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I hereby would like to thank Harmen Tjalling Holwerda (SQM Europe) for his
facilitation of the publication of this document.
Dr Steven A. Oosthuyse (PhD)

2006 by SQM S.A.

Reproduction in any form (printed matter or digital) without the written permission of SQM S.A. is prohibited.

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Foreword
SQM is a major supplier of specialty plant nutrition products and related services
to distributors and growers around the world.
As part of its commitment to the agricultural community, SQM has developed a
comprehensive series of Crop Kits. Each Crop Kit consists of a Specialty Plant
Nutrition Management Guide, a PowerPoint presentation and a CD containing
many relevant pictures.
These guides compile the results of yearlong research and development activities,
as well as the practical experiences of the companys specialists from around
the world, in order to provide comprehensive Specialty Plant Nutrition
Management Information to SQMs distributors, agronomists, growers and
farmers.
This Mango Nutrition Management Guide summarizes the main market
requirements and the nutrient management needed to produce high yields of top
quality mangoes.
More information is available through SQM agronomists or SQMs alliance
partner Yara. SQM recognizes that there is no universal blueprint for mango production hence no detailed plant nutrition programme is included in this guide.
However, by working together with your local agronomist you can be sure to
achieve excellent crop performance. For area specific programmes consult your
local SQM distributor or agronomist.

This guide, which has been developed with the full support of the worlds leading
specialty plant nutrition specialists, is part of a range of the most comprehensive
Specialty Plant Nutrition Management Guides available.

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Table of Contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1 Nutritional status as it relates to tree performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2 Key issues relating to mango tree culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.1 Nomenclature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Rainfall, diseases and soil-water management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Soil suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.4 Tree growth and development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.5 Fruit harvest-maturation assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.6 Fruit quality assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3 Primary roles of the mineral nutrients requiring management in mango . . . 26
3.1 Nitrogen (N) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.2 Phosphorous (P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3 Potassium (K) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Calcium (Ca) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.5 Magnesium (Mg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.6 Sulphur (S) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.7 Copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), boron (B)

and molybdenum (Mo) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 Nutrition management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.1 Guideline information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4.2 Nutrition management of mango trees grown in soils

containing clay (> 20%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4.3 Nutrition management of mango trees grown in soils

containing little clay (< 10%) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4.4 Favourable growth stages for spray applied nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.5 Pre-plant soil preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
5 Visual symptoms of certain deficiency and excess imbalances . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.1 Some visual micro-nutrient deficiency symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
5.2 Some visual macro- and major-nutrient deficiency symptoms . . . . . . 45
5.3 Some nutrient excess (toxicity) symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46

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6 Fertilization practice and suitable products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

6.1 Fertilizer products suitable for soil preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6.2 Pre-plant soil preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
6.3 Tree fertilization: Clay soils tending to be acidic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
6.4 Preferred fertilizers for acidic and alkaline soils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6.5 General foliar fertilization practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6.5.1 Increasing mango flowering intensity in tropical,

wet or dry regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

6.5.2 Increasing fruit retention by reducing post-flower fruit-drop . . 55

6.5.3 Controlling powdery mildew colonization of the

inflorescences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
7 Some pertinent research results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
7.1 Research attesting to the importance of nutrient balance . . . . . . . . 56
7.2 Increased fruit retention and yield resulting from spray

application of potassium nitrate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
7.3 Powdery mildew control resulting from spray application

of mono-potassium phosphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
7.4 General research findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
8 Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62


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Introduction
The aim of this Mango Nutrient-Status Management Guide is to provide
pertinent information enabling SQMs business partners to effectively manage
mango tree nutrient status. Information is also provided to enable the reader to
gain an understanding of mango tree culture.
Crop phenology, required growing conditions, and nutritional balance as it
relates to fruit quality, are dealt with. Consideration is given to the main roles
of the macro- and trace elements as they relate to tree growth and function.
Some nutrient deficiency and excess imbalances are also given attention. Tree
fertilization promoting the accomplishment of the ideal balance between the
essential nutrients is considered.
Chapter 1 provides the basis for nutrition management as it relates to orchard
performance in terms of revenue generation. Chapter 2 furnishes general
information concerning mango growth and development, soil and climatic
requirements, diseases, harvest maturity determination, and quality assessment.
The essential roles of the nutrients requiring management are presented in
Chapter 3. Guideline data enabling effective nutrition management is presented
in Chapter 4. Chapter 5 comprises photographs facilitating the diagnosis of
various visual excess and deficiency nutrient imbalances. Chapter 6 provides
practical information concerning tree fertilization for soils differing in a number of
key characteristics. In Chapter 7, some pertinent research results are presented.
The literature cited is presented in Chapter 8.

Note on booklet value-expression

convention:
(.) Period: indicates thousands.
(,) Comma: demarcates the place of
the decimal.
The number 1.500,5, stated in words,
is one thousand five hundred and
five tenths.

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1 Nutritional Status
as it Relates to
Tree Performance
Tree performance, considered in terms of revenue generation, relates
fundamentally to tree health, being in turn a function of the extent to which
nutrient levels in the various tissues are in balance for a particular growth stage.
A reduction in performance will occur if imbalance exists, both with respect to
deficiency (deficiency imbalance) and excess (excess imbalance). As a result of the
general removal of mineral nutrients from the orchard via fruit harvest, soil nutrient
leaching, the removal of prunings, and water run-off, nutrient replenishment is
generally required to rectify balance. Nutrient status management generally
entails the supply of the mineral nutrients requiring management in the correct
proportions and at opportune development stages.
An ideal fertilization programme is one that enables the nutrient-status balance
to be perfectly maintained during the organ building processes characterizing
mango tree growth and development. Guideline data, procured from focused
research, can be used to facilitate decisions concerning the supply of nutrients in
relative and quantitative terms. Guideline data can take the form of leaf nutrient
concentration norms. Such norms are relevant to leaves sampled at a particular
stage of maturation and according to a prescribed method.
Nutrient accumulation estimates, whether absolute or relative (nutrient accumulation in terms of inclusion in the various organs as growth and development occurs),
can also serve as valuable information to maintain balance. Soil attribute and
nutrient status norms are also useful. It is noteworthy that the provision of guidance
data be such that its procurement is from superior performing trees.
Fertilizers, whether applied on the above-ground parts (via spraying) or to the soil,
should be viewed as nutritional-balance management tools. Fertilizer formulations
differ vastly in their ability to alter plant nutrient status, certain of which are more
effective than others.
Tree revenue generation relates to yield and fruit quality. Fruit quality relates
directly to the attributes desired by the target market. Guideline data should be
procured from superior performing trees, in terms of revenue generation. Orchard
revenue bears a direct relation with the extent to which the target market preferences are met as well as orchard yield.

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2 Key Issues Relating to

Mango Tree Culture
2.1 Nomenclature
Common names: Mango, manga (Tamil), mangga (Philippines, Malaysia,
Indonesia), manguier (France).
Tree: Symmetrical, evergreen tree ranging in height from 8 to 25 metres and
bearing simple leaves and drupe fruits of variable size (Figures 1 and 2). Fruits
grow during the summer months and are borne on terminal inflorescences
developing during spring.
Family: Anacardiaceae.
Scientific name: Mangifera indica L.

Figure 1. A well-formed three-year-old mango tree at a stage just prior to

flowering.

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Figure 2. Tommy Atkins mango trees bearing fruits nearing the stage of harvest
maturation.

2.2 Rainfall, Diseases and Soil-Water

Management
Mango trees are drought tolerant and can withstand temporary flooding. Rainfall
distribution during the year has a marked effect on tree performance. Wet
conditions during the flowering and fruit development period are detrimental, promoting diseases, both in the fruits and tree. Under wet and humid
conditions mango inflorescences and fruits are susceptible to bacterial black
spot (Xanthomonas cam-pestris) (Figures 3 and 4), anthracnose (Colletotrichum
gloeosporioides) (Figures 5, 6 and 7), blight (Botryosphearia spp.) (Figures 8
and 9) and soft-brown rot (Botryosphearia spp.). Contrastingly, powdery mildew
(Oidium mangiferae) inflorescence colonization (Figure 10) is generally prevalent
when conditions are dry.


