Chapter

The kundiman is both a musical and literary form stemming from the early
Filipino's predilection to song and poetry as an expressive venue. The term is actually
first applied to the verse, then to the music.1 Their inclination to poetry was noted by
Amado Hernandez who believes it as part of the Philippine culture way before
colonialism and assures of its permanence even in the generations to come.2 Early
accounts such as those made by Juan de Medina, Antonio de Morga and Francisco de
Santa observed of good singers, dancers, and instrumentalists comparable to their
Spanish counterparts.3 The relatedness and interchangeability of the two are hinted at
by Juan Francisco de San Antonio, saying that the Filipinos are great lovers of verses and
performances, that they are tireless in reading verse form and go about performing it.4
Just about every form of literature is intoned, some with accompanying instruments, or
with dances and actions. It is also implied in a book called Mga Tula at Kundiman ng
Himagsikan (Poems and Kundiman of the Revolution) where the two terms are not
differentiated.

1

Antonio Molina, The Sentiments of Kundiman, in Filipino Heritage: The Making of a

Nation ed. Alfredo Roces (Manila: Lahing Pilipino Publishing, 1978), 2026.

2
Luis Camara Dery, Awit Kay Inang Bayan: Ang Larawan ng Pilipinas Ayon sa mga Tulat
Kundiman na Kinatha Noong Panahon ng Himagsikan (Manila: De La Salle University
Press, 2003), xx.

3
D.R.M. Irving, Colonial Counterpoint: Music in Early Modern Manila (New York: Oxford
University Press, 2012), 107.

4
Juan Francisco de San Antonio, Cronicas de la Provincial de San Gregorio Magno trans.
Pedro Picornel (Manila: Casalinda and the Historical Conservation Society, 1977), 141.

The origin of the kundiman is often traced to the kumintang. A nineteenth

century writing talked of the kundiman as a more beautiful form which made poets and
musicians almost forget the old form, the kumintang.5 The kumintang is a dance-song
form from Balayan, Batangas, earning for the place the title "province of the
kumintang."6 Other early definitions described it as a song for courtship, a rowing song
used by boatmen, a Tagalog bridal song, and as an accompaniment to awit, a narrative
song on lives of saints, prince and princesses, and their deeds.7 Both terms are
contained in a dictionary of Tagalog song forms by Fr. Chirino and Colin, together with
sixteen other forms.8 The kumintang, however, predates the kundiman by 65 years,
having first mentioned in 1734.9
As an oral tradition just like the kundiman, its beginnings are also subject to
speculation. It is believed that kumintang is originally a war song (canto guerrero),10
sung before going to war to ignite the feelings of the warriors. How it evolved into a love

5

Wenceslao Retana, El Indio Batangueno, Estudio Etnografica (Manila: Tipo-Litografica

de Chofre y Cia., 1888), 28.

6
Manuel Walls y Merino, Popular Music of the Philippines trans Maria Delia Matibag
(Manila: National Historical Institute, 1980), 18.

7
Francisco Santiago, The Development of Music in the Philippine Island, in
Encyclopedia of the Philippines Vol IV, ed. Zoilo Galang, (Manila: Exequiel Floro, 1850),
129.

8
Lilia Quindoza-Santiago, Early Philippine Literature www.ncca.gov.ph/about-culture-
and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?rgm=1&i=32 accessed January 15, 2013

9
Elena Mirano, Awit, Pandanggo and Kumintang, Musika Jornal 4 (2008): 65.

10
Corazon Dioquino, Kumintang, in CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art (Manila:
Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994), 92.

song without a hint of war-like qualities was a puzzle to older historians. Humanities
professor Elena Mirano theorized that kumintang is characterized by its formal
elements but its theme could be anything.11 Thus, it is not exclusively a war song but
could also talk of topics from love and friendship to social criticism. The text is cast in
plosa or monorhyming dodecasyllabic quatrain.12
Furthermore, Mirano cited several usage of the term kumintang.13 First is its use
as a place name as stated by the Spanish chronicler Fray Juan Francisco de San Antonio
to refer to an earlier name of Balayan, Batangas. Second is as a dance song
authenticated by an engraving of a couple dancing to the accompaniment of a guitar on
Murillo Velardes Philippine map, with a caption that says Indios bailando el comintang
(native dancing the comintang). The dance is called siguin-siguin,14 a seductive,
pantomime-like dance to the accompaniment of a guitar and bajo de unas. Kumintang is
also used to refer to a specific guitar technique in some areas of Batangas.

11 Mirano, Awit, Pandanggo and Kumintang, 66.

12

13

14

Ibid., 48.
Ibid., 58.
Walls y Merino, Popular Music, 19.


