Application Note 106

February 2007
Instrumentation Circuitry Using RMS-to-DC Converters
RMS Converters Rectify Average Results
Jim Williams
INTRODUCTION

Isolated Power Line Monitor

It is widely acknowledged that RMS (Root of the Mean

of the Square) measurement of waveforms furnishes
the most accurate amplitude information.1 Rectify-andaverage schemes, usually calibrated to a sine wave, are
only accurate for one waveshape. Departures from this
waveshape result in pronounced errors. Although accurate,
RMS conversion often entails limited bandwidth, restricted
range, complexity and difcult to characterize dynamic
and static errors. Recent developments address these
issues while simultaneously improving accuracy. Figure 1
shows the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 device family. Low
frequency accuracy, including linearity and gain error, is
inside 0.5% with 1% error at bandwidths extending to
500kHz. These converters employ a sigma-delta based
computational scheme to achieve their performance.2

BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE READER

IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED IN THE
CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS CIRCUIT.
HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE PRESENT IN
THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST BE USED IN
WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO, THIS
CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT CONTAINS DANGEROUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS. USE CAUTION.

Figure 2s pinout descriptions and basic circuits reveal an

easily applied device. An output lter capacitor is all that is
required to form a functional RMS-to-DC converter. Split
and single supply powered variants are shown. Such ease
of implementation invites a broad range of application;
examples begin with Figure 3.

Figure 3s AC power line monitor has 0.5% accuracy over

a sensed 90VAC to 130VAC input and provides a safe, fully
isolated output. RMS conversion provides accurate reporting of AC line voltage regardless of waveform distortion,
which is common.
, LT, LTC and LTM are registered trademarks of Linear Technology Corporation.
All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners.

1See Appendix A, RMS-to-DC Conversion for complete discussion of

RMS measurement.
2Appendix A details sigma-delta based RMS-to-DC converter operation.

PART NUMBER

LINEARITY
ERROR
TYP/MAX (%)

CONVERSION
GAIN ERROR
TYP/MAX (%)

1% ERROR
BANDWIDTH
(kHz)

3dB ERROR
BANDWIDTH
(kHz)

LTC1966

0.02/0.15

0.1/0.3

800

2.7

170

LTC1967

0.02/0.15

0.1/0.3

200

4MHz

4.5

5.5

390

LTC1968

0.02/0.15

0.1/0.3

500

15MHz

4.5

5.5

2.3mA

SUPPLY VOLTAGE
MIN(V)
MAX(V)

ISUPPLY
MAX (A)

Figure 1. Primary Differences in RMS to DC Converter Family are Bandwidth and Supply Requirements.
All Devices Have Rail-to-Rail Differential Inputs and Output

an106f

AN106-1

Application Note 106

POSITIVE SUPPLY
2.7V TO 5.5V
DEPENDING ON DEVICE CHOICE

+V

DIFFERENTIAL
INPUTS.
MAX COMMON MODE
RANGE = V SUPPLY.
MAX DIFFERENTIAL = 1V.
MINIMUM INPUT = 5mV

INPUT 1

OUTPUT TO FILTER CAPACITOR

LTC1966
LTC1967
LTC1968

INPUT 2
ENABLE

V*

OUTPUT

OUTPUT
OUTPUT REFERRED
TO THIS PIN.
NORMALLY GROUNDED

OUTPUT RETURN
GND

SET HIGH TO LTC1966 ONLY.

SHUT DOWN
0V TO 5V
SUPPLY

POWER
GROUND

*NO V PIN ON THE LTC1967/LTC1968

5V Supplies, Differential, DC-Coupled

RMS-to-DC Converter

5V Single Supply, Differential, AC-Coupled

RMS-to-DC Converter

5V

5V

DC + AC
INPUTS
(1VPEAK
DIFFERENTIAL)

VDD

VDD

LTC1966

LTC1966

IN1

DC OUTPUT
CAVE ZO = 85k
1F

VOUT

IN2 OUT RTN

AC INPUTS
(1VPEAK
DIFFERENTIAL)

VSS GND EN

VOUT

IN1

IN2 OUT RTN

CC
0.1F

DC OUTPUT
CAVE ZO = 85k
1F

VSS GND EN
AN106 F02

5V

Figure 2. RMS Converter Pin Functions (Top) and Basic Circuits (Bottom).
Pin Descriptions are Common to All Devices, with Minor Differences

BIAS SUPPLY
1k
5V
100F

+
1k

1 T1 5
LINE INPUT
90VAC
TO 140VAC

A
4

5V

+
100
1W

100F

6
7

ISOLATED LINE SENSE

100
1W
0.25%

1k

DANGER! Lethal Potentials PresentSee Text

100

8
120VAC
TRIM

10
0.25%

RMS CONVERTER
5V

5V

+V

V
C1
OUT
LTC1966
IN2
OUT RTN
EN
GND

IN1

1F

RMS OUT
0.9V TO 1.4V =
90VAC TO 140VAC

A1
LT1006

100k*

T1 = TAMURA-PAN MAG 3FS-212

= 1N4148
= 1N4689 5.1V

100k*
AN106 F03

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

1F = WIMA MKS-2

Figure 3. Isolated Power Line Monitor Senses Via Transformer with 0.5% Accuracy Over 90VAC to 130VAC Input.
Secondary Loading Optimizes Transformer Voltage Conversion Linearity

an106f

AN106-2

Application Note 106

The AC line voltage is divided down by T1s ratio. An isolated
and reduced potential appears across T1s secondary B,
where it is resistively scaled and presented to C1s input.
Power for C1 comes from T1s secondary A, which is
rectied, ltered and zener regulated to DC. A1 takes gain
and provides a numerically convenient output. Accuracy
is increased by biasing T1 to an optimal loading point,
facilitated by the relatively low resistance divider values.
Similarly, although C1 and A1 are capable of single supply
operation, split supplies maintain symmetrical T1 loading.
The circuit is calibrated by adjusting the 1k trim for 1.20V
output with the AC line set at 120VAC. This adjustment is
made using a variable AC line transformer and a well oated
(use a line isolation transformer) RMS voltmeter.3
Figure 4s error plot shows 0.5% accuracy from 90VAC
to 130VAC, degrading to 1.4% at 140VAC. The benecial
effect of trimming at 120VAC is clearly evident; trimming at full scale would result in larger overall error,
primarily due to non-ideal transformer behavior. Note
that the data is specic to the transformer specied.
Substitution for T1 necessitates circuit value changes
and recharacterization.