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10

Figure 3. Bacterial black spot lesions on an unripe Keitt mango. Star-like lesions
develop. Once developed they weep, exuding sap.

Figure 4. Bacterial black spot lesions on mango leaves.

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Figure 5. Anthracnose tear-stain lesions on an unripe mango.

Figure 6. Anthracnose lesions on a mature, but unharvested Keitt fruit.

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Figure 7. Anthracnose lesions developing on a ripe (left) and on an

unripe (right) Van Dyke fruit.

Figure 8. Soft-brown rot at the stem-end of a Kent fruit.

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Figure 9. Blight lesions on a young Keitt mango, and totally blighted fruitlets
(adjacent). Fruit-drop is often associated with partial blight fruit-colonization.

Figure 10. Powdery mildew on Tommy Atkins inflorescences. Mono-potassium

phosphate (MKP), a potassium-phosphate fertilizer, spray applied at 1% (w/v), is
effective in controlling this disease.
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Tree water demand varies appreciably in relation to growth stage during the
seasonal cycle. Demand is substantially increased in trees just having produced
a new flush, or being in flower, or having set a crop. The water need of trees
possessing newly developing inflorescences is particularly high. Water demand
monitoring (for example, with tensiometers) and water application (irrigation)
based on need during a particular stage are essential to avoid inflorescence wilt
or fruit drop. Tensiometer irrigation-scheduling (Figure 11) is superior in managing
soil water content where the soil clay content exceeds 10%. Scheduling based on
the data obtained from a Neutron Probe, Deviner or Class A Pan can be adopted
where the soil clay content is less than 10%.

Figure 11. A tensiometer station comprising a 30, a 60 and a 90 cm

reading-depth tensiometer. Irrigation management based on tensiometer
readings is most effective in managing soil-water availability in mango. The clay
content of the soil must be sufficiently high (> 10%) for tensiometer installation.

The imposition of a relative drought stress prior to flowering is only necessary

in regions not experiencing sufficient winter-cold for adequate flower induction.
Mango trees should not be exposed to a soil-water deficiency stress (indicated by
tensiometer readings of less than - 45 kpa) unless the winter conditions are marginally inductive (daily temperature minima exceeding 15C).

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The number of tensiometer stations installed in an orchard will depend on the

variation in soil type and cultivar across the orchard blocks comprising the
planting. A tensiometer station should minimally comprise a 30 and a 60 cm
reading depth tensiometer. Soil-water management is based on the readings of
the 30 cm tensiometer, and the duration of an irrigation cycle, on the readings of
the 60 cm tensiometer. The suction pressure should not be permitted to exceed
- 45 kpa if soil-water stress is not to be experienced by the trees.
Mango leaves are susceptible to salinity damage. Where the soil and water are
saline (EC > 2,0 dS/m), irrigation management should be primarily geared to the
avoidance of salt-burn (Figure 12).

Figure 12. Mango leaves are susceptible to salinity damage (salt-burn). Irrigation
management, where the soil and water are saline, should be primarily geared to
salinity damage avoidance.

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2.3 Soil Suitability

Mango trees can be grown in a wide range of soil types. It should be noted that
high soil pH is particularly limiting. Mango trees are generally not able to tolerate
pH levels in excess of 8. In high pH soils, growth is curtailed, and trace-element
deficiency symptoms develop shortly after transplanting. Deficiency imbalances
have strong influence on fruit quality.

Figure 13. Internal breakdown in Hindi. It is noteworthy that a trees nutritional

status bears a strong relation with the nutritional status of the soil in which the tree
grows. Soil characteristics such as pH also affect a trees nutritional status. In turn,
a trees nutritional status bears a strong relation with the nutritional status of the
fruits on the tree. Fruit nutritional imbalances may result in the development of
internal breakdown, as shown here.
Cultivation in loams or sandy loams favours enhanced skin ground-colouration
during ripening and a reduced incidence of fruit-pulp breakdown (jelly-seed or
soft-nose) (Figure 13). Fruit quality tends to be inferior where the soil nitrogen
content is high. Soils rich in clay are considered to be inferior due to their
enhanced capacity to retain ammonical nitrogen.
Ammonium, specifically, is adsorbed by soil-colloids (clay and organic matter)
and is thus released into the soil solution over a prolonged period. Ammonium
fertilizers should be used moderately where the soil clay content is high. Excessive
applications of manure also disfavour fruit quality, this being due to the prolonged
release of nitrogen resulting for manure degradation.

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Soil pH levels from 5,5 to 7,0 are considered to be ideal (Nakasone and Paull,
1998). In acid soils, lime (calcitic, or dolomitic if the soil magnesium content is
low) should be incorporated to a sufficient depth (at least 80 cm) to rectify soil
pH prior to planting (Figure 14). Furthermore, the soil should contain sufficient
phosphate at planting. Applied phosphate should concurrently be incorporated
to the same depth.

Figure 14. Soil pH and the soil phosphorous content should, in particular,
be rectified before planting.

2.4 Tree Growth and Development

Mango trees grow discontinuously, size increases resulting from vegetative flushes
arising periodically (Figure 15). New shoots or inflorescences (Figure 16) develop,
the type of organ arising depending largely on the environmental conditions
experienced at a critical stage occurring shortly after apical-meristem
activation. Tree size-increase is limited during flowering and fruiting, since the
inflorescences are determinate and vegetative flushing is inhibited when reproductive
organogenesis is occurring. The extent of inhibition is commensurate with
flowering intensity and crop-load.

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Figure 15. Canopy size-increase occurs discontinuously due to the periodic

initiation of vegetative flushes.

Figure 16. Terminal inflorescence development occurs when environmental

conditions change; terminal inflorescences becoming inductive (inflorescencedevelopment inducing).

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Root growth precedes flushing. Apical dominance is generally strong, with

new growth occurring only from the apical bud on the terminal shoots. In trees
retaining the vegetative state, a number of buds in the bud-whorl terminating
the shoots develop after a number of growth flushes have occurred, this resulting
in "eventual" branching (terminal branching)(Figure 17). The number of flushes
arising prior to multiple bud-break varies greatly between cultivars. Multiple
breaks generally occur during the initiation of every flush in Heidi, whereas in
Keitt, multiple breaks may only occur after five or six growth flushes.

Figure 17. Upright growth resulting

from continued linear growth initially.
Branching eventually occurs as a result of
multiple terminal breaks (note branching
at apex of branch).

In all varieties, terminal branching occurs in every terminal shoot having

produced an inflorescence or number of inflorescences (Figures 18 and 19). The
inflorescences themselves are determinate, however, vegetativeness not occurring
as a continuance of development.

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Figure 18. After terminal inflorescence development, new shoots are produced
laterally from buds close to the point of inflorescence attachment.

Figure 19. Post-harvest branching at the location of prior inflorescence

emergence.

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After periods of coolness or coolness in association with a degree of drought

stress, terminal inflorescence development occurs. Temperatures of 20C to 30C
favour vegetative flushing, whereas those from 6C to 18C favour inflorescence
initiation (Davenport and Nunez-Elisea, 1997). Fruits set on the inflorescences
(Figure 20). Lateral bud development on terminal shoots bearing fruits is inhibited
until harvest or just before. In trees bearing a heavy fruit load, growth may be
limited to one flush after harvest. In trees failing to retain a significant quantity of
fruits due to reduced flowering, the yearly size increase may be substantial due to
the occurrence of flushing during flowering and the fruit growth and development
periods flushing occurring in the non-flowering terminal shoots.

Figure 20. Fruits set on the inflorescences. Lateral buds are inhibited from
developing on fruit-bearing terminal shoots.
In the situation of adequate soil water availability and non-stressful evaporative
demand, ambient temperatures determine the frequency of flushing; new shoot
development becoming less frequent when daily temperatures drop during autumn
and winter. Mango trees can become exceptionally large, attaining heights in
excess of 25 metres. Yearly pruning (branch heading) of productive trees is
required to keep canopy-size in check, thereby preventing over-crowding and
yield decline. Canopies or canopy-sections, well exposed to sunlight 70 to 90% of
sunlight hours, are the most productive (Figure 21).