The formal characteristics of the kumintang are identified from the
transcriptions found in these sources: Mallats Les Philippines transcribed by Henry
Cohen, Manuel Walls y Merinos La Musica Popular de Filipinos transcribed probably by
Walls y Merino himself, and a collection by Epifanio de los Santos.15 In addition to the
plosa, there is a melodic framework or a vocal punto which is ornamented and
embellished by the singer.16 It resembles the Western harmonic minor and endows the
kumintang with the Oriental spirit.17 The harmony is provided by a guitar
accompaniment alternating between the tonic and dominant.

15

16

17

Mirano, Awit, Pandanggo and Kumintang, 59.

Ibid., 21.

Ramon Santos, Nicanor Abelardo: Filipino Classicism in the Art of Music, in Tunugan:
Four Essays on Philippine Music (Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press, 2005),
10.

Comintang
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The melodic formula is like the Western harmonic scale with the characteristic
minor 3rd interval on the 6th and 7th scale degree. There is a monotonic quality by a

conjunct motion of pitches in a narrow range, usually the first five notes of the scale,
although there are also leaps to different ranges. This is compounded by a harmony
which could suspend in either tonic or dominant for several measures. The melody
could be broken by rests in between, with the accompaniment, and probably the dance,
still ongoing.18 The text is set syllabically in a strophic followed by a two-line refrain
form. It has the mannerism of rounding off lines with a neumatic figure. The meter is
triple, although in practice, it might shift occasionally to quadruple.19
The kumintang shares a lot of semblance with the kundiman. Foremost is the
triple meter and some usage of the characteristic rhythm of a long-short-short-long
pattern. Another similarity is the use of a melodic scale like the Western harmonic
minor scale. The kumintang rhythm and melody are utilized especially by Nicanor
Abelardo, both as a structural device, and as evocative of mystery and drama.20 The text
structure of dodecasyllabic quatrain is also the same in both forms. Moreso is the
accentuation on the second beat of the second bar.
In the matter of accentuation, composer Antonio Molina explores the kinship of
the kundiman and kumintang with the awit, a tune adapted to a text with religious
undertone such as the Crusades or the war between Moros and Christians.21 The accent

18

19

20

Mirano, Awit, Pandanggo and Kumintang, 63.

Ibid., 62.
Santos, Nicanor Abelardo, 10.

on the second beat of the kundiman and kumintang is similar to the second beat of the
sixth bar of the awit. The kumintang and awit are further related by a stress on the third
beat of the first bar of every phrase. All three forms are in triple time; the kumintang
and awit are strophic while the kundiman is through-composed.
The difference between the kundiman and the kumintang is in their structure a
strophic or verse-refrain for the kumintang, a two or three part, each section with a
different melody, for the kundiman. Also, the harmony of the kumintang is the
continuous alternation of the tonic and dominant, whereas in the kundiman, there is a
clear harmonic progression in the Western tonal concept.22
The relatedness of the kumintang and kundiman, and the success of the
composer in merging their elements, are seen in the discussion as to the genre of
Abelardos Mutya ng Pasig (Muse of Pasig). The piece employs the kumintangs melodic
formula and rhythm but in the form and harmonic language of the kundiman. In its
sentiments, Mutya ng Pasig is a kundiman and a patriotic one at that. The lamentations
of the muse on her glorious past and her pleadings to bring back her love in order for
her to live, very much echoes the feelings of the Filipino for his country.

21

Antonio Molina, The Sentiments of Kundiman, in Filipino Heritage: The Making of a

Nation, vol. 8 Ed. Alfredo Roces (Lahing Pilipino Publishing Inc., 1978), 2027.

22
Elena Mirano, Spanish Colonial Traditions, in CCP Encyclopedia of Philippine Art
(Manila: Cultural Center of the Philippines, 1994), 42.

Mutya ng Pasig

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The kundiman is one of the folk styles influenced by Spanish/European

traditions. Philippine music is largely classified into westernized folk and indigenous
traditions practiced by only 10% of the population mostly in non-Christian
communities.23 It is difficult to ascertain the incipient stages of musical transplantation,
for only descriptive accounts of early music, written mostly by religious writers and
travelers who could have been influenced by their biases, exist. One thing is irrefutable,
however that of the prominence and dominance of the Church not just in the political
and social, but in the musical arena as well. Jose Maceda sums it up: Historical records
about how the change on Philippine music came about are few, but they all tell how the
first western music was introduced through the medium of the Church.24

The Philippines came in contact with Spain when Ferdinand Magellan, a

Portuguese explorer, landed on Philippine shore in 1521 in his route to Morocca. He

claimed the Philippines for Spain and sowed the seeds of Christianity, but was killed by

23

Jose Maceda, Ang Musika sa Pilipinas sa ika-19 na Daang Taon in Musika Jornal
(Quezon City: Kagawaran ng Pananaliksik sa Musika, 1979), 7.

