Tutorial 4.

3
1. The nerve impulse
The function of the nervous system is communication, done by neurons.
Signals from the external world that we perceive, must be sent to the brain, that select an
appropriate response though muscle movement.

1. Within neurons, information is sent by electrical impulses: action potential.

2. Between neurons, information is sent by chemicals: neurotransmitters.

The action potential

Messages sent by the axons are called action potentials. It is caused by the movement of
ions (small particles that have an electrical charge) across the cell membrane of a neuron.
The electrical impulse is initiated in the soma (also called cell body) at the base of the axon
called axon hillock.

For membrane potential, or electric gradient, we refer to the difference in electrical charge
between the inside and the outside of the neuron, that causes an unequal distribution of
ions.

Ions are small particles with a positive or negative charge.

Two important ions that cause the membrane potential are:
> Sodium ions (Na+)
> Potassium ions (K+)
Both have a positive charge

-The cell membrane is formed by a lipid layer of fatty molecules.

It creates a boundary that makes sure ions cannot easily cross the cell membrane.
The inside of a neuron is the intracellular space, and the outside is the extracellular space.
-The ability of a membrane to let particles through is the permeability.

The resting potential is the membrane

potential during rest (when it does not send
signals or producing action potential).
The default electrical charge difference is
made of an unequal distribution of:
-More sodium ions (Na+) outside the neuron
-More potassium ions (K+) inside the neuron

The resting potential is -70mV (electrical potential) because of charge difference, and the
neuron is polarized. Polarization refers to the membrane with different potential across it.
There are 3 factors that influence the distribution of ions:

1. Sodium-potassium pump
It is the process in which continually in the cell membrane 3Na+ (sodium) are taken out and
exchanged for every 2 K+ (potassium) that go into a neuron.
-Because there are more positive ions being pumped out than it, it helps keep the
membrane potential negative.
-Action ion transport, requires energy.

2. Electrostatic pressure
In a resting potential, the interior of a neuron is negatively charged, in contrast with the
outside that is positive.
Because positive attracts, the positive ions outside are attracted by the negative charge
inside.
The electrostatic pressure forces potassium ions to stay inside the cell and makes the
sodium ions attracted to the inside of the cell as well.

3. Pressure from random motion due to the concentration gradient

Pressure is induced by the unequal distribution. The difference in the ion’s concentration
induces a pressure on the ions called concentration gradient.

Molecular basis of the action potential

The protein that allows sodium to cross the membrane is called sodium channel, the one
that allows potassium to cross is a potassium channel.
The one regulating sodium and potassium is the voltage-gated channel.

During the resting stage, the sodium ions channel is closed therefore they cannot enter the
cell.
The potassium channel instead is nearly closed, so only very little potassium ions can enter
through the membrane.

Action potential and resting potential correlations

The resting potential enables the neuron to react rapidly to a stimulation.
If the threshold of stimulation is reached:
1. Sodium channels open and let sodium Na+ enter the neuron; it suddenly reduces and
reverse the charge across the membrane.
2. The neuron is now depolarized. The depolarization is the decrease in the amount of
negative charge within the cell because it became more positive. It happens at +30mv.
3. At the peak of the action potential (that varies from axon to another) the sodium Na +
close, while the potassium K+ channels are still open.
Potassium goes out of the neuron.
4. The membrane become polarized again so “repolarized”
or even hyperpolarized as more potassium ions go out
of a neuron. Hyperpolarization is an exaggeration of the
usual negative charge within a cell because it became
more negative.
5. The resting potential is restored.
 All the processes of depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization and back to resting
potential is the action potential. It occurs at the axon of the neuron (starts in axon
hillock).

Immediately after an action potential, the cell is in a refractory period in which it resists the
production of further action potentials. It is made of two parts.
1. In the first part, the absolute refractory period, the membrane cannot produce an
action potential, regardless of the stimulation. (About 1ms)
2. In the second part, the relative refractory period, a stronger than usual stimulus is
necessary to initiate an action potential. (About 2-4 ms)
It has two mechanisms: the sodium channels are closed, and potassium is flowing out
of the cells at a faster than usual rate.