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Figure 21. Canopy height and width control will ensure perpetual cropping due
to sustained canopy exposure to sunlight.

2.5 Fruit Harvest-Maturation Assessment

Non-uniform stage of development or maturation of fruits is a problem in regions
where flowering is non-synchronous, or where more than one inflorescence flush
occurs during late winter or spring. Where between-tree variation in flowering time
is clear, colour marking of the trees to differentiate them regarding the week of
full-bloom can be useful in assessing the time-of-harvest for groups of trees.
Fruit harvest maturation is generally assessed on pulp colouration in terms of its
transition from white-green to yellow (Figure 22). Yellow colouration of the pulp
(mesocarp) from seed (endocarp) to skin (exocarp) generally indicates readiness
to harvest. Fruits harvested too early ripen normally if not exposed to chilling
temperatures. However, taste is poor due to an excess of acids relative to simple
sugars on full ripening. On the other hand, progressed maturation is generally
associated with excessive fruit drop, increased disease, increased physiological
disorder incidence (where nutritional management is at fault) and splitting. Fruits of
a cultivar harvested late in the season are generally more appealing in taste due
to a markedly increased sugar to acid ratio (Oosthuyse, 1996).

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Fruit-pulp colouration-charts have been produced to facilitate the determination of

the ideal stage to harvest fruits of a range of cultivars (Oosthuyse, 1991). Other
indicators, such as degree of shoulder development or extent of lenticel corking
(browning), are also useful in assessing stage to harvest (Figures 23 and 24).

Figure 22. Harvest maturation is assessed on pulp colouration. An even yellow

colouration indicates readiness to harvest in Kent, for example. The relationship
between readiness to harvest and pulp colouration extent, differs with respect to
cultivar.

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Figure 23. The occurrence of clearly raised shoulders on the fruit indicates
readiness to harvest in many varieties. The degree to which fruit become round
from being oblong can also serve as an indication of stage of maturation.

Figure 24. Clear yellowing or browning of the skin-lenticels indicates readiness

to harvest in a range of cultivars. Tommy Atkins (shown here) is a candidate.

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2.6 Fruit Quality Assessment

On ripening, fruits remaining free of disease and physiological (internal) disorder
symptoms, fruits becoming sufficiently sweet, and fruits whose green ground-skin
colour becomes entirely yellow, are considered to be of good quality by consumers in the European Union. Post-harvest disease occurrence is the major factor
affecting quality and shelf-life, generally.
Tree nutritional status has a marked effect on quality. This is evidenced by quality
being strongly influenced by the soil in which trees are grown, and by the nutrition
and irrigation practices carried out. Fertilization procedures favouring the accomplishment of the desired nutrient balance, for which leaf nutrient concentration
norms serve as a reference, are required to maximize tree performance.
In sampling leaves to determine the leaf dry weight concentrations of the nutrients
requiring management, certain guidelines must be followed. Leaves are sampled
in November (southern hemisphere) or in May (northern hemisphere) and are
removed from fruit bearing terminal shoots.

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3 Primary Roles of the

Mineral Nutrients Requiring
Management in Mango
In general, nutrition management entails the management of the tree status of
nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg),
sulphur (S), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), manganese (Mn), boron (B) and
molybdenum (Mo). Carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O) are additionally
essential for growth, being required in the greatest quantities and constituting
most of the biomass resulting from growth and development (90% +). However,
these nutrients are obtained from the atmosphere and water; their usage-rate in a
given environment depending largely on the efficiency of soil-water and nutrition
management.
Nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium are referred to as macro-nutrients.
Calcium, magnesium and sulphur are called major-nutrients, whereas copper, iron,
manganese, zinc and boron are referred to as micro-nutrients. Molybdenum may
be categorized as a trace-trace nutrient. This nomenclature indicates the extent
of use by the tree. Table 1 shows the nutrient requirement in grams per 1.000 g of
N required by a Tommy Atkins mango fruit (Oosthuyse, 1999).
Table 1. Nutrient requirement (elemental) of a Tommy Atkins mango fruit in
grams per 1.000 grams of nitrogen required (average fruit weight: 598 g).

Nutrient
Nitrogen
Phosphorous
Potassium
Calcium

Mass in grams
1.000,00
215,79
1.568,26
182,60

Magnesium

141,25

Sulphur

123,40

Copper

1,56

Iron

8,54

Manganese

3,43

Zinc

2,99

Boron

4,12

Molybdenum

0,01

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Certain nutrients are mobile in the phloem (the living translocation system of the
tree), whereas others are not. Nitrogen, phosphorous, potassium, magnesium and
molybdenum are phloem mobile, whereas sulphur, copper, iron, manganese, zinc
and boron are immobile or sparingly phloem-mobile. This aspect dictates whether
deficiency first occurs in young developing tissues or in older organs. As the
phloem mobile nutrients can be translocated from developed parts of the tree
to the sites of meristematic activity, their deficiency is always noted first in older
tissues, typically in the older leaves. The converse is true for the nutrients that are
phloem immobile; deficiency occurring first in the young developing tissues.
The nutrients requiring management are either used for the formation of organic
compounds (proteins, carbohydrates, enzymes, nucleic acids), or have a direct
regulatory role in tree growth and function. The following summarizes some of
their functions.

3.1 Nitrogen
Nitrogen is a component of many structural, regulatory and energy compounds,
it arising in amino acids, proteins, nucleotides, phospholipids, energy transfer
compounds (adenosine phosphates) and enzymes. It is also a component of
chlorophyll, which imparts stems and leaves with their green colour; chlorophyll
being a key component of the photosynthetic apparatus. Nitrogen supply is of
particular concern after harvest for the support of new shoot growth; these shoots
being accountable for carbohydrate reserve replenishment during the autumn
and winter months, as well as bearing the following seasons reproductive organs
(inflorescences and fruits). Nitrogen is mobile in the phloem, and hence, can be
translocated from older leaves to active meristems, for example.

3.2 Phosphorous
Phosphorous is a component of structural and energy transfer compounds, being
found in phospholipids and adenosine phosphates. It is also a component of
nucleotides, the building blocks of DNA and RNA. Phosphorous supply is of
particular concern during periods of root development and during flowering and
early fruit development. Phosphorous is mobile in the phloem, and hence, can be
translocated between tree organs.

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3.3 Potassium
Of the supplied nutrients, potassium is required in the greatest quantity by productive mango trees. Potassium does not become a structural component of a plantsynthesized compound. It has a highly significant role in facilitating the transport of
metabolites in plants, being involved in the transfer of carbohydrates from leaves
to expanding fruits (Figure 25) and in the movement of nitrogen in the phloem.
Its importance regarding metabolite transport is evidenced by its relatively high
concentration in the phloem. Potassium also plays an important role in stomata
aperture size regulation, and thus tree water loss. Its presence has been associated with increased fibre strength, enhanced photosynthesis, increased cold and
drought tolerance, and increased stem rigidity. Superior fruit quality, which in
turn bears a relation with efficient plant functionality, is associated with adequate
potassium uptake and favourable supply. Sufficient accumulation in the tree during
the period preceding flowering is vitally important, since root supply is unable to
meet demand during the rapid period of fruit growth. Potassium is highly mobile
in the phloem.

Sap flow in the phloem

2.5

ml/plant

2.0

High in K

1.5
1.0
Low in K
0.5
0
30 60 90 120 150 180
minutes

Figure 25. Diagrammatic representation of the movement of potassium up

through the xylem to the leaf, and then from leaf to fruit through the phloem with
carbohydrates attached.

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3.4 Calcium
Calcium is an essential component of the cell wall and membranes, imparting
integrity (resistance to breakdown or attack) to the cells. Hence, calcium should be
in sufficient supply at all of the sites of meristematic activity. Calcium is immobile in
living tissues, and for this reason, its supply throughout the plant is totally reliant
on the supply of root-acquired water. Breaks in water supply give rise to breaks in
calcium supply to the regions where growth and development is occurring. Calcium
has also a role to play in promoting the formation of proteins.