RMS OUTPUT READING ERROR (%)

2.0
1.5
1.0

Fully Isolated 2500V Breakdown,

Wideband RMS-to-DC Converter
NOTE: BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE
READER IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED
IN THE CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS
CIRCUIT. HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE
PRESENT IN THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST
BE USED IN WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO, THIS CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT
CONTAINS DANGEROUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS.
USE CAUTION.
Accurate RMS amplitude measurement of SCR chopped
AC line related waveforms is a common requirement. This
measurement is complicated by the SCRs fast switching
of a sine wave, introducing odd waveshapes with high
frequency harmonic content. Figure 5s conceptual SCRbased AC/DC converter is typical. The SCRs alternately
chop the 220VAC line, responding to a loop enforced,
phase modulated trigger to maintain a DC output. Figure
6s waveforms are representative of operation. Trace A is
one AC line phase, trace B the SCR cathodes. The SCRs
irregularly shaped waveform contains DC and high frequency harmonic, requiring wideband RMS conversion
for measurement. Additionally, for safety and system
interface considerations, the measurement must be fully
isolated.
3See Appendix B, AC Measurement and Signal Handling Practice, for

0.5

recommendations on RMS voltmeters and other AC measurement related

gossip.

120VAC TRIM POINT

0
0.5

DANGER! Lethal Potentials PresentSee Text

1.0
220VAC
1.5

DC
OUTPUT

INPUT
2.0
90

100 110 120 130 140

RMS INPUT VOLTAGE (V)

NEUTRAL

AN106 F04

Figure 4. Error Plot for Isolated Line Monitor Shows 0.5%

Accuracy from 90VAC to 130VAC, Degrading to 1.4% at 140VAC.
Transformer Parasitics Account for Almost All Error

220VAC

AC LINE SYNC
AND PHASE
MODULATION

TRIGGER
AN106 F05

REF

Figure 5. Conceptual AC/DC Converter is Typical of SCR-Based

Congurations. Feedback Directed, AC Line Synchronized
Trigger Phase Modulates SCR Turn-On, Controlling DC Output
an106f

AN106-3

Application Note 106

Figure 7 provides isolated power and data output paths to
an RMS-to-DC converter, permitting safe, wideband, digital
output RMS measurement. A pulse generator congured
comparator combines with Q1 and Q2 to drive T1, resulting
in isolated 5V power at T1s rectied, ltered and zener
regulated output. The RMS-to-DC converter senses either
135VAC or 270VAC full-scale inputs via a resistive divider.
The converters DC output feeds a self-clocked, serially
interfaced A/D converter; optocouplers convey output data
across the isolation barrier. The LTC6650 provides a 1V
reference to the A/D and biases the RMS-to-DC converters
inputs to accommodate the voltage dividers AC swing.
Calibration is accomplished by adjusting the 20k trim while
noting output data agreement with the input AC voltage.
Circuit accuracy is within 1% in a 200kHz bandwidth.

A = 100V/DIV

B = 50V/DIV
ON 170 VDC
LEVEL

AN106 F06

1ms/DIV

Figure 6. Typical SCR-Based Converter Waveforms Taken at AC

Line (Trace A) and SCR Cathodes (Trace B). SCRs Irregularly
Shaped Waveform Contains DC and High Frequency Harmonic,
Requiring Wideband RMS Converter for Measurement

PULSE GENERATOR
1N4148

POWER
DRIVER

1k
1k

220k

Q2
ZTX-749
100

1k

0.001F

5V

Q1
2N2369 3

LT1671

ISOLATED POWER SUPPLY

1N5817

750k

5V ISO

1N4689
5.1V

1N4148

100F

750k
5V
750k

T1
ISOLATION/POWER
TRANSFORMER
DANGER! Lethal Potentials PresentSee Text

2500V BREAKDOWN
ISOLATION BARRIER

182k*
DATA
ISOLATORS

5V

4.7k
5V ISO

A/D

RMS CONVERTER
182k*

5V ISO

5V ISO

SCK

+V
DATA
OUTPUTS

VIN

LT1006

LTC2400

5V

OUT
1F

SDO
FO GND CS REF

INPUT
135VAC
OR
270VAC
FULL SCALE

0.1F

+V

SCK

CALIBRATE
20k

5V ISO

IN1
LTC1967

1k*

OUT RTN
IN2
GND
EN

SDO

+
5V ISO
4.7k

ISOLATORS = AGILENT-HCPL-2300-010
T1 = BI TECHNOLOGIES HM-41-11510
* = 1% METAL FILM RESISTOR
= WIMA MKS-2

10F
5V ISO

1F

LT6650
400mV
REFERENCE

1VDC

OUT
FB

15k*
1F

= CIRCUIT COMMON
= AC LINE GROUND

AN106 F07

10k*

Figure 7. Isolated RMS Converter Permits Safe, Digital Output, Wideband RMS Measurement. T1-Based Circuitry Supplies Isolated
Power. RMS-to-DC Converter Senses High Voltage Input via Resistive Divider. A/D Converter Provides Digital Output Through
Optoisolators. Accuracy is 1% in 200kHz Bandwidth
an106f

AN106-4

Application Note 106

Low Distortion AC Line RMS Voltage Regulator

Almost all AC line voltage regulators rely on some form of

waveform chopping, clipping or interruption to function.
This is efcient, but introduces waveform distortion, which
is unacceptable in some applications. Figure 8 regulates
the AC lines RMS value within 0.25% over wide input
swings and does not introduce distortion. It does this by
continuously controlling the conductivity of a series pass
MOSFET in the AC lines path. Enclosing the MOSFET in
a diode bridge permits it to operate during both AC line
polarities.

NOTE: BEFORE PROCEEDING ANY FURTHER, THE

READER IS WARNED THAT CAUTION MUST BE USED
IN THE CONSTRUCTION, TESTING AND USE OF THIS
CIRCUIT. HIGH VOLTAGE, LETHAL POTENTIALS ARE
PRESENT IN THIS CIRCUIT. EXTREME CAUTION MUST
BE USED IN WORKING WITH, AND MAKING CONNECTIONS TO, THIS CIRCUIT. REPEAT: THIS CIRCUIT
CONTAINS DANGEROUS, HIGH VOLTAGE POTENTIALS.
USE CAUTION.

AC SERIES PASS
AND CURRENT LIMIT
DANGER! Lethal Potentials PresentSee Text
AC
HIGH

Q2
IRF-840

1.5A
SB
0.03F

+V REGULATORS

470k

100k

0.47F

10k

430k

170V

AC HIGH
Q6
2N3904

0.7

Q4
MPSA42
5V

BAT85
1N4690
5.6V

1N5281B
200V

2.2M*
0.1F

UNREGULATED
AC LINE
INPUT

10k
2W
200k

0.22F

OVERVOLTAGE
Q3
2N5210 PROTECTION

FEEDBACK
SENSE

170V
ISOLATED
GATE BIAS
1F

200k

22k

RMS-TO-DC CONVERTER
5V

5V

C1

5.6k

Q1
2N3440

10k
1F

+
REFERENCE
IN

0.4V OUT
LT6650
GND

1k

105VAC
TO 120VAC
ADJUST
7.32k*

1N4689
5.1V

330k
5V

+V
IN1
LTC1966
IN2
OUT RTN
EN
V GND

OUT

A1
LT1077

AC
LOW

HEAT SINK IRF-840

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR
OPTODRIVER = TOSHIBA TLP190B

