Communication throughout our Body-

How chemical synapses allow the release of

neurotransmitters

One of the ways in which communication throughout the body occurs is at the level of chemical
synapses where the release of neurotransmitters is facilitated to transfer excitatory or inhibitory
responses to adjacent neurons allowing electrical information to be relayed throughout the body.
This description is written in hopes of providing an easy tool in understanding the complex nature of
chemical synapses and their role in the human body. The description will begin with an explanation of
the process of synaptic transmission at a chemical synapse. Then it will define and provide details on
neurotransmitters and action potentials. Finally, the description will conclude with an overview of the
process and its importance in the human body as well as a glossary of important terms. The following
diagram provides a visual overview of the location and stages involved in the synaptic transmission of
electrical information at a chemical synapse.

Figure 1: A diagram of the synaptic cleft of a chemical synapse and the activities that occur in it.
Source: Synaptic Transmission Lecture notes, Kinesiology 360, Dr. Jinger Gottschall
 Chemical synapses relay information via electrical signals
throughout our body. The process begins with the synthesis of
neurotransmitters and storage in the synaptic vesicles. From here,
a series of steps result in the release of these neurotransmitters into
the synaptic cleft between the presynaptic terminal and the
postsynaptic terminal. These neurotransmitters transfer the
“information” to the postsynaptic neurons through a variety of
electrical changes. Information can then continue to be sent
throughout the body via similar mechanisms. For example,
information from your foot as your friend is tickling you can be sent
to your brain and back resulting in spastic jerking motions as you
attempt to get away. Chemical synapses play a role in this relay of
information.
The process occurring at a chemical synapse is outlined in the
following 10 stages.

Stage 1: Neurotransmitters are synthesized by the body and stored in synaptic vesicles ready to
be released into the synaptic cleft.

Stage 2: An action potential runs down the axon of the presynaptic neuron and enters the
presynaptic terminal. The presynaptic neuron depolarizes.

Note: Action potentials are generated by outside stimulus (typically synaptic or receptor
potentials) eliciting changes in the resting membrane potential of a neuron. The
neuron is depolarized, the resting membrane potential becomes more positive due
to a positive outside current, and the resting membrane potential increases from its
initial value (typically -65mV in most neurons). An action potential is not generated
in the neuron until threshold potential is reached which is usually around -50mV in
neurons. Threshold is reached and an action potential is initiated, traveling down the
neuron to relay the electrical signal to adjacent cells.

Stage 3: The presynaptic terminal depolarizes causing the calcium channels found in the
presynaptic membrane to open. This is possible because of the voltage-sensitive nature of
the calcium channels and their stimulation by the change in membrane potential resulting
from the action potential.
Stage 4: Calcium diffuses into the presynaptic terminal with the opening of the calcium channels.
This is possible due to the large concentration gradient for calcium across the
membrane (more calcium is found outside of the cell than inside of the cell).

Stage 5: The influx of calcium into the presynaptic terminal triggers synaptic vesicles full of
neurotransmitters to migrate towards the presynaptic membrane to prepare for fusion.

Stage 6: The vesicles arrive at the presynaptic membrane and fuse with it. Exocytosis occurs. The
contents of the synaptic vesicles, neurotransmitters, are released into the synaptic cleft.

Stage 7: Neurotransmitters move across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor molecules located
on the postsynaptic membrane. These receptor molecules are specific to the
neurotransmitters they bind to, therefore not all receptor molecules can bind the
neurotransmitter released in each electrical signal transmission.

Stage 8: Channels in the postsynaptic membrane open or close as neurotransmitters bind to the
proper receptor molecules. The reaction the neurotransmitter elicits in the postsynaptic
membrane depends on the function of that given transmitter and whether it is excitatory
or inhibitory.

Stage 9: The opening or closing of the channels in the postsynaptic membrane results in either
an increase or decrease in the influx of ions into the postsynaptic neuron. The change in
ion flow (current) into the cell changes the electrical nature of the postsynaptic neuron,
typically through changes in the membrane potential of that neuron. This results in a
change in the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential and relaying
the electrical signal to other neurons.

Stage 10: Following release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft, the synaptic vesicle
becomes part of the presynaptic membrane. Synaptic vesicles are recycled to offset this
increase in plasma membrane of the presynaptic neuron. This is done by reformation of
the vesicles through endocytosis allowing them to be used again in another electrical
signal transmission.

That completes the process of synaptic transmission at a chemical synapse. This is a very complex
process and the above explanation only provides a brief overview of the major steps it entails. The full
details of the full process are too complicated and not within the scope of this description. The next
section will clarify and define neurotransmitters and their varying effects on the body.
 Neurotransmitters are chemicals found in the
body used to relay information between adjacent
cells. They vary in the responses that they elicit
in the postsynaptic neuron. They also differ in
when they are released and the corresponding
functions they have in our body.
Neurotransmitters can be either excitatory or
inhibitory and affect the postsynaptic neuron
accordingly. Excitatory neurotransmitters
change the postsynaptic membrane potential
making it more likely that neuron will produce an
action potential. Inhibitory neurotransmitters
Table 1: This table shows common have an opposite effect. They change the
neurotransmitters found throughout the postsynaptic membrane potential making it less
body and their corresponding effects. likely that neuron will produce an action
potential. It is these differences in the effects of
Source: Purves, Dale et al. Neuroscience neurotransmitters on postsynaptic neurons that
4th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer allow for the varied communication throughout
Associates, Inc., 2008. Pg 121 our body. In the following table is a list of some
of the more common neurotransmitters found in
the body and their requisite functions.