 The All-or-None Law

The strength of an action potential is always the same, it is not influenced by the intensity of
the stimulation.
An axon does not make a difference between a weak or a strong stimulus, it cannot send
bigger or faster action potentials. All it can change is timing.
-The all-or-none does not apply to dendrites because they do not have an action potential.

 The Rate Law

If a neuron is stimulated strongly, the frequency of the action potential increase.

2. Action potential through the axon

The term propagation of the action potential describes the transmission of an action
potential down an axon.
The action potential depolarizes areas that are nearby, which cause more sodium channels
to open as a “domino effect”.

Vertebrate axons are partially covered by myelin sheath, an insulating material composed of
fats and proteins, that increase the distance of the reach of the action potential.
It is interrupted periodically by short section of axons called nodes of Ranvier, where in
some cases start the action potential (usually it does at the axon hillock).

-Saltatory conduction is the jumping of action potentials from node to node.

-In myelinated axons, action potentials form only in the nodes that separate myelinated
segments. Transmission is faster in myelinated axons than in unmyelinated axons.

The saltatory conduction speed is about 150m/s while the normal conduction is about 0.5-
10 m/s.
 3. The concept of the Synapse
A synapse is a physical gap of communication between one neuron (axon) and the other
neuron (dendrite or cell body).

Neurotransmitters are chemical messages that transit information across the synapse, from
one neuron to another.
The neuron that delivers transmission is the presynaptic neuron while the one that receives
information is the postsynaptic neuron.
Receptors are located in the cell membrane of the neuron, and they are specific “sensitive”
for certain neurotransmitters. (Key-lock principle)

There are over 100 but we consider 7 the most important neurotransmitters:

Amino acids and monoamines

neurotransmitters are produced in
presynaptic terminal and are stored
in the vesicles.

Neuropeptides are produced in the

cell body and are stored in vesicles.

4. Chemical events at a synapse

1. Within the axons of the neuron there are

neurotransmitters, which are held in vesicles
until they are released when the neuron is
stimulated.
2. The small space between the axon terminal
and the dendrite of the next axon is the
synapse. An action potential stimulates the
release of neurotransmitters across the
synapse.
3. The neurotransmitter binds itself to the
receptor sites on dendrites of the next
neuron, causing a change in potential.
 Feedback mechanism
Receptors on the presynaptic neuron regulate the release of neurotransmitters, making sure
that there is the right number of neurotransmitters. (Autoreceptors)
When the neurotransmitter binds to the autoreceptors, a signal is released that less
neurotransmitter should be produced/released.

In the postsynaptic part, based on the receptor, there could be a different situation when a
neurotransmitter binds it.
1. Ionotropic receptors
2. Metabotropic receptors

1. Ionotropic receptors are similar to ions-channels: when a neurotransmitter bins to an

ionotropic receptor, this led to the opening of the receptor.
This way ions can go through and enter the cell.
-When the ions enter the cell, they change the potential quickly, therefore ionotropic
synapses can be used for fast events. (Example, visual processing or muscle movements).
Neurotransmitter often involved in ionotropic neurotransmission are glutamate and GABA.

Postsynaptic potential
Opening of ion channel, changes the postsynaptic potential.
Depending on the type of ion channel opening there could be:
1. Stimulation (excitatory change; excitatory postsynaptic potentials, EPSPs)
2. Inhibition (inhibitory change; inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, IPSPs)
Summation (spatial or temporal) of these changes determines the start of an action
potential.

1. Temporal summation when several stimuli from one neuron overtime, have a
cumulative effect.
A postsynaptic depolarization of a membrane it is called excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP) and sodium gates open.

2. Spatial summation when several stimuli from several neurons (different locations)
combine their effect at the same time.
The postsynaptic hyperpolarization of a membrane is called inhibitory postsynaptic
potential (IPSP) and potassium or chloride gates open.

2. Metabotropic receptors: when a neurotransmitter binds to a receptor, it initiates a

cascade of metabolic reactions within the cell is activated.
It uses a G-protein and second messenger system, always attached to the metabotropic
receptor.
The first messenger is the neuron outside the cell while the second message is inside the
cell.
The secondary message can initiate:
> Changes in gene expression
> Certain proteins to be produced more
> Ions to flow in the neuron (affect the postsynaptic potential)
The effects of the metabotropic receptor are slower than ionotropic receptors.