VAC
REGULATED
OUTPUT

0.1F CONTROL
AMPLIFIER

AC LOW

2.2F
MYLAR

1F

FB

= 1N4005
1M

Q5
2N4393
0.22F

100k

AN106 F08

SOFT-START/VBIAS

Figure 8. Adjustable AC Line Voltage Regulator Introduces No Waveform Distortion. Line Voltage RMS Value is Sensed and
Compared to a Reference by A1. A1 Biases Photovoltaic Optocoupler via Q1, Setting Q2-Diode Bridge Conductivity and Closing a
Control Loop. VIN Must be 2V Above VOUT to Maintain Regulation

an106f

AN106-5

Application Note 106

The AC line voltage is applied to the Q2-diode bridge. The
Q2-diode bridge output is sensed by a calibrated variable
voltage divider which feeds C1. C1s output, representing
the regulated lines RMS value, is routed to control amplier A1 and compared to a reference. A1s output biases
Q1, controlling drive to a photovoltaic optoisolator. The
optoisolators output voltage provides level-shifted bias
to diode bridge enclosed Q2, closing a control loop which
regulates the outputs RMS voltage against AC line and
load shifts. RC components in A1s local feedback path
stabilize the control loop. The loop operates Q2 in its
linear region, much like a common low voltage DC linear
regulator. The result is absence of introduced distortion
at the expense of lost power. Available output power is
constrained by heat dissipation. For example, with the
output adjustment set to regulate 10V below the normal
input, Q2 dissipates about 10W at 100W output. This gure
can be improved upon. The circuit regulates for VIN 2V
above VOUT, but operation in this region risks regulation
dropout as VIN varies.
Circuit details include JFET Q5 and associated components.
The passive components associated with Q5s gate form
a slow turn-on negative supply for C1. They also provide
gate bias for Q5. Q5, a soft-start, prevents abrupt AC power
application to the output at start-up. When power is off,
Q5 conducts, holding A1s + input low. When power
is applied, A1 initially has a zero volt reference, causing
the control loop to set the output at zero. As the 1M
0.22F combination charges, Q5s gate moves negative,
causing its channel conductivity to gradually decay. Q5
ramps off, A1s positive input moves smoothly towards
the LT6650s 400mV reference, and the AC output similarly
ascends towards its regulation point. Current sensor Q6,
measuring across the 0.7 shunt, limits output current
to about 1A. At normal line inputs (90VAC to 135VAC) Q4
supplies 5V operating bias to the circuit. If line voltage
rises beyond this point, Q3 comes on, turning off Q4 and
shutting down the circuit.
X1000 DC Stabilized Millivolt Preamplier
The preceding circuits furnish high level inputs to the RMS
converter. Many applications lack this advantage and some
form of preamplier is required. High gain pre-amplication
for the RMS converter requires more attention than might
be supposed. The preamplier must have low offset error
because the RMS converter (desirably) processes DC as

legitimate input. More subtly, the preamplier must have

far more bandwidth than is immediately apparent. The
ampliers 3db bandwidth is of interest, but its closed
loop 1% amplitude error bandwidth must be high enough
to maintain accuracy over the RMS converters 1% error
passband. This is not trivial, as very high open-loop gain
at the maximum frequency of interest is required to avoid
inaccurate closed-loop gain.
Figure 9 shows an x1000 preamplier which preserves the
LTC1966s DC-6kHz 1% accuracy. The amplier may be
either AC or DC coupled to the RMS converter. The 1mV
full-scale input is split into high and low frequency paths.
AC coupled A1 and A2 take a cascaded, high frequency
gain of 1000. DC coupled, chopper stabilized A3 also has
X1000 gain, but is restricted to DC and low frequency by
its RC input lter. Assuming the switch is set to DC + AC,
high and low frequency path information recombine at the
RMS converter. The high frequency paths 650kHz 3db
response combines with the low frequency sections microvolt level offset to preserve the RMS converters DC-6kHz
1% error. If only AC response is desired, the switch is set
to the appropriate position. The minimum processable
input, set by the circuits noise oor, is 15V.
Wideband Decade Ranged X1000 Preamplier
The LTC1968, with a 500kHz, 1% error bandwidth, poses
a signicant challenge for an accurate preamplier, but
Figure 10 meets the requirement. This design features
decade ranged gain to X1000 with a 1% error bandwidth
beyond 500kHz, preserving the RMS converters 1% error bandwidth. Its 20V noise oor maintains wideband
performance at microvolt level inputs.
Q1A and Q1B form a low noise buffer, permitting high
impedance inputs. A1 and A2, both gain switchable, take
cascaded gain in accordance with the gures table. The
gains are settable via reed relays controlled by a 2-bit code.
A2s output feeds the RMS converter and the converters
output is smoothed by a Sallen-Keys active lter. The
circuit maintains 1% error over a 10Hz to 500kHz bandwidth at all gains due to the preampliers 3db, 10MHz
bandwidth. The 10Hz low frequency restriction could be
eliminated with a DC stabilization path similar to Figure
9s but its gain would have to be switched in concert with
the A1-A2 path.
an106f

AN106-6

Application Note 106

INPUT
0mV TO 1mV 1F

HIGH FREQUENCY PATH

AC/DC SUMMATION

RMS CONVERTER

5V

A1
LT1122

1M

+V

A2
LT1222

10k*

5V

1F
V
OUT
LTC1966
OUT RTN

IN1
IN2

10k*

EN
1M

OUTPUT
0V TO 1V

+
1F

A4
LT1077

GND

536*
100k

200*

AN106 F09

LOW FREQUENCY/DC PATH

+
A3
LTC1050

100pF

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

1F = WIMA MKS-2

DC + AC

AC
RMS STAGE INPUT COUPLING

1M*

1k*

Figure 9. X1000 Preamplier Allows 1mV Full-Scale Sensitivity RMS-to-DC Conversion. Input Splits Into High and Low Frequency
Amplier Paths, Recombining at RMS Converter. Ampliers 3dB, 650kHz Bandwidth Preserves RMS-to-DC Converters 6kHz, 1%
Error Bandwidth. Noise Floor is 15V

INPUT BUFFER

OUTPUT FILTER

5V
INPUT 1F

10F
Q1A
1M
100

43k

SWITCHED GAIN AMP

A = 1, 100

A1
LT1227

Q1B
ZERO

IN1
750*
470

5V

A=1
TRIM

10k
200k A = 100
TRIM

22

5.62*
90.9*

100

5V

IN2

10k

0.1F
5V

1M
20k

= VN2222L

5.62k*

24.9k*

10F

1F

OUTPUT
A3
LT1077

AN106 F10

GND

10k

A = 10
TRIM

Q1 = 2N6485. GROUND CASE

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR
RELAYS = COTO-COIL 800-05-001
10F, 1F = WIMA MKS-2
20k

+V
OUT
LTC1968
OUT RTN
EN

1k

5V

= 1N4148

5V
1F

A2
LT1227

499*

100
50

RMS CONVERTER

SWITCHED GAIN AMP

A = 1, 10

1M

S1 S2 GAIN FS OUTPUT TRIM NOTES*

LO
LO
HI
HI

LO
1
HI
10
LO 100
HI 1000

1V
0.1V
0.01V
0.001V

TRIM A = 1
TRIM A = 10
TRIM A = 100
NO TRIM

*SET ZERO ADJUSTMENT FOR A2

OUTPUT = 0 VDC WITH INPUT GROUNDED
AND S1, S2 HIGH BEFORE TRIMMING

S1
S2

Figure 10. Switched Gain 10MHz (3dB) Preamplier Preserves LTC1968s 500kHz, 1% Error Bandwidth. Decade Ranged Gains
(See Table) Allow 1mV Full Scale with 20V Noise Floor. JFET Input Stage Presents High Input Impedance. AC Coupling, 3rd Order
Sallen-Key Filter Maintains 1% Accuracy Down to 10Hz

an106f

AN106-7

Application Note 106

Figure 11 shows preamplier response to a 1mV input
step at a gain of X1000. A2s output is singularly clean,
with trace thickening in the pulse at portions due to the
20V noise oor. The 35ns risetime indicates a 10MHz
bandwidth.

circuit output, in accordance with the table in the gure.

