 Neurons communicate with one another at junctions called synapses.

At a synapse, one neuron

sends a message to a target neuron—another cell.
 Most synapses are chemical; these synapses communicate using chemical messengers. Other
synapses are electrical; in these synapses, ions flow directly between cells.
 At a chemical synapse, an action potential triggers the presynaptic neuron to
release neurotransmitters. These molecules bind to receptors on the postsynaptic cell and make
it more or less likely to fire an action potential.
Neurotransmission (or synaptic transmission) is communication between neurons as
accomplished by the movement of chemicals or electrical signals across a synapse.
A synapse is a junction between a Neurone and the next cell. A neuromuscular junction is a
kind of synapse, one that occurs between Motor Neurones and Muscle cells. Action
potentials are passed from neurones to muscle cells, stimulating movement of the muscle cells.

Three types of synapses: I = communicating axosomatic synapses; II = communicating

axodendritic synapses, and III = communicating axoaxonic synapses'. When three neurons
intervene in the synaptic contact, they could be termed 'complex communicating synapses'.

Based on the mode of synaptic transmission, the synapses found in the body are divided into two
types; chemical synapses and electrical synapses.

Junctional transmission involves transmission between nerve terminals and juxtaposed

membranes of target cells without synaptic contacts. Junctional transmission can be
arbitrarily further divided into close junctional and wide junctional transmissions.

Synaptic transmission is the biological process by which a neuron communicates with a

target cell across a synapse. Chemical synaptic transmission involves the release of a
neurotransmitter from the pre-synaptic neuron, and neurotransmitter binding to specific post-
synaptic receptors.

Most cells, however, communicate via chemical synapses. Such cells are separated by a space
called a synaptic cleft and thus cannot transmit action potentials directly. Instead, chemicals
called neurotransmitters are used to communicate the signal from one cell to the next. Some
neurotransmitters are excitatory and depolarize the next cell, increasing the probability that an
action potential will be fired. Others are inhibitory, causing the membrane of the next cell to
hyperpolarize, thus decreasing the probability of that the next neuron will fire an action potential.

The process by which this information is communicated is called synaptic transmission and can
be broken down into four steps.
 1. First, the neurotransmitter must be synthesized and stored in vesicles so that when
an action potential arrives at the nerve ending, the cell is ready to pass it along to
the next neuron.
2. Next, when an action potential does arrive at the terminal, the neurotransmitter
must be quickly and efficiently released from the terminal and into the synaptic
cleft.
3. The neurotransmitter must then be recognized by selective receptors on the
postsynaptic cell so that it can pass along the signal and initiate another action
potential. Or, in some cases, the receptors act to block the signals of other neurons
also connecting to that postsynaptic neuron.
4. After its recognition by the receptor, the neurotransmitter must be inactivated so
that it does not continually occupy the receptor sites of the postsynaptic
cell. Inactivation of the neurotransmitter avoids constant stimulation of the
postsynaptic cell, while at the same time freeing up the receptor sites so that they
can receive additional neurotransmitter molecules, should another action potential
arrive.

Synaptic vesicles are abundant organelles of uniform size. Their diameter is ~40 nm as judged by
electron microscopy, but they are probably slightly larger under native conditions

Most neurotransmitters are specific for the kind of information that they are used to convey. As a
result, a certain neurotransmitter may be more highly concentrated in one area of the brain than it
is in another.

In addition, the same neurotransmitter may bring forth a variety of different responses based on
the type of tissue being targeted and which other neurotransmitters, if any, are co-released.

The integral role of neurotransmitters on the normal functioning of the brain makes it clear to see
how an imbalance in any one of these chemicals could very possibly have serious clinical
implications for an individual. Whether due to genetics, drug use, the aging process, or other
various causes, biological dysfunction at any of the four steps of synaptic transmission often
leads to such imbalances and is the ultimately source of conditions such as schizophrenia,
Parkinson's disease, and Alzheimer's disease.

A single neuron, or nerve cell, can maintain a resting potential—voltage across the membrane. It
can fire nerve impulses, or action potentials. And it can carry out the metabolic processes
required to stay alive.

A neuron’s signaling, involves interactions with other neurons. Individual neurons make
connections to target neurons and stimulate or inhibit their activity, forming circuits that can
process incoming information and carry out a response.
How do neurons "talk" to one another? The action happens at the synapse, the point of
communication between two neurons or between a neuron and a target cell, like a muscle or a
gland. At the synapse, the firing of an action potential in one neuron—the presynaptic, or
sending, neuron—causes the transmission of a signal to another neuron—the postsynaptic, or
receiving, neuron—making the postsynaptic neuron either more or less likely to fire its own
action potential.