24
Irving, Colonial Counterpoint, 101.

Lapu-lapu in what could be considered as the first act of resistance against Spain. Other
expeditions followed until the last successful voyage of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi in 1565,
formally establishing the Philippines as a Spanish colony.
Spain colonized the Philippines for various reasons, one of which is to use its
strategic place as a trade route from Asia to Europe. The geographical accessibility of
the Philippines to Asia and America, also to Africa and Europe, made it the last link in a
trade system that would circumnavigate the world.25 Another equally important factor
is the propagation of the Christian faith, ignited even more by its encounter with the
Filipino Muslims, which draws a parallel event in their own history.26
Religion was used to entice the natives to Spain. Conversion from ancient
religion to Catholicism and later embracing the colonizers culture became embedded in
the Philippine society. Every aspect of the country is tinged with Spanish influence, from
the name itself derived from the name of the Spanish king Philipp, to the country's
religion that is predominantly Catholic.
Music is a catalyst in propagating the Christian faith. Among the many powers
attributed to music since classical antiquity, the Spaniards recognized the ability of
music to appease, unite and subvert people. Missionaries were instructed that if they
wish to inspire greater admiration and attention among the infidels, and if it were
convenient to do so, they could use music performed by singers and instrumentalists in

25

26

Ibid., 19.
Irving, Colonial Counterpoint, 133.

order to encourage them to join in and to use them.27 They were to educate the locals
in reading and writing Spanish, dancing, singing and playing of instruments. It was in
Spain's action plan to teach their culture along with evangelization.
Efforts were made by the clergy to eradicate the music of the natives they
deemed were evil and barbaric. In the pre-colonial times, music was of Asiatic traditions
and was geographically and stylistically belonging to either northern or southern
traditions and aligning with the practices of continental and insular southeast Asia,
respectively.28 It could be vocal, instrumental, or combination of both. It shows mans
dependence on nature instruments are constructed from natural materials and sounds
are evocative of sounds from the environment. It is highly-functional it accompanies
ceremonies, rituals, even in the performance of ones job.
The Spaniards suppress the music by sending church musicians and music
teachers along with the missionaries, to teach music of the faith to the natives.29
Gregorian chant and even elaborate sacred music with inclusion of instruments such as
the violin and other string instruments, piano, harmonium and organ were performed in
church; music theory, composition and performance of liturgical music, and
manufacture of musical instruments were also taught.30 The first ensemble was

27

28

Ibid., 104.

Jonas Baes, Asiatic Musical Traditions in the Philippines www.ncca.gov.ph/about-

culture-and-arts/articles-on-c-n-a/article.php?igm=1&i=148 accessed February 15,2013.

29
Mirano, Spanish Colonial, 36.

organized in 1601, there were fine choirs by 1609, and a music institution, the Colegio
de Ninos Tiples de la Santa Iglesia Cathedral, was established in 1742.31
The influence of the church went beyond the liturgical music into the feasts and
traditions extra and paraliturgical rituals that are still prevalent in the country up to
these days. Mostly on devotions to Mary and saints, these rituals are practiced with
some regional variations around the country. They represent the Catholic faith in
different extent there are those sanctioned by the Church, those that grew out of
former church activities, and those that merge Christian and non-Christian elements
outside of the church domains.32 Secular music, on the other hand, could be categorized
on the degree and manner of combining the western and indigenous components.
There is the localized western, the westernized indigenous, and the hybrid forms.33

30

31

32

33

Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 37.
Ibid., 38-41.

Ramon Santos, Constructing a National Identity Through Music, Bulawan 2: Journal

of Philippine Arts and Culture (Manila: National Commission for Culture and the Arts,
2001), 20-31.

May Dusa Pa Yata

Folk Kundiman

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May dusa pa yata na lalo nang hapdi

Is there a punishment that is most

distressing

Sa nilalamay kong mga dalamhati,

Than the sorrows that I have within me?

Sa sang maliwanag bukod akot tangi,

I am deprived of all clarity

Na di na naibsan ng mga pighati.

And I always fall back in the same

sorrows.

Saan patutungot kanino lalapit

Where will I go? Whom will approach?

Ang pobreng lagay na kahapis-hapis

This situation of mine is extremely sad

Tumakbot paawa sa nagpasakit

I am a petitioner, running to where there

is no suffering

Anong madadating lakas man ang tangis.

But I keep falling back to the same

sorrows.34

The embryonic stage of the Western musical tradition may be placed at around
late 18th century in Christianized areas in the country. The concept of melody and
harmony interwoven in a tonal fabric began to show in the musical pieces of this time.
The introduction of dance rhythms such as danza, waltz, and fandango, provided the
time element as opposed to an oriental perception of timelessness.

34

Walls y Merino, Popular Music, 24.