Continue this procedure for the remaining three gains
given in the table. A good way to generate the accurate
low level inputs required is to set a 1.00VAC level and
divide it down with a high grade 50 attenuator such
as the Hewlett Packard 350D or the Tektronix 2701. It is
prudent to verify the attenuators output with a precision
RMS voltmeter.4

To calibrate this circuit rst set S1 and S2 high, ground

the input and trim the zero adjustment for zero VDC at
A2s output. Next, set S1 and S2 low, apply a 1V, 100kHz
input, and trim A = 1 for unity gain, measured at the

Wideband, Isolated, Quartz Crystal RMS Current

Measurement
Quartz crystal RMS operating current is critical to longterm stability, temperature coefcient and reliability. Accurate determination of RMS crystal current, especially
in low power types, is complicated by the necessity to
minimize introduced parasitics, particularly capacitance,
which corrupt crystal operation. Figure 12, a form of
Figure 10s wideband amplier, combines with a commercially available closed core current probe to permit
the measurement. An RMS-to-DC converter supplies
the RMS value. The quartz crystal test circuit shown in
dashed lines exemplies a typical measurement situation. The Tektronix CT-2 current probe monitors crystal

200mV/DIV

AN106 F11

50ns/DIV

Figure 11. Figure 10s A2 Output Responds to a 1mV Input Step

at X1000 Gain. 35ns Risetime Indicates 10MHz Bandwidth. Trace
Thickening in Pulse Flat Portions Represents Noise Floor
TEKTRONIX CT-2
CURRENT PROBE
1.5V
1mV/mA
100kHz

4.3k

330k

4See Appendix B for recommendations on RMS voltmeters.

10k

Q1
2N3904

150pF

680pF

CRYSTAL
OSCILLATOR
TEST CIRCUIT

1N4148s

A1
LT1227

50*

RMS CONVERTER

PRE-AMPLIFIER
A = 1000

5V

5V
1F

A2
LT1227

499*

IN1
IN2

750*

EN

5V

5.62*

+V
OUT
LTC1968
OUT RTN

+
1F

GND

64.9*
0.1F

47F

OUTPUT
0 1V =
0 1mA

10k

+
47F

A3
LT1077

1N5712

AN106 F12

20
1mA 10k
TRIM

0.1F

*0.25% METAL FILM RESISTOR

5V

Figure 12. Figure 10s Wideband Amplier Adapted for Isolated RMS Current Measurement of Quartz Crystal Current. FET Input Buffer
is Deleted; Current Probes 50 Impedance Allows Direct Connection to A1. Current Probe Provides Minimal Crystal Loading
in Oscillator Test Circuit
an106f

AN106-8

Application Note 106

current while introducing minimal parasitic loading (see
Figure 14). The probes 50 termination allows direct
connection to A1Figure 10s FET buffer is deleted. Additionally, because quartz crystals are not common below
4kHz, A1s gain does not extend to low frequency.
Figure 13 shows results. Crystal drive, taken at Q1s collector (trace A), causes a 25A RMS crystal current which
is represented at the RMS-to-DC converter input (trace B).
The trace enlargement is due to the preampliers 5A
RMS equivalent noise contribution.

A = 0.5V/DIV

B = 50mA/DIV

2ms/DIV

AN106 F13

Figure 13. Crystal Voltage (Trace A) and Current (Trace B) for

Figure 12s Test Circuit. 25A RMS Crystal Current Measurement
Includes Preamplier 5A RMS Noise Floor Contribution
PARAMETER

CT-1

CT-2

Sensitivity

5mV/mA

1mV/mA

Accuracy

3%

3%

Low Frequency Additional

1% Error BW*

98kHz

6.4kHz

3dB Bandwidth

25kHz to 1GHz

1.2kHz to 200MHz

Noise Floor with Amplier

Shown*

1A RMS

5A RMS

Capacitive Loading

1.5pF

1.8pF

Insertion Impedance at
10MHz

0.1

*As measured. Not vendor specied

Figure 14. Relevant Specications of Two Tektronix Current

Probes. Primary Trade-Off is Low Frequency Error and
Sensitivity. Noise Floor is Due to Amplier Limitations

Figure 14 details characteristics of two Tektronix closed

core current probes. The primary trade-off is low frequency
error versus sensitivity. There is essentially no probe
noise contribution and capacitive loading is notably low.
Circuit calibration is achieved by putting 1mA RMS current
through the probe and adjusting the indicated trim for a
1V circuit output. To generate the 1mA, drive a 1k, 0.1%
resistor with 1VRMS.5

AC Voltage Standard with Stable Frequency and Low

Distortion
Figure 15 utilizes the RMS-to-DC converters stability in an
AC voltage standard. Initial circuit accuracy is 0.1% and
long-term (6 months at 20C to 30C) drift remains within
that gure. Additionally, the 4kHz operating frequency is
within 0.01% and distortion inside 30ppm.
A1 and its power buffer A3 sense across a bridge composed
of a 4kHz quartz crystal and an RC impedance in one arm;
resistors and an LED driven photocell comprise the other
arm. A1 sees positive feedback at the crystals 4kHz resonance, promoting oscillation. Negative feedback, stabilizing oscillation amplitude, occurs via a control path which
includes an RMS-to-DC converter and amplitude control
amplier, A5. A5 acts on the difference between A3s RMS
converted output and the LT1009 voltage reference. Its
output controls the LED driven photocell to set A1s negative
feedback. RC components in A5s feedback path stabilize the
control loop. The 50k trim sets the optically driven resistors
value to the point where lowest A3 output distortion occurs
while maintaining adequate loop stability.
Normally the bridges bottom would be grounded. While
this connection will work, it subjects A1 to common mode
swings, increasing distortion due to A1s nite common
mode rejection versus frequency. A2 eliminates this concern by forcing the bridges mid-points, and hence common
mode voltage, to zero while not inuencing desired circuit
operation. It does this by driving the bridge bottom to
force its input differential to zero. A2s output swing is
180 out of phase with A3s circuit output. This action
eliminates common mode swing at A1, reducing circuit
output distortion by more than an order of magnitude. Figure 16 shows the circuits 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK) output
in trace A while trace Bs distortion constituents include
noise, fundamental related residue and 2F components.
The 4kHz crystal is a relatively large structure with very
high Q factor. Normally, it would require more than 30
seconds to start and arrive at full regulated amplitude.
This is avoided by inclusion of the Q1-LTC201 switch
circuitry. At start-up A5s output goes high, biasing Q1.
Q1s collector goes low, turning on the LTC201. This sets
A1s gain abnormally high, increasing bridge drive and
5This measurement technique has been extended to monitor 32.768kHz