Scheme of synaptic transmission:

An action potential travels down the axon of the pre-synaptic—sending—cell and arrives at the
axon terminal. The axon terminal is adjacent to the dendrite of the post-synaptic—receiving—
cell. This spot of close connection between axon and dendrite is the synapse.

Electrical or chemical transmission?

Synaptic transmission can be either electrical or chemical—in some cases, both at the same
synapse!

Chemical transmission is more common, and more complicated, than electrical transmission.
transmission at chemical synapses

Chemical transmission involves release of chemical messengers known as neurotransmitters.

Neurotransmitters carry information from the pre-synaptic—sending—neuron to the post-
synaptic—receiving—cell.

synapses are usually formed between nerve terminals—axon terminals—on the sending neuron
and the cell body or dendrites of the receiving neuron.

A single axon can have multiple branches, allowing it to make synapses on various postsynaptic
cells. Similarly, a single neuron can receive thousands of synaptic inputs from many different
presynaptic—sending—neurons.

Inside the axon terminal of a sending cell are many synaptic vesicles. These are membrane-
bound spheres filled with neurotransmitter molecules. There is a small gap between the axon
terminal of the presynaptic neuron and the membrane of the postsynaptic cell, and this gap is
called the synaptic cleft.
Image showing pre-synaptic cell's axon terminal containing synaptic vesicles with
neurotransmitters.

Voltage-gated calcium channels are on the outside surface of the axon terminal. Across the
synaptic cleft, there is the post-synaptic cell surface covered in receptors (ligand-gated ion
channels) for the neurotransmitter.

When an action potential, or nerve impulse, arrives at the axon terminal, it activates voltage-
gated calcium channels in the cell membrane.
Image showing what happens when action potential arrives at axon terminal, causing ion flow
and depolarization of target cell.

Step by step:

1. Action potential reaches axon terminal and depolarizes membrane.

2. Voltage-gated calcium channels open and calcium ions flow in.

3. Calcium ion influx triggers synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter.

4. Neurotransmitter binds to receptors on target cell (in this case, causing positive ions to flow
in).

The molecules of neurotransmitter diffuse across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptor proteins
on the postsynaptic cell. Activation of postsynaptic receptors leads to the opening or closing of
ion channels in the cell membrane. This may be depolarizing—make the inside of the cell more
 positive—or hyperpolarizing—make the inside of the cell more negative—depending on the
ions involved.

In some cases, these effects on channel behavior are direct: the receptor is a ligand-gated ion
channel, as in the diagram above. In other cases, the receptor is not an ion channel itself but
activates ion channels through a signaling pathway.

Excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials

When a neurotransmitter binds to its receptor on a receiving cell, it causes ion channels to open
or close. This can produce a localized change in the membrane potential—voltage across the
membrane—of the receiving cell.

 In some cases, the change makes the target cell more likely to fire its own action potential. In this
case, the shift in membrane potential is called an excitatory postsynaptic potential, or EPSP.
 In other cases, the change makes the target cell less likely to fire an action potential and is called
an inhibitory post-synaptic potential, or IPSP.
An EPSP is depolarizing: it makes the inside of the cell more positive, bringing the membrane
potential closer to its threshold for firing an action potential. Sometimes, a single EPSP isn't
large enough bring the neuron to threshold, but it can sum together with other EPSPs to trigger
an action potential.

IPSPs have the opposite effect. That is, they tend to keep the membrane potential of the
postsynaptic neuron below threshold for firing an action potential. IPSPs are important because
they can counteract, or cancel out, the excitatory effect of EPSPs.

Spatial and temporal summation

 How do EPSPs and IPSPs interact? Basically, a postsynaptic neuron adds together, or integrates,
all of the excitatory and inhibitory inputs it receives and “decides” whether to fire an action
potential.

 The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in different locations—but at about the same
time—is known as spatial summation.
 The integration of postsynaptic potentials that occur in the same place—but at slightly different
times—is called temporal summation.
For instance, let’s suppose that excitatory synapses are made on two different dendrites of the
same postsynaptic neuron, as shown below. Neither synapse can produce an EPSP quite large
enough to bring the membrane potential to threshold at the axon hillock—the place where the
action potential is triggered, boxed below. If both subthreshold EPSPs occurred at the same time,
however, they could sum, or add up, to bring the membrane potential to threshold.

Illustration of spatial summation.