3.5 Magnesium
Magnesium is most well known for its position and role in being a component of the
chlorophyll molecule. Magnesium also has an important role to play in facilitating
the translocation of phosphorous. Magnesium is highly mobile in the phloem.

3.6 Sulphur
Sulphur is a component of the amino acids, methionine, cysteine, thiamine and
biotin, which often comprise many parts of proteins and enzymes. Sulphur is
involved in chlorophyll formation. It is relatively immobile in the phloem; its supply
to the growing parts of the plant thus being dependent on water distribution and
availability.

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30

3.7 Copper, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, Boron

and Molybdenum
There is considerable variation in the specific roles of the various trace elements
in plant growth processes. A common role is that of participation in enzyme
systems. Enzymes are the directors of plant chemistry. Hormone balance affects
gene expression, the genes coding for the necessary enzymes required at any
one stage.
Copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and molybdenum (Mo) can act as electron carriers in
enzyme systems bringing about oxidation-reduction reactions. Zinc (Zn) and
manganese (Mn) function in enzyme systems important for plant metabolism.
Molybdenum (Mo) and Mn are important in certain N-transformations. Mo is
a component of the enzyme nitrogenase, essential for the process of nitrogen
fixation, and is present in the enzyme nitrate-reductase, being responsible for the
reduction of NO3- in plants. Zn plays a role in protein synthesis (enzymes being
proteins, and proteins also being make-up components of plants), in the formation of some growth hormones, and in the reproductive processes of certain cropplants. Cu is involved in photosynthesis and respiration, as well as in the use of Fe.
Cu stimulates lignification of plant cell walls. B is a structural component of pectin
and lignin. It plays a role in the translocation of carbohydrates and phosphorous
across membranes, and in the absorption of certain cations. B deficiency is associated with reduced water absorption, root growth and sugar translocation (sugars
being the energy metabolites and building materials of plants). Fe is involved in
chlorophyll formation, and the degradation and synthesis of proteins contained in
the chloroplasts. Mn appears to be essential for photosynthesis, respiration and
nitrogen metabolism.
B is generally immobile in the phloem. Cu, Fe, Zn, and Mn are sparingly mobile in
the phloem, whereas Mo is phloem mobile.
Since Zn, Fe, and Mn are important for the normal functioning of the photosynthetic mechanism, deficiency imbalances of any one or number of these trace
elements are indicated by leaf chlorosis (yellowing) to varying degrees. General
chlorosis generally signifies Fe and Zn deficiency, and inter-veinal chlorosis, Fe, Zn,
or Mn deficiency. New leaves show deficiency first due to these nutrients being
immobile in the phloem.
In mango, trace-element spray applications made during the flowering period are
effective in increasing leaf and fruit trace element concentrations. In acid soils,
most of the trace elements are usually available for root uptake, whereas in alkaline soils, soil application of chelated trace elements is required due to fixation to
insoluble hydroxides and oxides.

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4 Nutrition Management
4.1 Guideline Information
Leaf nutrient-concentration norms should be determined with a view to orchard
revenue maximization. Revenue maximization directly relates to the quantity of
good quality fruits produced by an orchard. Fruit quality has a direct bearing
on target market preference. Tree nutrient balance, as referenced from the results
of leaf analysis, has been shown, by correlative analysis, to have a strong impact
on fruit quality as well as on the incidence of post-harvest diseases in mango
(Oosthuyse, 1997a).
Table 2 shows leaf norms (dry weight leaf concentrations) suitable for the Floridian
group of mango cultivars grown for the European market (Oosthuyse, 1998a). In
this group are varieties such as Tommy Atkins, Keitt, Kent, Haden and Sensation.
Table 2. Leaf norms (dry weight concentrations) appropriate for the Floridian
group of mango cultivars grown for the European market.
N
%

P
%

K
%

Ca
%

Mg
%

S
%

Cu
Fe
Mn
Zn
B
Mo
mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg mg/kg

1,0-

0,1-

0,8-

2,0-

0,2-

0,1-

9-

120-

170-

30-

40-

0,3-

1,2

0,2

1,2

3,3

0,3

0,2

18

190

450

75

80

0,6

In collecting a suitable leaf sample from an orchard block, a number of trees, well
distributed within the orchard block (10 to 20 per hectare), are marked for yearly
leaf sampling. Four to five leaves, located just behind the site of a fruit bearing
terminal inflorescence (Figure 26), are removed from four fruit-bearing terminal
shoots per tree.

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32

Figure 26. Leaves are sampled from a new terminal shoot bearing fruits.
These shoots are those that develop after harvest each year.
The shoots from which leaves are removed should be at shoulder height and
distributed to represent each tree-quadrant. The leaves from an orchard block
(usually 1 ha or smaller in area) are pooled and submitted to a laboratory for
nutrient-concentration analysis.
The leaf-analysis results will indicate existing deficiency and excess imbalances.
Application of nutrients in balance or deficient is made. Applications to meet
the nutrient demand for the season are made for the nutrients indicated to be in
balance. Added application is made in the case of the nutrients indicated to
be deficient. Application of a particular nutrient is withheld if a clear excess
imbalance of the nutrient is indicated. In fully-grown orchards, nutrient demand has
a direct bearing on expected yield.

4.2 Nutrition Management of Mango Trees Grown

in Soils Containing Clay (> 20%)
Clay particles impart soils with the ability to hold and discharge mineral nutrients
into the soil solution; storage and release being controlled by chemical equilibria
of the soil solution that are complex and not easily understood. Buffering of the
soil solution to render sufficient nutrient supply to the root can persist for years
without any fertilizer applications being made. Exchanges of cationic, as opposed
to anionic, nutrient ions are far more prevalent generally, since the surfaces of clay
particles are generally predominated by negatively charged entities.

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Plant roots absorb dissolved mineral nutrients in the soil solution; the soil solution
being the interface between storage-site and root hair (Figure 27). The dynamics
of ion exchange between clay particle (or colloid), soil solution and root hair are
complex. The influence of organic matter, including that of the micro-organisms
themselves, further complicates the nutrient exchange dynamics occurring within
the soil. Furthermore, the ability of the tree to take-up nutrients dissolved in the
soil solution varies in relation to tree-health, growing environment and the climatic
conditions being experienced.

Figure 27. Root hairs in association with the soil solution and soil particles. Roots
take up water and nutrients from the soil. Only nutrients that are dissolved in the
soil solution (soil water) can be utilized. Insoluble compounds cannot be accessed.
However, exchanges of elements between soil solution and insoluble (solid)
entities are continuous, being dictated by the chemical equilibrium state of the
soil solution.
In soils containing appreciable clay, the ability of an agronomist to predict nutrient
uptake following soil application of fertilizers is limited. This is particularly stated
in view of the soil having a marked ability to retain and fix nutrients, as well as to
release nutrients in accordance with events occurring in the soil solution over which
the agronomist can exert little control.
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34

The approach taken in fertilizing an orchard block in this situation is empirical.

Fertilizer application rates are assessed on the basis of their effect on leaf nutrient
concentration changes in the particular block. With time, a good idea of the probable changes that will occur in association with particular applications made at
particular stages in the yearly growth cycle can be learnt. This knowledge is used
to facilitate tree nutrient-status-balance management in the long term.
In irrigated trees, differing fertilizers are placed on the soil under the trees or in
the irrigation water at each of a number of growth stages. Nitrogen, calcium and
phosphorous containing fertilizers are applied after harvest when new terminal
shoot growth is expected. Potassium, boron, sulphur and magnesium containing
fertilizers are applied during the month preceding the commencement of flowering. Potassium accumulation by the tree is particularly important at this stage.
Phosphorous containing fertilizers are applied a month to six weeks after harvest,
or during the early winter months. Phosphate placement in a long shallow groove
made in the soil under the canopy is generally carried out. Phosphorous containing
fertilizers are also spray-applied during flowering.
The micronutrients Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, B and Mo, required by the trees in trace
amounts, are generally spray applied during flowering to ensure sufficiency. Soils
readily fix phosphorous and Cu, Fe, Mn and Zn (high pH soils also bind B).
The over use of ammonium-N fertilizers in clay soils should be of concern. Nitrogen
storage (adsorption and fixation of NH4+ by the exchange complex) by the soil,
rendering nitrogen availability later during the fruit growth and development
period, when greatly reduced nitrogen availability is desired, is detrimental to
quality, reducing ground skin colouration and increasing the incidence of internal
breakdown. Where the soil NH4+ storage potential is significant, nitrate-N fertilization is favoured to meet the requirement for nitrogen.