watch crystal sub-microampere operating currents. Contact the author

for details.
an106f

AN106-9

Application Note 106

4kHz
OUTPUT
1.414VRMS

5V
2.5k*

BRIDGE AMPLIFIER

47k

4kHz
JCUT

LT1009
2.5V

RMS-TO-DC CONVERTER

10F

100k*
39k

CRYSTAL BRIDGE

+
A3
LT1010

A1

LT1792

1k*

DISTORTION
TRIM

430pF

5V
V+
IN1

50k

909*

560k

200
OUTPUT
SET

470

OUT
LTC1966

1F

1k

28k*

A5

+LT1006

IN2
EN RTN GND V
5V

A2
LT1792

5V
A4
LT1077

AMPLITUDE
CONTROL
AMPLIFIER

1k

AN106 F15

5V

COMMON
MODE
SUPPRESSION
AMPLIFIER

= 1N4148
5V

1M

510k

*IRC-CAR-6 1% RESISTOR
GROUND CRYSTAL CASE

5V
1/4 LTC201
START-UP

Q1
2N3904
100k

= SILONEX NSL-32SR3

Figure 15. Quartz Stabilized Sine Wave Output AC Reference Has 0.1% Long-Term Amplitude Stability. Frequency Accuracy is 0.01%
with <30ppm Distortion. Positive Feedback Around A1 Causes Oscillation at Crystals Resonance. A5, Acting on A3s RMS Amplitude,
Supplies Negative Feedback to A1 via Bridge Network, Stabilizing RMS Output Amplitude. Optocoupler Minimizes Feedback Induced
Distortion. Q1 Closes Switch During Start-Up, Ensuring Rapid Oscillation Build-Up

A = 2V/DIV

B = 30ppm
DISTORTION

100s/DIV

AN106 F16

Figure 16. A3s 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK), 4kHz Reference

Output (Trace A) Shows 30ppm Distortion in Trace B. Distortion
Constituents Include Noise, Fundamental Related Residue and
2F Components

accelerating crystal start-up. When the bridge arrives at

its operating point A5s output drops to a lower value, Q1
and the LTC201 switch go off, and the circuit transitions
into normal operation. Start-up time is several seconds.
The circuit requires trimming for amplitude accuracy and
lowest distortion. The distortion trim is made rst. Adjust

the trim for minimal output distortion as measured on a

distortion analyzer. Note that the absolute lowest level
of distortion coincides with the point where control loop
gain is just adequate to maintain oscillation. As such,
nd this point and retreat from it into the control loops
active region. This necessitates giving up about 5ppm
distortion, but 30ppm is achievable with good control loop
stability. Output amplitude is trimmed with the indicated
adjustment for exactly 1.414VRMS (2.000VPEAK) at the
circuit output.
RMS Leveled Output Random Noise Generator
Figure 17 uses the RMS-to-DC converter in a leveled
output random noise generator. Noise diode D1 AC biases
A1, operating at a gain of 2.6 A1s output feeds a 1kHz to
500kHz switch selectable lowpass lter. The lter output
biases the variable gain amplier, A2-A3. A2-A3, contained
6See Appendix C Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise, guest written by
Ben Hessen-Schmidt of Noise Com, Inc. for turorial on noise and noise
diodes.

an106f

AN106-10

Application Note 106

FILTER
NOISE DIODE
10F

75k

75k

NOISE DIODE
PREAMP

1F

15V
1F

NC103

10kHz

160

A1
LT1220

1k

1kHz

0.1F

3dB

0.01F

1k

7VDC TO 10VDC
+NOISE

100kHz

0.002F

500kHz

500pF

500kHz

1k

RMS
AMPLITUDE
STABILIZED
NOISE OUTPUT

FLAT

1F
TO ALL +VZ
POINTS

VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER

1N4689 5.1V

15V

LT1228

+
100pF
900

A2
ISET

0.01F

510 +VZ

GAIN CONTROL AMPLIFIER

3k

10k
10k

OUT
LTC1968
IN2
OUT RTN
EN
GND

+
1N5712

A4
1/2 LT1013

5
10F

150k
0.1F

+V
IN1

A3

0.1F

1F

RMS CONVERTER

1.5k

1F

475k*
AN106 F17

1.1M*

15V

A5
1/2 LT1013

INTERNAL

+
1N4148

1M

10k

909k*

Q1
TPO610L

15V

4.7k

EXTERNAL
510k

SOFT-START

AMPLITUDE
ADJUST

LT1004-1.2V

*1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

CONNECTIONS INSIDE DASHED LINES WITHIN A SINGLE IC
NC103 = NOISE COM
10F = WIMA MKS-2

40.2k*

0V TO 1V
+VZ

1M

0.33F

Figure 17. An RMS Levelled Output Random Noise Generator. Amplied (A1) Diode Noise Is Filtered, Variable Gain Amplied (A2-A3)
and RMS Converted. Converter Output Feeds Back to A5 Gain Control Amplier, Closing RMS Stabilized Loop. Output Amplitude, Taken
at A3, is Settable

on one chip, include a current controlled transconductance

amplier (A2) and an output amplier (A3). This stage takes
AC gain, biases the LTC1968 RMS-to-DC converter and
is the circuits output. The RMS converter output at A4,
feeds back to gain control amplier A5, which compares
the RMS value to a variable portion of the 5.1V zener
potential. A5s output sets A2s gain via the 3k resistor,
completing a control loop to stabilize noise RMS output
amplitude. The RC components in A5s local feedback path

stabilize this loop. Output amplitude is variable by the 10k

potentiometer; a switch permits external voltage control.
Q1 and associated components, a soft-start circuit, prevent
output overshoot at power turn-on.
Figure 18 shows circuit output noise in the 10kHz lter
position; Figure 19s spectral plot reveals essentially at
RMS noise amplitude over a 500kHz bandwidth.

an106f

AN106-11

AMPLITUDE VARIANCE
3dB/DIV

Application Note 106

2V/DIV

Figure 18. Figure 17s Output in the 10kHz Filter Position

INPUT
0.4VRMS TO
5VRMS
10k

100

150

200 250 300 350

FREQUENCY (kHz)

400

450

500

AN106 F19

Figure 19. Amplitude vs Frequency for the Random Noise

Generator is Essentially Flat to 500kHz. NC103 Diode Contributes
Even Noise Spectrum Distribution; RMS Converter and Loop
Stabilize Amplitude. Sweep Time is 2.8 Minutes, Resolution
Bandwidth, 100Hz