A neuron has two synapses onto two different dendrites, both of which are excitatory. Neither
synapse produces a large enough excitatory postsynaptic potential, EPSP, when it signals to
generate an action potential at the hillock— the place where the axon joins the cell body and
where the action potential is initiated. However, when the synapses fire at nearly the same time,
the EPSPs add up to produce an above-threshold depolarization, triggering an action potential.

This process is shown on a graph of voltage in millivolts vs. time in milliseconds. The graph
monitors the membrane potential—voltage—at the axon hillock. Initially, it is at –70 mV, the
resting potential. Then, one synapse fires, resulting in a small depolarization to roughly –60 mV.
This is not sufficient to reach the threshold of –55 mV. However, just a tiny bit later, the other
synapse fires, and it "adds on" to the first depolarization, resulting in a total depolarization that
reaches –55 mV and triggers an action potential—depolarization to +40 mV, followed by a
repolarization and hyperpolarization below –90 mV, and then a gradual recovery to –70 mV, the
resting membrane potential.

On the other hand, if an IPSP occurred together with the two EPSPs, it might prevent the
membrane potential from reaching threshold and keep the neuron from firing an action potential.
These are examples of spatial summation.

What about temporal summation? A key point is that postsynaptic potentials aren’t
instantaneous: instead, they last for a little while before they dissipate. If a presynaptic neuron
fires quickly twice in row, causing two EPSPs, the second EPSP may arrive before the first one
has dissipated, bumping the membrane potential above threshold. This is an example of temporal
summation.

Signal termination

A synapse can only function effectively if there is some way to "turn off" the signal once it's
been sent. Termination of the signal lets the postsynaptic cell return to its normal resting
potential, ready for new signals to arrive.

For the signal to end, the synaptic cleft must be cleared of neurotransmitter. There are a few
different ways to get this done. The neurotransmitter may be broken down by an enzyme, it may
be sucked back up into the presynaptic neuron, or it may simply diffuse away. In some cases,
neurotransmitter can also be "mopped up" by nearby glial cells—not shown in the diagram
below.

Reuptake by the presynaptic neuron, enzymatic degradation, and diffusion away from the
synapse reduce neurotransmitter levels, terminating the signal.

Anything that interferes with the processes that terminate the synaptic signal can have significant
physiological effects. For instance, some insecticides kill insects by inhibiting an enzyme that
breaks down the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. On a more positive note, drugs that interfere
with reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin in the human brain are used as antidepressants,
for example, Prozac.

Chemical synapses are flexible

If you've learned about action potentials, you may remember that the action potential is an all-or-
none response. That is, it either happens at its full strength, or it doesn't happen at all.
Synaptic signaling, on the other hand, is much more flexible. For instance, a sending neuron can
"dial up" or "dial down" the amount of neurotransmitter it releases in response to the arrival of an
action potential. Similarly, a receiving cell can alter the number of receptors it puts on its
membrane and how readily it responds to activation of those receptors. These changes can
strengthen or weaken communication at a particular synapse.

Presynaptic and postsynaptic cells can dynamically change their signaling behavior based on
their internal state or the cues they receive from other cells. This type of plasticity, or capacity
for change, makes the synapse a key site for altering neural circuit strength and plays a role in
learning and memory. Synaptic plasticity is also involved in addiction.

In addition, different presynaptic and postsynaptic cells produce different neurotransmitters and
neurotransmitter receptors, with different interactions and different effects on the postsynaptic
cell. For more information, take a look at the article on neurotransmitters and receptors.

Electrical synapses

At electrical synapses, unlike chemical synapses, there is a direct physical connection between
the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron. This connection takes the form of a channel
called a gap junction, which allows current—ions—to flow directly from one cell into another.
Electrical synapse showing presynaptic cell, gap junction, post-synaptic cell, and movement of
positive ions from pre-synaptic cell to post-synaptic cell.

What are the benefits of electrical synapses?

Electrical synapses transmit signals more rapidly than chemical synapses do. Some synapses are
both electrical and chemical. At these synapses, the electrical response occurs earlier than the
chemical response.—which could be important, say, in a circuit that helps an organism escape
from a predator.

Also, electrical synapses allow for the synchronized activity of groups of cells. In many cases,
they can carry current in both directions so that depolarization of a postsynaptic neuron will lead
to depolarization of a presynaptic neuron. This kind of bends the definitions of presynaptic and
postsynaptic!

What are the downsides of electrical synapses? Unlike chemical synapses, electrical synapses
cannot turn an excitatory signal in one neuron into an inhibitory signal in another. More broadly,
they lack the versatility, flexibility, and capacity for signal modulation that we see in chemical
synapses.