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4.3 Nutrition Management of Mango Trees Grown

in Soils Containing Little Clay (< 10%)
Mangoes are often grown in sands, particularly in the Middle East. In this instance,
the trees need to be fertilized regularly (twice or three times per week) with a fertilizer mix that, in particular, is in balance to meet the nutrient need of the fruits as
they grow and develop. Knowledge concerning the fruit nutrient balance requirement for good quality is important. Sufficient fertilizer is applied to ensure that the
requirements of the other growth events are met. Leaf analysis results serve, in this
case, to indicate whether adjustments to a pre-determined fertigation programme
are necessary.
Regular soluble fertilizer application through the irrigation system is advised. It is
noteworthy that the conversion of ammonium to nitrate does not readily occur in
sands due to the general absence of nitrifying bacteria.
Table 3 shows the P, K, Ca, Mg, S, Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, B and Mo weekly requirement
(grams) of superior Tommy Atkins mango fruits (of superior quality regarding the
EU consumer) per gram of N required (Oosthuyse, 1999).
Table 3. Nutrient requirement per week (in grams), per gram of N required, for
developing Tommy Atkins fruits - from the time the fruits are 20 mm in diameter
(week 0) until they reach harvest maturity (week 13).
week days N

g

P
g

K
g

Ca
g

Mg
g

S
g

Cu
mg

Fe
mg

Mn
mg

Zn B
mg mg

Mo
mg

0,44 0,97

0,23

0,11

0,11

2,13 13,84 9,64 4,86 10,15 0,06

0,36 0,92

0,20

0,10

0,10

1,84 11,82 7,80 4,15

8,47 0,05

14

0,25 0,91

0,17

0,09

0,09

1,53

9,51 5,49 3,34

6,44 0,04

21

0,20 1,02

0,16

0,09

0,09

1,46

8,84 4,35 3,10

5,60 0,03

28

0,19 1,25

0,18

0,11

0,11

1,60

9,43 4,01 3,31

5,61 0,02

35

0,20 1,57

0,21

0,13

0,13

1,85 10,69 4,07 3,75

6,04 0,02

42

0,22 1,83

0,24

0,15

0,15

2,05 11,69 4,16 4,10

6,34 0,02

49

0,22 1,89

0,24

0,16

0,15

2,04 11,51 3,99 4,03

6,04 0,02

56

0,20 1,76

0,22

0,15

0,14

1,85 10,34 3,59 3,62

5,29 0,01

63

0,19 1,58

0,19

0,13

0,13

1,63

9,06 3,22 3,17

4,55 0,01

10

70

0,18 1,46

0,17

0,12

0,12

1,48

8,20 3,01 2,87

4,06 0,01

11

77

0,18 1,42

0,17

0,12

0,11

1,43

7,88 2,99 2,76

3,86 0,01

12

84

0,20 1,47

0,17

0,13

0,12

1,46

8,03 3,15 2,81

3,90 0,01

13

91

0,22 1,57

0,18

0,14

0,12

1,56

8,54 3,43 2,99

4,12 0,01

35
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36

In fertilizing, efficiency coefficients (percentages) are used to determine the

association between fertilizer amount required and the amount to be applied.
These coefficients are fertilizer-type, soil-type and irrigation-method specific. For
example, the efficiency coefficient of nitrate-nitrogen is greater than that for
phosphate in view of the general readiness of soils to fix phosphorous, rendering
it unavailable. Furthermore, the coefficients for drip-irrigated trees are generally
greater than those for micro-sprinkler irrigated trees, due to the root concentrating
effect at the points of water emission of drip-irrigation systems.
In general, the following equation applies: Qav = Qs + [Qap x Fcoeff]
Where, for a particular nutrient,
Qav = nutrient quantity available for uptake by the tree
Qs = available nutrient quantity the soil has in reserve
(provided by the results of soil analysis)
Qap = amount of nutrient to be applied
Fcoeff = efficiency coefficient, a percentage ranging from 0 to 100
For phosphate, Fcoeff generally varies from 15 to 30%, whereas for nitrate, Fcoeff
variation is generally from 70 to 98%.
Where high soil levels of calcium carbonate occur, special considerations are
required, since nutrient fixation reactions have a profound effect in reducing the
availability (water solubility) of certain fertilizers. Applied P is quickly converted to
non-available calcium-phosphates due to high levels of dissolved calcium in the soil
solution. Non-chelated trace elements are quickly converted into insoluble hydroxides and oxides due to the relatively high OH and opposed to H+ concentration
in the soil solution.
High soil pH (resulting from high calcium carbonate levels in the soil) is a general
problem in arid regions. It indirectly limits or prevents micronutrient uptake. Trees
suffering from microelement deficiency are visibly unhealthy, grow poorly and
clearly show deficiency symptoms (Figures 28, 29 and 30).

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Figure 28. Mango trees suffering from micro-element deficiency at Luxor in

Egypt. Growth is slow, the trees are visibly unhealthy and deficiency is noted by
the presence of chlorotic (yellow) small leaves.

Figure 29. Symptoms resulting from manganese and copper deficiency.

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38

Figure 30. Iron, zinc and manganese deficiency in mango.

4.4 Favourable Growth Stages for Spray

Applied Nutrients
Nutrient uptake by soft new leaves or developing inflorescences is enhanced
(Figure 31), whereas uptake is negligible by mature shoots and developing fruits.
Foliar fertilizer application should be timed to match the stages when the potential for uptake is greatest. In high pH soils, spray application of micronutrients in
combination with soil application of the cationic micronutrients in chelated form
(EDTACu, Mn, Zn; EDDHAFe), is effective in combating trace element deficiency
in mango (Oosthuyse, personal observation). Fe and Zn deficiencies are noted to
be difficult to correct with sprays alone.

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Figure 31. Spray applications of fertilizers when the trees are in flower is advantageous regarding uptake. The concentration and time of application should be
such that burn (phytotoxicity) does not occur.

4.5 Pre-Plant Soil Preparation

Soil samples are to be taken, and the analysis results are to be used to determine
a pre-plant fertilization programme. In general, phosphate and calcium carbonate
additions are necessary to correct for reduced soil phosphorous and low pH. It is
absolutely imperative that phosphate be incorporated into the soil to a sufficient
depth prior to planting due to its immobility in the soil. Mango trees have deep
root systems; the majority of feeder roots occupying the depth of 15 to 40 cm.
Sub-soiling is carried out to a depth of 80 or 100 cm. Phosphate and calcium
carbonate are evenly applied to the soil surface prior to deep sub-soiling. Cross
sub-soiling is considered a good practice for adequate incorporation of surface
applied ameliorants.
Surface stone and rock clearing followed by levelling should precede sub-soiling
and ameliorant application. After sub-soiling, further levelling and clearing can be
carried out to remove rocks and debris having become exposed. Disking of the
upper soil layer is often employed prior to the commencement of irrigation system
installation and plant hole preparation.
39
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40

5 Visual Symptoms of Certain

Deficiency and Excess Imbalances
It is noteworthy that visual symptoms indicate chronic deficiencies or excesses.
Generally, deficiency or excess imbalances are such that symptoms are not apparent. Leaf analysis results are essentially required to assess tree nutrient status or
health.

5.1 Some Visual Micro-nutrient Deficiency

Symptoms
Mango roots are relatively inefficient nutrient forages. Where the soil pH is high
(> 7), trace element deficiency symptoms are readily seen in the leaves. Affected
leaves are often small, ribbed and chlorotic (Figures 32 to 40).