AN106 F18

5ms/DIV

50

VARIABLE GAIN AMPLIFIER

100

A1
1/2 LT1228

300

OUTPUT BUFFER

1F

A2
1/2 LT1228

470

10k

RMS LEVELLED
OUTPUT
0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS

A3
LT1220

10

1k

1F

RMS CONVERTER
0.15F

A5
1/2 LT1013

100k*

A4
1/2 LT1013

100k*

5V

V+
IN1
C1
LTC1968
OUT RTN
IN2
GND
EN
OUT

1F

+
10k

4.7k

GAIN CONTROL
AMPLIFIER

5V
13.3k*
10k

LT1004
1.2V
REFERENCE

EXT INPUT
0V TO 0.5V
OUTPUT
0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS
LEVEL
OUTPUT
0VRMS TO 0.5VRMS

5V
10k

0.1F
AN106 F20

*0.1% METAL FILM RESISTOR

CONNECTIONS INSIDE DASHED
LINES ARE WITHIN A SINGLE IC

Figure 20. RMS Amplitude Level Control Uses Figure 17s Gain Control Loop. A1-A3 Provide Variable Gain to Input. RMS Converter
Feeds Back to A5 Gain Control Amplier, Closing Amplitude Stabilization Loop. Variable Reference Permits Settable, Calibrated RMS
Output Amplitude Independent of Input Waveshape

RMS Amplitude Stabilized Level Controller

Figure 20 borrows the previous circuits gain control
loop to stabilize the RMS amplitude of an arbitrary input
waveform. The unregulated input is applied to variable gain
amplier A1-A2 which feeds A3. DC coupling at A1-A2
permits passage of low frequency inputs. A3s output is

taken by RMS-to-DC converter C1-A4, which feeds the

A5 gain control amplier. A5 compares the RMS value to
a variable reference and biases A1, closing a gain control
loop. The 0.15F feedback capacitor stabilizes this loop,
even for waveforms below 100Hz. This feedback action
stabilizes output RMS amplitude despite large variations
an106f

AN106-12

Application Note 106

in input amplitude while maintaining waveshape. Desired
output level is settable with the indicated potentiometer or
an external control voltage may be switched in.
Figure 21 shows output response (trace B) to abrupt reference level set point changes (trace A). The output settles
within 60 milliseconds for ascending and descending
transitions. Faster response is possible by decreasing A5s
compensation capacitor, but low frequency waveforms

would not be processable. Similar considerations apply to

Figure 22s response to an input waveform step change.
Trace A is the circuits input and trace B its output. The
output settles in 60 milliseconds due to A5s compensation. Reducing compensation value speeds response at the
expense of low frequency waveform processing capability.
Specications include 0.1% output amplitude stability
for inputs varying from 0.4VRMS to 5VRMS, 1% set point
accuracy, 0.1kHz to 500kHz passband and 0.1% stability
for 20% power supply deviation.
Note: This Application Note was derived from a manuscript originally
prepared for publication In EDN magazine.

A = 0.5V/DIV
A = 2V/DIV
B = 1V/DIV

B = 1V/DIV
20ms/DIV

AN106 F21

10ms/DIV

Figure 21. Amplitude Level Control Response (Trace B) to

Abrupt Reference Changes (Trace A). Settling Time is Set by
A5s Compensation Capacitor, Which Must be Large Enough
to Stabilize Loop at Lowest Expected Input Frequency

REFERENCES
1. Hewlett-Packard Company, 1968 Instrumentation.
ElectronicAnalyticalMedical, AC Voltage Measurement, Hewlett-Packard Company, 1968, pp. 197-198.
2. Sheingold, D. H. (editor), Nonlinear Circuits Handbook, 2nd Edition, Analog Devices, Inc., 1976.
3. Lambda Electronics, Model LK-343A-FM Manual.
4. Grafham, D. R., Using Low Current SCRs, General
Electric AN200.19. Jan. 1967.
5. Williams, J., Performance Enhancement Techniques
for Three-Terminal Regulators, Linear Technology Corp.
AN-2. August, 1984. SCR Preregulator, pp. 3-6.
6. Williams, J., High Efciency Linear Regulators,
Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note 32, SCR
Preregulator. March 1989, pp. 3-4.

AN106 F22

Figure 22. Amplitude Level Control Output Reacts (Trace B) to

Input Step Change (Trace A). Slow Loop Compensation Allows
Overshoot But Output Settles Cleanly

7. Williams, J., High Speed Amplier Techniques, Linear

Technology Corporation, Application Note 47, Parallel
Path Ampliers, August 1991, pp. 35-37.
8. Williams, J., Practical Circuitry for Measurement and
Control Problems, Broadband Random Noise Generator,
Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise, Appendix B, Linear
Technology Corporation, Application Note 61, August 1994,
pp.24-26, pp. 38-39.
9. Williams, J., A Fourth Generation of LCD Backlight
Technology, RMS Voltmeters, Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note 65, November 1995, pp. 82-83.
10. Meacham, L. A., The Bridge Stabilized Oscillator,
Bell System Technical Journal, Vol. 17, p. 574, October
1938.
11. Williams, Jim, Bridge CircuitsMarrying Gain and
Balance, Linear Technology Corporation, Application Note
43, June, 1990.
an106f

AN106-13

Application Note 106

APPENDIX A
RMS-TO-DC CONVERSION
Joseph Petrofsky
Denition of RMS
RMS amplitude is the consistent, fair and standard way to
measure and compare dynamic signals of all shapes and
sizes. Simply stated, the RMS amplitude is the heating
potential of a dynamic waveform. A 1VRMS AC waveform
will generate the same heat in a resistive load as will 1V
DC. See Figure A1.
Mathematically, RMS is the Root of the Mean of the
Square:
VRMS = V 2
1V DC

1V ACRMS

1V (AC + DC) RMS

SAME
HEAT

AN106 FA1

The last two entries of Table A1 are chopped sine waves

as is commonly created with thyristors such as SCRs and
Triacs. Figure A2a shows a typical circuit and Figure A2b
shows the resulting load voltage, switch voltage and load
currents. The power delivered to the load depends on the
ring angle, as well as any parasitic losses such as switch
ON voltage drop. Real circuit waveforms will also typically have signicant ringing at the switching transition,
dependent on exact circuit parasitics. Here, SCR Waveforms refers to the ideal chopped sine wave, though the
LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 will do faithful RMS-to-DC
conversion with real SCR waveforms as well.
The case shown is for = 90, which corresponds to 50%
of available power being delivered to the load. As noted
in Table A1, when = 114, only 25% of the available
power is being delivered to the load and the power drops
quickly as approaches 180.
With an average rectication scheme and the typical
calibration to compensate for errors with sine waves, the
RMS level of an input sine wave is properly reported; it is
only with a non-sinusoidal waveform that errors occur.
Because of this calibration, and the output reading in VRMS,
the term True-RMS got coined to denote the use of an
actual RMS-to-DC converter as opposed to a calibrated
average rectier.