Common Neurotransmitters Found in the Body:

Now that you understand the process of a chemical synapse and the effects neurotransmitters have on the
body, we will move onto the last topic, action potentials. Following are some details about what action
potentials are and how they are generated to act as the major “information” source in our bodies.
Action potentials are the electrical signals transferred from cell to cell. They are the information our bodies
communicate with and are therefore extremely important for a proper understanding of chemical synapses.
Action potentials are an all-or-none response of a cell when its membrane potential reaches a given
threshold value. They are caused by the varying permeability of the neuronal cell membrane to different
ions. In a resting neuron the membrane is more permeable to potassium than sodium resulting in a
concentration gradient for these ions; there is a greater amount of potassium ions found inside of the cell
and a greater amount of sodium ions found outside of the cell. When an outside stimulus triggers the
neuron to reach threshold, the change in membrane potential causes voltage-sensitive sodium channels in
the membrane to open. Sodium fluxes into the cell due to its concentration gradient and depolarizes the
cell. At the same time voltage-sensitive potassium channels in the membrane are opening, but these are
slower acting and therefore take longer to open.
As potassium channels finish opening, potassium fluxes out of the cell. During this outflux of potassium, the
sodium channels are closing. The cell repolarizes. The potassium channels are so slow to close, the
membrane potential of the cell falls below the initial resting membrane potential and the cell hyperpolarizes.
Once the potassium and sodium channels return to their original state, the sodium-potassium pump brings
the cell back to its resting membrane potential, preparing the neuron for another action potential in the
future. This process is illustrated in Figure 2. The diagram emphasizes the changing permeability of the
membrane during an action potential as sodium and potassium channels open and close. The resulting
changes in membrane potential are also illustrated.
Action potentials can be propagated and sent down the axons of cells. Here they can elicit changes in the
cell such as entering presynaptic terminals and initiating the release of neurotransmitters via the above
chemical synapse process.

Figure 2: A diagram of an action potential. The

illustration shows how the permeability of the
membrane to sodium and potassium ions causes
corresponding changes in membrane potential. At
rest, the membrane is more permeable to
potassium. Once an action potential has been
initiated the membrane becomes more permeable
to sodium resulting in a depolarization. After
depolarization, the membrane permeability to
sodium decreases and the membrane permeability
to potassium increases. This results in the cell
repolarizing. The action potential ends with the
neuron’s membrane potential back at its original
resting membrane potential.

Source: Purves, Dale et al. Neuroscience 4th ed.

Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2008. Pg
32
Chemical synapses play an important role in communication
throughout the body. An overview of the basic process can be
seen in Figure 3. Neurotransmitters are synthesized and stored
in synaptic vesicles. They are released due to the influence of
an action potential on the presynaptic terminal.
Neurotransmitters cause excitatory or inhibitory changes in the
postsynaptic neuron through influences on postsynaptic
membrane potential. The electrical signal can then be relayed to
adjacent neurons, allowing the information to travel throughout
the body. The process ends with reformation of synaptic
vesicles, readying the neuron for another cycle.
Chemical synapses play a role in our ability to survive by aiding
in the regulation of necessary everyday activities. They are a
key component of how living things function and work. Learning
how chemical synapses operate and the effects of different
neurotransmitters on the body is critical to the proper
understanding of the nervous system of all human beings.

Figure 3: This diagram

illustrates the synaptic
transmission of an
electrical signal via a
chemical synapse. It
summarizes the stages
involved and provides a
visual of where the
process occurs.

Source: Purves, Dale et

al. Neuroscience 4th ed.
Sunderland, MA: Sinauer
Associates, Inc., 2008.
Pg 89
Action potential- An electrical signal used to relay information from cell to cell throughout the body
Depolarization- A change in the membrane potential of a cell making it more positive
Endocytosis- The formation of vesicles from the plasma membrane
Excitatory neurotransmitter- a neurotransmitter that depolarizes the postsynaptic cell, increasing the
likelihood of action potential generation
Exocytosis- the fusion of a synaptic vesicle with the plasma membrane of a cell resulting in the
release of its contents outside of the cell
Hyperpolarization- A change in the membrane potential of a cell making it more negative (typically
more negative than the resting membrane potential)
Inhibitory neurotransmitter- a neurotransmitter that hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic cell, decreasing
the likelihood of action potential generation
Neurotransmitter- a chemical substance released at synaptic terminals used to relay information
from one cell to another
Postsynaptic terminal- The terminal of the cell receiving the neurotransmitters in a synaptic cleft
Presynaptic terminal- The terminal of the cell releasing the neurotransmitters in a synaptic cleft
Receptor potential- A change in resting membrane potential of sensory neurons due to external
stimuli
Repolarization- A change in the membrane potential of a cell after depolarization, making it more
negative
Resting membrane potential- The negative membrane potential of a cell at rest
Synaptic cleft- The space between presynaptic neurons and postsynaptic neurons at a chemical
synapse
Synaptic potential- A change in resting membrane potential of a neuron due to activation by another
neuron
Synaptic vesicles- Membrane-bound organelles that store neurotransmitters and are located in the
presynaptic terminals of chemical synapses

Threshold potential- The membrane potential required for an action potential to be initiated
 Purves, Dale et al. Neuroscience 4th ed. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc., 2008.

 Lecture notes, Kinesiology 360, Dr. Jinger Gottschall