.
Total quantity of material on drum
                                  = (p x D x 3/4) x 1 x 0.0003 m3
                                  = p x 1 x 3/4 x 1 x 0.0003
                                  = 7.1 x 10-4 m3.
Assuming a density of the food paste of 1000 kg m3
Weight on drum = 7.1 x 10-4 x 103
                                   = 0.71 kg.
Contoh 10. Lanjut.
Kadar air awal = 75% basis basah
= 0,75 / (1 -0,75)
= 3 kg kg-1 basis kering.
Jumlah total bahan pada drum
= (p x D x 3/4) x 1 x 0,0003 m3
= p x 1 x 3/4 x 1 x 0,0003
= 7,1 x 10-4 m3.
Dengan asumsi kepadatan pasta makanan 1000 kg m3 Berat pada
drum = 7,1 x 10-4 x 103
= 0,71 kg.
 Example 10. Cont.
Overall resistance to heat transfer, 1/U
                                  = 1/800 + 0.0003/0.55
                                  = 1.25 x 10-3 + 0.55 x 10-3
                                  = 1.8 x 10-3
Therefore U  =  556 Jm-2 s-1 °C-1
                               q  = UA DT
                                   = 556 x p x D x 1 x 0.75 x (138 - 100)
                                   = 49.8 kJ s-1.
Latent heat of evaporation of water
                                  = 2257 kJ kg-1
Rate of evaporation   = q /λ
                                  = 0.022 kg s-1.
Example 10. Cont.

Resistensi keseluruhan terhadap perpindahan panas, 1 / U

= 1/800 + 0,0003 / 0,55
= 1,25 x 10-3 + 0,55 x 10-3
= 1,8 x 10-3
Karenanya, U = 556 Jm-2 s-1 ° C-1
q = UA DT
= 556 xpx D x 1 x 0,75 x (138 - 100)
= 49,8 kJ s-1.
Panas laten penguapan air
= 2257 kJ kg-1
Tingkat penguapan = q / λ = 0,022 kg s-1.
 Example 10. Cont.
Residence time of food on drum: at 2 rev min
1 revolution takes 30s, but the material is on for ¾ rev.
Residence time                = (3/4) x 30
                                         = 22.5 sec.
Water removed          = 22.5 x 0.022
                                 = 0.495 kg.
Initial quantity of water = 0.71 x 0.75
                                   = 0.53 kg
and dry solids              = 0.71 x 0.25
                                  = 0.18kg.
Residual water                 = (0.53 - 0.495)
                                         = 0.035 kg.

Water content (wet basis) remaining

                                         = 0.035/(0.18 + 0.035)
                                         = 16%
SUMMARY
1. In drying:
(a) the latent heat of vaporization must be supplied and heat
transferred to do this.
(b) the moisture must be transported out from the food.
2. Rates of drying depend on:
(a) vapour pressure of water at the drying temperature,
(b) vapour pressure of water in the external environment,
(c) equilibrium vapour pressure of water in the food
(d) moisture content of the food.
3. For most foods, drying proceeds initially at a constant rate
given by:
dw/dt = k'gA(Ys - Ya) = hcA(Ta - Ts )/l
=q/l
for air drying. After a time the rate of drying decreases as the
moisture content of the food decreases.
SUMMARY (cont.)

4. Air is saturated with water vapour when the partial

pressure of water vapour in the air equals the saturation
pressure of water vapour at the same temperature.
5. Humidity of air is the ratio of the weight of water vapour
to the weight of the dry air in the same volume.
6. Relative humidity is the ratio of the actual partial
pressure to the saturation partial pressure of the water
vapour at the air temperature.
7. Water vapour/air humidity relationships are shown on the
psychrometric chart.
Sebelum disuling minyak atsirinya, biji pala harus
dikeringkan dulu dari kadar air panen sebesar
400% db sampai kadar air 25% db. Jika suhu awal
biji pala adalah 30oC dan pengeringan
berlangsung secara konvektif pada suhu 60oC,
hitung jumlah panas yang diperlukan untuk
mengeringkan sebanyak 10 ton biji pala segar.
Panas laten penguapan air pada suhu 60oC dan
tekanan atmosfir adalah 2360 kJ/kg; Panas jenis
biji pala diasumsikan 3,8 kJ/kg.oC;
Sebelum disuling minyak atsirinya, bunga cengkeh
(clove bud) harus dikeringkan dulu dari kadar air
panen sebesar 75% wb sampai kadar air 16,67% wb.
Jika suhu awal biji pala adalah 30oC dan pengeringan
berlangsung secara konvektif pada suhu 60oC, hitung
jumlah panas yang diperlukan untuk mengeringkan
sebanyak 10 ton bunga cengkeh segar. Panas laten
penguapan air pada suhu 60oC dan tekanan atmosfir
adalah 2360 kJ/kg; Panas jenis bunga cengkeh
diasumsikan 3,5 kJ/kg.oC;
 Koefisien pindah massa dari suatu permukaan
air bebas ke suatu aliran udara yang bergerak
ditetapkan sebesar 0,015 kg/m2s. Perkirakan
laju penguapan air dari permukaan seluas 1 m2
pada suhu 28oC ke aliran udara tersebut yang
memiliki suhu bola kering 40oC dan RH 40%,
serta hitung juga laju supply energi yang
diperlukan untuk berlangsungnya penguapan
tersebut.
 Sebanyak 100 kg irisan kentang segar dengan luas
permukaan 10 m2 dikeringkan menggunakan udara pengering
yang suhu bola keringnya 90oC dan suhu pengembunan 30oC
dengan laju tetap sampai kadar air 150% db yang merupakan
kadar air kritisnya selama 3 jam dan setelah itu dengan laju
menurun sampai kadar air akhir 20% db (kadar air
kesetimbangan untuk kondisi udara pengering tersebut adalah
15% db). Jika koefisien pindah massa pada permukaan
kentang diketahui sebesar 0,02kg/m2.det, hitung berapa kadar
air awal bahan dalam basis basah dan berapa lama total
waktu pengeringan yang dibutuhkan. (Nilai 40)
 Sebanyak 100 kg irisan ubi kayu segar dengan kadar air 85% wb
dan luas permukaan 10 m2 dikeringkan menggunakan udara
pengering yang suhu bola keringnya 80 oC dan RH 10%. Proses
pengeringan dengan laju tetap (sampai kadar air kritisnya) ternyata
berlangsung selama 150 menit. Setelah itu proses pengeringan
berlangsung dengan laju menurun sampai kadar air akhir 20% db
(kadar air kesetimbangan untuk kondisi udara pengering tersebut
adalah 15% db). Jika koefisien pindah massa pada permukaan ubi
kayu diketahui sebesar 0,02 kg/m2.det, hitung berapa lama waktu
pengeringan yang dibutuhkan. (Nilai 40)
(catatan : Gunakan kurva umum laju pengeringan menurun
terlampir)
 Sebanyak 100 kg irisan kentang segar dengan kadar air
900% db dan luas permukaan 10 m2 dikeringkan
menggunakan udara pengering yang suhu bola
keringnya 90oC dan RH 5% dengan laju tetap sampai
kadar air 100% db yang merupakan kadar air kritisnya
dan setelah itu dengan laju menurun sampai kadar air
akhir 20% db (kadar air kesetimbangan untuk kondisi
udara pengering tersebut adalah 15% db). Jika koefisien
pindah massa pada permukaan kentang diketahui
sebesar 0,015 kg/m2.det, hitung berapa lama waktu
pengeringan yang dibutuhkan.