Figure 32. General micro-nutrient deficiency resulting from a break in the supply
of micro-nutrients. Note the healthy lower leaves and deficient terminal leaves.
The shoots exhibiting deficiency are smaller and chlorotic. Slight leaf deformation
is apparent.

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Figure 33. Leaf curling and stunted growth resulting from manganese and
copper deficiency.

Figure 34. Reduced leaf size and chlorosis resulting from zinc and iron
deficiency.
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42

Figure 35. Stunted leaf growth and curling resulting from zinc, copper and
manganese deficiency.

Figure 36. Ribbed, small, marginally curled, chlorotic leaves resulting from iron,
zinc, copper and iron deficiency.

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Figure 37. Leaf back-bending and ribbing resulting from manganese and copper
deficiency.

Figure 38. General chlorosis and leaf deformation resulting from copper, iron,
manganese, zinc and boron deficiency.
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44

Figure 39. Terminal leaf chlorosis, necrosis and deformation resulting from
general micro-element deficiency.

Figure 40. Leaf curling and ribbing resulting from manganese and copper
deficiency.

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5.2 Some Visual Macro- and Major-Nutrient

Deficiency Symptoms
Macro-nutrient deficiency symptoms are rarely observed. Symptom expression is
often associated with soil-water stress (Figures 41 to 43).

Figure 41. Yellowing (chlorosis) and marginal necrosis of leaves resulting from
nitrogen and potassium deficiency.

Figure 42. General leaf yellowing and wilting resulting from nitrogen deficiency
and prolonged soil water stress.
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46

Figure 43. Internal breakdown ("jelly seed") resulting from calcium deficiency
within the fruits themselves.

5.3 Some Nutrient Excess (Toxicity)

Symptoms
Mango trees are particularly susceptible to excesses of boron, sodium and chloride in the soil, readily taking-up these nutrients and subsequently showing toxicity
symptoms (Figures 44 to 47).

Figure 44. Extremely stunted new shoot development and leaf drop resulting
from boron toxicity.

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Figure 45. Leaf margin necrosis resulting from excess chloride uptake.

Figure 46. Inhibited tree growth resulting from excess sodium uptake.

Figure 47. Stunted new shoot development and leaf drop and branch
die-back resulting from excess sodium and chloride uptake.
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48

6 Fertilization Practice and

Suitable Products
6.1 Fertilizer Products Suitable for Soil
Preparation
Dolomitic as opposed to calcitic lime is used to increase soil pH where the preplant soil concentration of magnesium is low. In rectifying soil phosphate prior to
planting, single-super phosphate is the preferred phosphorous source since it also
contains sulphur, a nutrient often deficient in poorer soils with a limited organic
matter content.
Where soil pH levels (> 7,5) and salinity levels (EC > 2 dS/m) are high, the preplant inclusion of sulphur (to acidify) and gypsum (to neutralize Na) are often
beneficial. Large quantities of well-composted manure (up to 100 m3 per ha)
can also be applied, and incorporated to a depth of at least 80 cm, as stated for
phosphate and lime (Figure 48).

Figure 48. Where the soil pH is high (> 7,5), the incorporation of a large amount
of well composted manure, the inclusion of a large amount of manure, and of
gypsum and elemental sulphur is beneficial. 80 to 100 m3 of composted manure
can be incorporated per hectare. The quantities of ameliorants applied are
derived from the results of soil analysis.

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6.2 Tree Fertilization: Arid Environments

In arid environments, where the soils and water are saline (ECs > 1,5 dS/m) and
are rich in carbonates and bicarbonates, nitric acid enriched irrigation water (400
ml of 53% nitric acid per 1.000 l water) can facilitate soil micronutrient release
and uptake. Application is made during the last hour of one or two irrigations per
month, to temporarily reduce the soil-solution pH. A reduced pH renders certain
nutrients, often already in the soil, available for root uptake due to them becoming soluble and entering the soil solution. Calcium and phosphate complexes and
Cu, Mn, Fe and Zn oxides and hydroxides, in particular, change their state as a
result of the increased concentration of H+ in the soil solution. Nitric acid in itself is
a source of nitrate, an anion for which plants have a high uptake affinity. Nitrate
uptake is associated with increased uptake of the cationic plant nutrients, namely,
NH4+, K+, Ca++, Mg++, Fe++, Fe+++, Cu++, Mn++, and Zn++, due to the roots
having to maintain ionic balance.
In high pH soils, urea phosphate is used as the source of phosphorous in view of
its temporary acidifying effect on the soil solution.
Potassium nitrate is advised in desert soils to meet the need for K, in view of
increased soil salinisation arising as a result of sulphate or chloride K application,
and potassium nitrate reducing the quantity of naturally occurring chloride taken
up by trees.
Microelement containing sprays should be regularly applied. Monthly or threeweekly applications during spring and summer, preferably when new shoot growth
is occurring, should be made. This microelement formulation should contain Cu, Fe,
Mn, Zn and Mo. SpeedfolTM Amino Flower & Fruit SC is a good candidate product.
The exclusion of any one of these elements is not recommended, particularly in
view of leaf analysis results generally showing deficiency in all where the high
soil pH condition exists due to elevated calcium carbonate content. Unless the
problem of microelement deficiency is corrected, the trees will not be productive.
The author does not recommend planting mango trees in soils having pH levels
exceeding 8.3.
Table 4 shows an example fertigation programme for 3,5 m high mango trees
growing in a calcareous, sandy soil and irrigated with drip-lines (monthly nitric
acid application is not shown. N adjustment is required if nitric acid is used).