Figure A1
+ VLOAD

Alternatives to RMS
Other ways to quantify dynamic waveforms include peak
detection and average rectication. In both cases, an average (DC) value results, but the value is only accurate at
the one chosen waveform type for which it is calibrated,
typically sine waves. The errors with average rectication
are shown in Table A1. Peak detection is worse in all cases
and is rarely used.
Table A1. Errors with Average Rectication vs True RMS
WAVEFORM
Square Wave
Sine Wave
Triangle Wave
SCR at 1/2 Power,
= 90
SCR at 1/4 Power,
= 114

VRMS
1.000
1.000
1.000
1.000

AVERAGE
RECTIFIED
(V)
1.000
0.900
0.866
0.637

1.000

0.536

AC
MAINS

ILOAD

VLINE

CONTROL

VTHY

AN106 FA2a

Figure A2a
VLINE

VLOAD
VTHY

ERROR*
11%
*Calibrate for 0% Error
3.8%
29.3%

ILOAD
AN106 FA2b

Figure A2b

40.4%
an106f

AN106-14

Application Note 106

How an RMS-to-DC Converter Works
Monolithic RMS-to-DC converters use an implicit computation to calculate the RMS value of an input signal. The
fundamental building block is an analog multiply/divide
used as shown in Figure A3. Analysis of this topology is
easy and starts by identifying the inputs and the output
of the lowpass lter. The input to the LPF is the calculation from the multiplier/divider; (VIN)2/VOUT. The lowpass
lter will take the average of this to create the output,
mathematically:
VOUT

(V )2
= IN ,
VOUT

VIN
VOUT

-
REF

LPF

VOUT
AN106 FA4

Figure A4. Topology of the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968

( )
2

The modulator has a single-bit output whose average

duty cycle (D) will be proportional to the ratio of the input
signal divided by the output. The is a 2nd order modulator with excellent linearity. The single-bit output is used to
selectively buffer or invert the input signal. Again, this is a
circuit with excellent linearity, because it operates at only
two points: 1 gain; the average effective multiplication over
time will be on the straight line between these two points.
The combination of these two elements again creates a
lowpass lter input signal equal to (VIN)2/VOUT, which, as
shown above, results in RMS-to-DC conversion.

((V ) ) , and
=
2

IN

VOUT

(VOUT )2 = (VIN)2, or
(VIN)2 = RMS (VIN)
(VIN )2
VOUT
VIN

(V )2 (VIN)
, so
IN =
VOUT
VOUT

VOUT =

The LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 use a completely new

topology for RMS-to-DC conversion, in which a modulator acts as the divider, and a simple polarity switch is
used as the multiplier as shown in Figure A4.

VIN

Because VOUT is DC,

VOUT

How the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 RMS-to-DC

Converters Work

LPF

VOUT
AN106 FA3

Figure A3 RMS-to-DC Converter with Implicit Computation

Unlike the prior generation RMS-to-DC converters, the

LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 computation does NOT use
log/antilog circuits, which have all the same problems,
and more, of log/antilog multipliers/dividers, i.e., linearity
is poor, the bandwidth changes with the signal amplitude
and the gain drifts with temperature.

The lowpass lter performs the averaging of the RMS function and must be a lower corner frequency than the lowest
frequency of interest. For line frequency measurements,
this lter is simply too large to implement on-chip, but
the LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 need only one capacitor
on the output to implement the lowpass lter. The user
can select this capacitor depending on frequency range
and settling time requirements.
This topology is inherently more stable and linear than
log/antilog implementations primarily because all of the
signal processing occurs in circuits with high gain op
amps operating closed loop.
Note that the internal scalings are such that the output duty cycle is limited to 0% or 100% only when VIN
exceeds 4 VOUT.

an106f

AN106-15

Application Note 106

Linearity of an RMS-to-DC Converter
Linearity may seem like an odd property for a device that
implements a function that includes two very nonlinear
processes: squaring and square rooting.
However, an RMS-to-DC converter has a transfer function,
RMS volts in to DC volts out, that should ideally have a
1:1 transfer function. To the extent that the input to output
transfer function does not lie on a straight line, the part
is nonlinear.
A more complete look at linearity uses the simple model
shown in Figure A5. Here an ideal RMS core is corrupted by
both input circuitry and output circuitry that have imperfect
transfer functions. As noted, input offset is introduced in
the input circuitry, while output offset is introduced in the
output circuitry.
Any nonlinearity that occurs in the output circuity will corrupt the RMS in to DC out transfer function. A nonlinearity
in the input circuitry will typically corrupt that transfer
function far less simply because with an AC input, the
RMS-to-DC conversion will average the nonlinearity from
a whole range of input values together.

INPUT

INPUT CIRCUITRY
VIOS
INPUT NONLINEARITY

But the input nonlinearity will still cause problems in

an RMS-to-DC converter because it will corrupt the accuracy as the input signal shape changes. Although an
RMS-to-DC converter will convert any input waveform to
a DC output, the accuracy is not necessarily as good for
all waveforms as it is with sine waves. A common way
to describe dynamic signal wave shapes is Crest Factor.
The crest factor is the ratio of the peak value relative to
the RMS value of a waveform. A signal with a crest factor
of 4, for instance, has a peak that is four times its RMS
value. Because this peak has energy (proportional to voltage squared) that is 16 times (42) the energy of the RMS
value, the peak is necessarily present for at most 6.25%
(1/16) of the time.
The LTC1966/LTC1967/LTC1968 perform very well with
crest factors of 4 or less and will respond with reduced
accuracy to signals with higher crest factors. The high
performance with crest factors less than 4 is directly
attributable to the high linearity throughout the LTC1966/
LTC1967/LTC1968.

IDEAL
RMS-TO-DC
CONVERTER

OUTPUT CIRCUITRY
VOOS
OUTPUT NONLINEARITY

OUTPUT
AN106 FA5

Figure A5. Linearity Model of an RMS-to-DC Converter

an106f

AN106-16

Application Note 106

APPENDIX B
AC Measurement and Signal Handling Practice
Accurate AC measurement requires trustworthy instrumentation, proper signal routing technique, parasitic
minimization, attention to layout and care in component
selection. The text circuits DC-500kHz, 1% error bandwidth seems benign, but unpleasant surprises await the
unwary.
An accurate RMS voltmeter is required for serious AC
work. Figure B1 lists types used in our laboratory. These
are high grade, specialized instruments specically intended for precise RMS measurement. All are thermally
based1. The rst three entries, general purpose instruments with many ranges and features, are easily used and
meet almost all AC measurement needs. The last entry is
more of a component than an instrument. The A55 series
of thermal converters provide millivolt level outputs
for various inputs. Typical input ranges are 0.5VRMS,
1VRMS, 2VRMS and 5VRMS and each converter is supplied with individual calibration data. They are somewhat
cumbersome to use and easily destroyed but are highly
accurate. Their primary use is as reference standards to
check other instruments performance.
AC signal handling for high accuracy is a broad topic,
involving a considerable degree of depth. This forum
must suffer brevity, but some gossip is possible.

