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Miu 93
Study Guide: Neural Signal Processing
1. Neurons and Electrical Signals
Neurons are the basic functional units of the nervous system, transmitting information
using electrical impulses called action potentials.
Action potentials are generated when the membrane potential of a neuron changes
due to the movement of ions (primarily sodium (Na⁺) and potassium (K⁺)) across the
membrane.
Resting potential: The neuron maintains a resting membrane potential, typically

around -70 mV, which is the result of the distribution of ions across the neuronal
membrane.
Depolarization: Occurs when the neuron's membrane potential becomes less

negative (closer to 0), usually due to the influx of Na⁺ ions. Once a certain threshold
is reached (around -55 mV), an action potential is triggered.
Repolarization: After reaching the peak of the action potential, the membrane
potential returns toward the resting state, primarily through the efflux of K⁺ ions.
Hyperpolarization: A brief phase where the membrane potential becomes more

negative than the resting potential.
All-or-none law: An action potential either occurs fully or not at all once the
threshold potential is reached. The strength of the action potential remains
constant, regardless of the intensity of the stimulus.
2. Synaptic Transmission
Neurons communicate with each other across synapses, which can be electrical (direct
ion flow between neurons via gap junctions) or chemical (involving neurotransmitter
release).
Chemical synapses:
Presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters stored in vesicles into the synaptic

cleft in response to an action potential.
The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron,

leading to ion channel opening and changes in the postsynaptic membrane
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potential, which can either excite or inhibit the postsynaptic neuron.
Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): Makes the postsynaptic neuron more

likely to fire an action potential (depolarization).
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP): Makes the postsynaptic neuron less likely
to fire (hyperpolarization).
Key neurotransmitters include:
Glutamate (excitatory)
GABA (inhibitory)
Dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine (modulatory).
3. Neurotransmitter Release Mechanism
The action potential causes voltage-gated calcium (Ca²⁺) channels to open in the
presynaptic terminal.
The influx of Ca²⁺ triggers the fusion of neurotransmitter-containing vesicles with the
presynaptic membrane, allowing neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft.
Neurotransmitter reuptake or degradation terminates the signal, ensuring that the

postsynaptic neuron is not continuously stimulated.
4. Synaptic Plasticity
Synaptic plasticity refers to the ability of synapses to strengthen or weaken over time, in
response to increases or decreases in activity. It's essential for learning and memory.
Long-term potentiation (LTP): Strengthens the synapse, making the postsynaptic

neuron more responsive to inputs.
Long-term depression (LTD): Weakens the synapse, reducing the responsiveness of

the postsynaptic neuron.
Plasticity is modulated by various factors, including neurotransmitter release, receptor

density, and calcium signaling.
5. Ion Channels and Neurophysiology
Voltage-gated ion channels: Open in response to changes in membrane potential and

are critical for generating action potentials.
Sodium (Na⁺) channels: Rapidly open to initiate depolarization.
Potassium (K⁺) channels: Open to repolarize the cell after depolarization.

Calcium (Ca²⁺) channels: Play a role in neurotransmitter release.
Ligand-gated ion channels: Open in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter

(ligand), allowing specific ions to flow through and change the postsynaptic membrane
potential.
6. Neural Circuits and Signal Integration
Neural circuits are networks of neurons that process specific types of information.
Neurons integrate multiple inputs from different sources:
Spatial summation: The process by which the postsynaptic neuron integrates input
from different synapses at the same time.
Temporal summation: Integration of signals that arrive at the synapse in rapid

succession.
Feedforward and feedback inhibition are mechanisms that help regulate neural circuits
and maintain balance in neural activity.
7. Electrophysiology Tools in Neural Signal Processing
Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures electrical activity of the brain and is used to

study neural oscillations and brain states (e.g., sleep cycles).
Patch-clamp recording: Measures ion channel activity in neurons.
Functional MRI (fMRI): Indirectly measures neural activity by detecting changes in blood
flow, providing insights into brain regions involved in specific tasks.
8. Disorders of Neural Signal Processing
Epilepsy: Characterized by abnormal, excessive neuronal firing.
Multiple sclerosis: Involves the degradation of myelin sheaths, disrupting the

propagation of action potentials.
Parkinson’s disease: Results from the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, affecting

motor control.
This detailed guide covers the key components of Neural Signal Processing and can be
adapted based on further needs. Let me know if you want specific details expanded!

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Miu 93

Study Guide: Neural Signal Processing

1. Neurons and Electrical Signals

Resting potential: The neuron maintains a resting membrane potential, typically

Depolarization: Occurs when the neuron's membrane potential becomes less

Hyperpolarization: A brief phase where the membrane potential becomes more

Presynaptic neuron releases neurotransmitters stored in vesicles into the synaptic

The neurotransmitters bind to specific receptors on the postsynaptic neuron,

Printed with ChatGPT to PDF 1/3

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP): Makes the postsynaptic neuron more

Key neurotransmitters include:

Dopamine, serotonin, acetylcholine, and norepinephrine (modulatory).

3. Neurotransmitter Release Mechanism

Neurotransmitter reuptake or degradation terminates the signal, ensuring that the

Long-term potentiation (LTP): Strengthens the synapse, making the postsynaptic

Long-term depression (LTD): Weakens the synapse, reducing the responsiveness of

Plasticity is modulated by various factors, including neurotransmitter release, receptor

5. Ion Channels and Neurophysiology

Voltage-gated ion channels: Open in response to changes in membrane potential and

Sodium (Na⁺) channels: Rapidly open to initiate depolarization.

Potassium (K⁺) channels: Open to repolarize the cell after depolarization.

Printed with ChatGPT to PDF 2/3

Ligand-gated ion channels: Open in response to the binding of a neurotransmitter

6. Neural Circuits and Signal Integration

Temporal summation: Integration of signals that arrive at the synapse in rapid

7. Electrophysiology Tools in Neural Signal Processing

Electroencephalography (EEG): Measures electrical activity of the brain and is used to

Patch-clamp recording: Measures ion channel activity in neurons.

8. Disorders of Neural Signal Processing

Epilepsy: Characterized by abnormal, excessive neuronal firing.

Multiple sclerosis: Involves the degradation of myelin sheaths, disrupting the

Parkinson’s disease: Results from the degeneration of dopaminergic neurons, affecting

Printed with ChatGPT to PDF 3/3

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