49
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UltrasolTM
6-6-44
kg

Ammonium
Nitrate
kg

UltrasolTM
Calcium
kg

UltrasolTM
Magnum P44
kg

UltrasolTM
Magsul
kg

UltrasolTM Micro
Rexene Cu15
g

UltrasolTM Micro
Rexene FeQ48
g

UltrasolTM Micro
Rexene Mn15
g

UltrasolTM Micro
Rexene Zn15
g

SpeedfolTM
B SP
g

SpeedfolTM
Mo
g

inflores. start
04-March 0
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
inflores. dev
11-March 1
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
inflores. dev
18-March 2
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
inflores. dev
25-March 3
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
inflores. dev
1-April
4
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
inflores. dev
8-April
5
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
full-bloom
15-April
6
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
full-flower
22-April
7
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
full-flower
29-April
8
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
fruit-set
6-May
9
17,32
10,31
3,19
1,46
4,05
49,4
677,80
125,6
95,0
115,5
0,1
fruit-set
13-May 10
23,09
13,74
4,25
1,95
5,40
65,9
903,80
167,5
126,6
154,0
0,1
marble fruits
20-May 11
28,86
17,18
5,31
2,43
6,75
82,3
1.129,70
209,3
158,3
192,5
0,1
goen fruits
27-May 12
34,63
20,61
6,37
2,92
8,10
98,8
1.355,60
251,2
189,9
231,0
0,2
frt growth index 0
3-June
13
40,40
24,05
7,43
3,41
9,45
115,2
1.581,60
293,1
221,6
269,5
0,2
frt growth index 1
10-June 14
46,18
27,48
8,49
3,89
10,81
131,7
1.807,50
334,9
253,2
308,0
0,2
frt growth index 2
17-June 15
51,95
30,92
9,56
4,38
12,16
148,2
2.033,50
376,8
284,9
346,4
0,3
frt growth index 3
24-June 16
57,72
34,35
10,62
4,87
13,51
164,6
2.259,40
418,7
316,6
384,9
0,3
frt growth index 4
1-July
17
51,95
30,92
9,56
4,38
12,16
148,2
2.033,50
376,8
284,9
346,4
0,3
frt growth index 5
8-July
18
46,18
27,48
8,49
3,89
10,81
131,7
1.807,50
334,9
253,2
308,0
0,2
frt growth index 6
15-July
19
40,40
24,05
7,43
3,41
9,45
115,2
1.581,60
293,1
221,6
269,5
0,2
frt growth index 7
22-July 20
34,63
20,61
6,37
2,92
8,10
98,8
1.355,60
251,2
189,9
231,0
0,2
frt growth index 8
29-July 21
28,86
17,18
5,31
2,43
6,75
82,3
1.129,70
209,3
158,3
192,5
0,1
frt growth index 9
5-August 22
23,09
13,74
4,25
1,95
5,40
65,9
903,80
167,5
126,6
154,0
0,1
frt growth index 10 12-August 23
17,32
10,31
3,19
1,46
4,05
49,4
677,80
125,6
95,0
115,5
0,1
frt growth index 11 19-August 24
17,32
10,31
3,19
1,46
4,05
49,4
677,80
125,6
95,0
115,5
0,1
full-size 12
26-August 25
17,32
10,31
3,19
1,46
4,05
49,4
677,80
125,6
95,0
115,5
0,1
maturation
2-Sept
26
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
maturation-harvest
9-Sept
27
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
maturation-harvest
16-Sept 28
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
maturation-harvest
23-Sept 29
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
maturation-harvest
30-Sept 30
11,54
6,87
2,12
0,97
2,70
32,9
451,90
83,7
63,3
77,0
0,1
maturation-harvest
7-Oct
31
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
maturation-harvest
14-Oct 32
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
maturation-harvest
21-Oct 33
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
maturation-harvest
28-Oct 34
5,77
3,44
1,06
0,49
1,35
16,5
225,90
41,9
31,7
38,5
0,0
winter cold
4-Nov
35
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
11-Nov 36
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
18-Nov 37
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
25-Nov 38
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
2-Dec
39
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
9-Dec
40
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
16-Dec
41
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
23-Dec 42
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
30-Dec 43
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
1-Jan
44
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
8-Jan
45
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
15-Jan
46
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
winter cold
22-Jan
47
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
flower break out
29-Jan 48
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
flower break out
5-Feb
49
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
flower break out
12-Feb 50
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
dormant bud
19-Feb
51
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0
dormant bud
26-Feb 52
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,00
0,0
0,00
0,0
0,0
0,0
0,0

Totals 727 433
134 61
170
2.074
28.469 5.275 3.989 4.850 4

growth stage
date
week

Table 4. Fertigation programme for 3,5 m high mango trees growing in a calcareous, sandy soil, and irrigated with drip-lines (dates relevant
for the northern hemisphere). Desert environment. 20 MT per ha approximated yield. Applications per week per hectare.

50

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6.3 Tree Fertilization: Clay Soils Tending to

be Acidic
Tree nutrient-status balance is managed with the aid of leaf norms. The rate of
a fertilizer to be applied is derived empirically from historical information
indicating leaf nutrient concentration changes that can be expected from various
rates of fertilizer application. Soil-storage and soil-solution buffering of nutrients are
significant components of the system. Hence, withholding application of certain
nutrients for a year or for a number of years to reduce the extent to which an
excess imbalance exists, is a consideration.
Norm determination may be based on the quality requirement of a specific
target market (Figure 49). Leaf norms suiting markets that require small, poorly
coloured, but very sweet fruits, will differ from those suiting markets that require
well-coloured, large fruits free of internal breakdown.

Figure 49. Good quality fruits are generally considered to be those that are free
of disease, show complete skin ground colouration from green to yellow, and are
free of internal break-down, by consumers in the European Union.
Table 5 presents a fertilization programme for mango trees growing in soils
tending to be acidic and containing appreciable clay (clay imparts soils with the
ability to store and release nutrients into the soil solution from where root nutrient
uptake takes place).

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52

Table 5. Fertilization programme for mango trees growing in soils tending to be

acidic and containing appreciable clay (> 20%) (amounts in grams per tree or
spray rate in ml per 100 l water; adjustments can be made based on the results
of leaf analysis).

Stage of
yearly cycle

Fertilizer

Small
tree
1 2,5
m high

Medium
tree
2,6 3,5
m high

Large
tree
3,6 6
m high

Post-harvest

Soil-Ammonium nitrate
Soil-QropTM Calcium
Soil-QropTM MAP

100 g
320 g
150 g

200 g
650 g
300 g

300 g
960 g
450 g

Month prior
to flowering

Soil-QropTM SOP
Qrop BoronatTM 32
Soil-UltrasolTM Magsul

375 g
30 g
100 g

750 g
50 g
200 g

1.130 g
70 g
300 g

During
flowering

*Spray-SpeedfolTM
Amino Flower & Fruit SC
(x 2 sprays, first anthesis,
second full-bloom)

300 ml

300 ml

300 ml

Spray- UltrasolTM MKP

(x 2 sprays, first anthesis,
second full-bloom)

1.000 g

1.000 g

1.000 g

Spray- UltrasolTM K
(x 2 sprays, first anthesis,
second full-bloom)

2.000 g

2.000 g

2.000 g

300 g

500 g

800 g

Start of fruit
growth and
development

Soil-Calcium sulphate

*Spraying should not be carried out during the heat of the day.

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6.4 Preferred Fertilizers for Acidic and Alkaline Soils

Certain fertilizers are preferred for mango (Table 6 and 7). These preferences are based on
the experiences of the author.
Table 6. Preferred sources of the macro- and major-nutrients in mango soil
application after planting.

Nutrient

Low pH - soil/water
High pH - soil/water

N
Ammonium nitrate
Ammonium sulphate

Ammonium nitrate

P
Mono-potassium phosphate Phosphoric acid

Mono-ammonium phosphate Urea phosphate





K
Potassium nitrate
Potassium nitrate

Potassium sulphate


Ca
Calcium nitrate
Calcium nitrate
Mg
Magnesium sulphate
Magnesium sulphate





S

Comments
Ammonium sulphate is
most acidifying.
A high degree of solubility
is required to ensure
maximal macro-pore
penetration. Acidifying
phosphates are beneficial
in high pH soils.
Nitrate uptake reduces the
effect of chloride and
favours cationic nutrient
uptake.
As for K.
Magnesium sulphate is
suitable for high and
low pH soils in view of Mg
being required in far lesser
amounts than N and K.
S is present in certain of
the above fertilizers.

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54

Table 7. Preferred sources of micro-nutrients spray or soil application after

planting.
Nutrient
Foliar application
Soil application

Cu
Amino acid chelate
EDTA-Cu

Gluconate complex

Lignosulphonate complex

Citric acid complex

Suspension concentrate

EDTA chelate
Fe
As for Cu
EDTA (low pH),

DTPA-Fe (neutral

pH levels) or

EDDHA-Fe,

EDDHMA-Fe

(pH levels > 7,5)

Mn
As for Cu
EDTA-Mn






Zn
As for Cu
EDTA-Zn

Zinc nitrate









B
Sodium borate
Calcium-sodium borate

Boric acid
Sodium borate

Boric acid



Mo
Sodium molybdate

Ammonium molybdate

Mango CropKit_English 54

Comments
Foliar rectification is
possible.
Do not spray apply
with metal based
pesticides or fungicides.
Success in rectifying
Fe deficiency with
sprays is limited.
Do not mix with metal
based pesticides or
fungicides.
Foliar rectification is
possible.
Do not mix with
metal based
pesticides or
fungicides.
Foliar rectification is
possible.
Zinc nitrate is
generally not
compatible with other
spray-products.
Do not mix with
metal based
pesticides or
fungicides.
B should preferably
be applied to the soil
due to its immobility
in the phloem in
most crop plants.
Mo fertilizer products
are most effective in
meeting the need for
Mo when they are
spray applied.

28-11-2006 12:47:16

6.5 General Foliar Fertilization Practices

6.5.1 Increasing Mango Flowering Intensity in
Tropical, Wet or Dry Regions
Potassium nitrate, spray-applied before flowering, increases flowering intensity in
certain climatic zones and varieties (Maas, 1989; Sergent and Leal, 1989). The
effect has been ascribed to an increased number of terminal buds developing
during the period when environmental conditions are optimally inductive for flowering (Davenport and Nunez-Elisea, 1997). Spray application, at 2 or 4% (w/v)
every 14 days, commencing six weeks before the start of flowering, is practiced.
Potassium nitrate application is made in conjunction with that of paclobutrazol
(Cultar) to enhance the flowering response (Mossak, 1996). Paclobutrazol is
applied to the soil under the trees five months prior to the flowering period.