The folk kundiman, as its name conveys, refers to extemporized songs of

unknown origin and orally passed on among generations. The earliest mention of folk
kundiman was in 1799 by Martinez de Zuniga.35 It is generally in unitary form and is
either major or minor.
From the 19th century writings of Wenceslao Retana and Manuel Walls y Merino,
a short description and performance practice of the kundiman can be deduced. Retana,
at least in his description on the music of Batangas, divided the kundiman into three
classes: one that is extremely fast and fleeting, a second, similar kind with a different
textual style, and a third one in a low key.36 He also describes the kundiman as could be
played with all kinds of instruments, but is more classic and pleasant with stringed
instruments.37
The early kundiman functions in the context of a serenade.38 It was the style in
the olden times to declare a mans romantic intentions through a serenade, to the
accompaniment of a guitar or the town band for the more affluent suitor. Walls y
Merino described the setting to be that of a man who endured all costs to get even just
a glimpse of his beloved.39

35

36

37

38

39

Mirano, Awit, Pandanggo and Kumintang, 65.

Retana, El Indio Batangueno, 30.
Ibid., 28.
Walls y Merino, Popular Music, 23.
Walls y Merino, Popular Music, 23.

The extemporized text is variably fitted to the melody, depending on the

occasion on which they are sung. The melody and text could be derived from the
kumintang.40 The text is also written in the same dodecasyllabic quatrain of the
kumintang with an underlying pessimism and exaggerated mode of expression. The line
kung hindi man or its variety is also usually inserted.
The following observations can be gleaned from the sample:
The melody moves in stepwise motion in a general falling contour. They are
constructed in a two-bar phrase which tapers with a chromatic passing tone. If this is
construed as a musical sigh, then it effectively illustrates the pessimist attitude of a man
in courtship. The harmony is diatonic, alternating between the tonic and dominant, with
some usage of secondary tonal level. The use of secondary tonal level in sections of
unstable character, perhaps denote an innate foreign feeling for harmony outside the
home key. The accompaniment is not instrument-specified but resembles guitar-like
figures. Two strophes are sung to the same music.

In a three-fold process of forced submission, resettlement and reorganization of
political units and conversion to Roman Catholicism, Spanish elements permeated the
Philippine society. It may be safe to regard the Church as the most consequential factor
for its dogmas assessed pre-colonial practices and determined their acceptability to the

40

Molina, The Sentiments of Kundiman, 2026.

new religion. To the disadvantage of the indigenous culture, it was found to be of pagan
inclinations and most were eradicated by simultaneous suppression and indoctrination.
The musical and literary arts clearly manifest this reshaping. They served the
religious and the secular, with a degree of overlap between them. In literature, epics on
the deeds of heroes and gods, or genealogies of the dead, were supplanted with
narrations on the lives and works of Christian figures. The merging of the two languages,
literally, is seen earlier on in the poetry of bilingual-poets landino whose works contain
Tagalog verses and their Spanish translations printed one line after another. Eventually,
Filipino writers wrote wholly in Spanish or Tagalog and translated books to and from the
Spanish language. They adapted formal structures and genres such as the Spanish
romance.
To appropriate Attalis concept, the organization of sound, and of words by
extension, relate to power;41 ultimately, the adoption and adaptation of the arts were to
ensure the dominion of Spain over the country. Spain, indeed, gained a strong foothold.
But colonialism is flawed by nature, and any form of dominance is bound to meet
resistance. Increased discontent arose from inequality of rights, imposed labor and
taxation and non-representation in courts and parishes. There were also abuses by local
officials and clergies who enjoyed limitless power, the country being geographically
impossible to be governed directly from Spain. The people clamored for what was theirs
in the first place, which the arts, as a kind of social text, was quick to respond.

41

Wayne Bowman, Philosophical Perspectives on Music (New York: Oxford University

Press, 1998), 306.
















Chapter 2

Nationalism is defined as a devotion to or advocacy of national unity and

independence, a development in a people within a contiguous geographic area
having a shared sentiment by common history, language, literature, customs and
traditions.42 By these tenets, the country failed, thus a slow rise to nationalism. The
physical layout of the country is a major disadvantage. Separated by mountains and
seas, people are consequently fragmented and tribalistic, which the Spanish colonial
policies used to their own benefits. For instance, a passport is required to go from
one place to another; natives from one area were recruited to fight rebels from
another. The linguistic difference is an impediment further augmented by not
teaching the Spanish language or promoting any common language for that matter.
Although the people generally fought against oppression, they did so with opposite

42 Teodoro Agoncillo and Milagros Guerrero, History of the Filipino People 5th ed.

(Quezon City: R.P. Garcia Publishing, 1980), 126.

means for contrary ends. The Philippine-born Spanish and the half-bred mestizos
wanted the country to be annexed to Spain while the native indios fought for
autonomy. Nationalism