Layout is critical. The most prevalent parasitic in AC

measurement is stray capacitance. Keep signal path
connections short and small area. A few picofarrads of
coupling into a high impedance node can upset a 500kHz,
1% accuracy signal path. To the extent possible, keep
impedances low to minimize parasitic capacitive effects.
Consider individual component parasitics and plan to
accommodate them. Examine effects of component
placement and orientation on the circuit board. If a
ground plane is in use it may be necessary to relieve it
in the vicinity of critical circuit nodes or even individual
components.
Passive components have parasitics that must be kept in
mind. Resistors suffer shunt capacitance whose effects
vary with frequency and resistor value. It is worth noting
that different brands of resistors, although nominally
similar, may exhibit markedly different parasitic behavior. Capacitors in the signal path should be used so that
their outer foil is connected to the less sensitive node,
affording some relief from pick-up and stray capacitance
induced effects. Some capacitors are marked to indicate
the outer foil terminal, others require consulting the
data sheet or vendor contact. Avoid ceramic capacitors
in the signal path. Their piezoelectric responses make
them unsuitable for precision AC circuitry. In general,
any component in the signal path should be examined
in terms of its potential parasitic contribution.
1See references 1 and 2 for details on thermally based RMS-to-DC

conversion.
MODEL

MANUFACTURER

1V RANGE

INPUT

BANDWIDTH

3400A/3400B

Hewlett-Packard

1%

AC

10MHz/20MHz

COMMENTS

3403C

Hewlett-Packard

0.2%

AC, AC + DC

100MHz

Digital Display, 1V Sensitivity (2MHz BW),

dB Ranges, Relative dB

8920/8921A

Fluke

0.7%

AC, AC + DC

20MHz

Digital Display, 10V Sensitivity (2MHz BW),

dB Ranges, Relative dB

A55

Fluke

0.05%

AC + DC

50MHz

Set of Individually Calibrated Thermal

Converters. Reference Standards. Not for
General Purpose Measurement

Metered Instrument. Most Common RMS

Voltmeter

Figure B1. Precision Wideband RMS Voltmeters Useful for AC Measurement. All are Thermally Based, Permitting High Accuracy
and Wide Bandwidth Independent of Input Waveshape. A55 Reference Standards, Although Unsuitable for General Purpose
Measurement, Have Best Accuracy

an106f

AN106-17

Application Note 106

Active components, such as ampliers, must be treated
as potential error sources. In particular, as stated in the
text, ensure that there is enough open loop gain at the
frequency of interest to assure needed closed loop gain
accuracy. Margins of 100:1 are not unreasonable. Keep
feedback values as low as possible to minimize parasitic
effects.
Route signals to and from the circuit board coaxially and
at low impedance, preferably 50, for best results. In
50 systems, remember that terminators and attenuators

APPENDIX C
by Ben Hessen-Schmidt,
NOISE COM, INC.
White noise provides instantaneous coverage of all frequencies within a band of interest with a very at output
spectrum. This makes it useful both as a broadband
stimulus and as a power-level reference.
Symmetrical white Gaussian noise is naturally generated in
resistors. The noise in resistors is due to vibrations of the
conducting electrons and holes, as described by Johnson
and Nyquist.1 The distribution of the noise voltage is symmetrically Gaussian, and the average noise voltage is:
(1)

where:
k = 1.38E23 J/K (Boltzmanns constant)
T = temperature of the resistor in Kelvin
f = frequency in Hz
h = 6.62E34 Js (Plancks constant)
R(f) = resistance in ohms as a function of frequency
p(f) =

hf

kT exp(hf/kT) 1

This all seems painful but is an essential part of achieving

1% accurate, 500kHz signal integrity. Failure to observe
the precautions listed above risks degrading the RMSto-DC converters system level performance.

p(f) is close to unity for frequencies below 40GHz when T

is equal to 290K. The resistance is often assumed to be
independent of frequency, and df is equal to the noise
bandwidth (B). The available noise power is obtained when
the load is a conjugate match to the resistor, and it is:

Symmetrical White Gaussian Noise

Vn = 2 kT R(f) p(f) df

have tolerances that can corrupt a 1% amplitude accuracy

measurement. Verify such terminator and attenuator
tolerances by measurement and account for them when
interpreting measurement results. Similarly, verify the
accuracy of any associated instruments 50 input or
output impedance and account for deviations.

(2)

V
N = n = kTB
4R

(3)

where the 4 results from the fact that only half of the
noise voltage and hence only 1/4 of the noise power is
delivered to a matched load.
Equation 3 shows that the available noise power is proportional to the temperature of the resistor; thus it is often
called thermal noise power, Equation 3 also shows that
white noise power is proportional to the bandwidth.
An important source of symmetrical white Gaussian noise
is the noise diode. A good noise diode generates a high
level of symmetrical white Gaussian noise. The level is
often specied in terms of excess noise ratio (ENR).

ENR in dB = 10Log

(Te 290)
290

(4)

Te is the physical temperature that a load (with the same

impedance as the noise diode) must be at to generate the
same amount of noise.
1See Additional Reading at the end of this section.

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Application Note 106

The ENR expresses how many times the effective noise
power delivered to a non-emitting, nonreecting load
exceeds the noise power available from a load held at the
reference temperature of 290K (16.8C or 62.3F).
The importance of high ENR becomes obvious when the
noise is amplied, because the noise contributions of the
amplier may be disregarded when the ENR is 17dB larger
than the noise gure of the amplier (the difference in
total noise power is then less than 0.1dB). The ENR can
easily be converted to noise spectral density in dBm/Hz
or V/Hz by use of the white noise conversion formulas
in Table 1.
Table 1. Useful White Noise Conversion
dBm
dBm
dBm
dBm/Hz
dBm/Hz

=
=
=
=
=

dBm/Hz + 10log (BW)

20log (Vn) 10log(R) + 30dB
20log(Vn) + 13dB for R = 50
20log(VnHz) 10log(R) 90dB
174dBm/Hz + ENR for ENR > 17dB

When amplifying noise it is important to remember that

the noise voltage has a Gaussian distribution. The peak
voltages of noise are therefore much larger than the average
or RMS voltage. The ratio of peak voltage to RMS voltage
is called crest factor, and a good crest factor for Gaussian
noise is between 5:1 and 10:1 (14 to 20dB). An ampliers
1dB gain-compression point should therefore be typically
20dB larger than the desired average noise-output power
to avoid clipping of the noise.
For more information about noise diodes, please contact
NOISE COM, INC. at (973) 386-9696.
Additional Reading
1. Johnson, J.B, Thermal Agitation of Electricity in Conductors, Physical Review, July 1928, pp. 97-109.
2. Nyquist, H. Thermal Agitation of Electric Charge in Conductors, Physical Review, July 1928, pp. 110-113.

an106f

Information furnished by Linear Technology Corporation is believed to be accurate and reliable.

However, no responsibility is assumed for its use. Linear Technology Corporation makes no representation that the interconnection of its circuits as described herein will not infringe on existing patent rights.

AN106-19

Application Note 106

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AN106-20

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