6.5.2 Increasing Fruit Retention by Reducing

Post-Flower Fruit-Drop
Potassium nitrate spraying during flowering is effective in reducing the post-flower
drop of seeded fruits, and thereby, increases yield (Oosthuyse, 1993a, 1993b).
Two 2% (w/v) applications are generally made, the first at the start of flower opening (anthesis), and the second, when the inflorescences are in full-bloom.

6.5.3 Controlling Powdery Mildew Colonization of

the Inflorescences
Mono potassium phosphate (MKP) sprays at 1% (w/v), during the period of inflorescence development, are effective in controlling powdery mildew (Oidium mangiferae), and increasing the trees phosphorous and potassium status (Oosthuyse,
1998b, Oosthuyse, unpublished data).
Spraying is particularly significant in the situation where the soil fixes phosphate
readily (i.e. in high pH soils containing calcium carbonate or in acidic soils), rendering it unavailable for uptake by the tree, or where soil-P is deficient (to replenish
soil-P in an established orchard is exceedingly difficult).

55
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56

7 Some Pertinent Research Results

7.1 Research Attesting to the Importance of
Nutrient Balance
Excess nitrogen, in relation to calcium and potassium, is often associated with poor
ground skin colouration and a high incidence of physiological disorders (internal
breakdown, mostly) (Oosthuyse, 1997a) (Figures 50 and 51).

Figure 50. Stem-end cavity formation considered to result from reduced fruit calcium levels relative to those of nitrogen and potassium, as well as to water status
fluctuations occurring during the fruit growth and development period. Internal
cavities are often associated with internal breakdown.

Figure 51. Jelly-seed (internal breakdown) resulting from nutrient imbalance in

the fruits. High nitrogen relative to potassium and calcium is generally associated
with the development of internal-breakdown-type physiological disorders.

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Spray application of calcium has been found to increase bacterial black spot
(Xanthomonas campestris) incidence in Sensation mango (Oosthuyse, 1997b).
This presumably occurs when a calcium excess imbalance already exists.
Both deficiency and excess nutrient imbalances negatively impact on productivity,
this having been shown in carrying out multivariate statistical analyses (Oosthuyse,
1997a).

7.2 Increased Fruit Retention and Yield

Resulting From Spray Application of
Potassium Nitrate

Three Yield (kg)

Oosthuyse (1993a) reported an increase in fruit retention and tree yield after
spraying flowering Tommy Atkins mango trees with potassium nitrate. Figures 52
and 53 show the effect in an additional study (Oosthuyse, 1994, unpublished)
where the varieties Tommy Atkins, Kent and Heidi were included. Similar increases
were found in the varieties Kent and Heidi. In the latter varieties, best results were
found when two 2% sprays were made, whereas in Tommy Atkins, one 4% spray
resulted in the greatest increase in fruit retention and yield. 2% KNO3 application at the commencement of anthesis (flower opening), followed by 2% KNO3
application when the trees are in full-bloom, is generally recommended.

Figure 52. Increases in tree yield in relation to the concentration of potassium

nitrate sprayed on Tommy Atkins mango trees when in full-bloom (statistically
significant linear trend, P < 0,05).

57
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Number of Fruit Retained

58

Figure 53. Increases in number of fruit retained in relation to the concentration

of potassium nitrate sprayed on Tommy Atkins mango trees when in full-bloom
(statistically significant linear trend, P < 0,05).

7.3 Powdery Mildew Control Resulting

from Spray Application of Mono-Potassium
Phosphate
Oosthuyse (1998b) spray-applied mono-potassium phosphate (KH2PO4 or MKP),
a potassium-phosphate fertilizer, to flowering Kent and Tommy Atkins mango trees,
either alone or with conventionally used curative fungicides [Punch C (carbendazim
and fluziloazol), Benlate (bonomyl), Folicur (tebuconizole), Omega (prochloraz),
or wetable sulphur], generally at quarter strength. Unsprayed trees served as
controls, and certain trees were sprayed with Bayfidan at full strength.
In Kent, the fungicide/MKP mixes were almost as effective as Bayfidan at full
strength in reducing tree percentage of diseased inflorescences (Figures 54 and
55). It was found that MKP applied alone was less effective than Bayfidan in this
regard. In Tommy Atkins, however, the fungicide/MKP mixes were as effective as
Bayfidan at full strength in reducing tree percentage of diseased inflorescences
(Figures 56 and 57). MKP applied alone was apparently slightly less effective
than Bayfidan in this regard. In Kent and Tommy Atkins, the extent of mildew
inflorescence colonization was reduced by all of the sprays applied. In Kent,
the reduction was most marked following Bayfidan application. The results
were clearly seen to show that MKP is effective in retarding the development of
powdery mildew on mango inflorescences, and can thus be used to reduce the cost
of powdery mildew control in mango.

Mango CropKit_English 58

28-11-2006 12:47:18

Figure 54. Percentage of Kent inflorescences showing signs of powdery mildew

(Oidium mangiferae) in relation to spray treatment. Bars headed by differing
letters indicate mean separation according to the 5% LSD criterion.

Figure 55. Severity of inflorescence powdery-mildew colonization in relation

to spray treatment in Kent. Bars headed by differing letters indicate mean
separation according to 5% the LSD criterion.

59
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60

Figure 56. Percentage of Tommy Atkins inflorescences showing signs of powdery

mildew in relation to spray treatment. Bars headed by differing letters indicate
mean separation according to 5% the LSD criterion.

Figure 57. Severity of inflorescence powdery-mildew colonization in relation to

spray treatment in Tommy Atkins. Bars headed by differing letters indicate mean
separation according to 5% the LSD criterion.

Mango CropKit_English 60

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7.4 General Research Findings

Many other responses have been documented concerning specific fertilizer
applications to mango trees. Most show benefits where the relevant deficiency
imbalances existed prior to treatment, or the absence of an effect or a negative
effect, where the relevant excess imbalances were in place before treatment.

61
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62

8 Literature
Davenport, T.L. and Nunez-Elisea, R. 1997. Reproductive physiology. In: The mango: Botany,
production and uses. Litz, R.E. ed. CAB International, pp. 69-146.
Maas, E.F. 1989. In Nicaragua; Potassium nitrate foliar spray induces bloom in mango
orchard. Better Crops International 5:4-5.
Mossak, I.I. 1996. A study of early flowering in mango, Part 1. Tropical Fruits Newsletter
21:6-8.
Nakasone, H.Y. and Paull, R.E. 1998. Mango. In: Tropical Fruits, CAB International, pp.
208-269.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1991. Stages of development of the mango panicle. S.A. Mango Growers
Assoc. Yearbook 11:59-61.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1993a. Effect of spray application of KNO3, urea and growth regulators on
the yield of Tommy Atkins mango. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc.Yearbook 13:58-62.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1993b. Research on mango aimed at increasing orchard productivity and
export fruit quality. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc.Yearbook 13:40-44.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1996. Changes in mango fruit quality in relation to stage of maturation.
Research project, Merensky Holdings, South Africa, 1996.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1997a. Relationship between leaf nutrient concentrations and cropping or
fruit quality in mango. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc. Yearbook 17:1-5.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1997b. The effect of calcium and magnesium chelate sprays at flowering on
fruit quality and physiological disorders in mango. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc. Yearbook
17:29-32.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1998a. Determination of optimum leaf nutrient concentration norms for a
number of mango cultivars: Year I. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc. Yearbook 18:1-5.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1998b. Cost reduction of powdery mildew control in mango with mono
potassium phosphate. S.A. Mango Growers Assoc. Yearbook 18:40 42.
Oosthuyse, S.A. 1999. Weekly nutrient content changes of developing Tommy Atkins
mangoes until harvest maturation. Research project, Agrofert Fertilizers, South Africa,
1999.

Mango CropKit_English 62

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Mango CropKit_English 63

28-11-2006 12:47:22

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