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The Impacts of Health and Education Components of Human Resources Development On Poverty Level in Nigeria, 1980-2013.

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IOSR Journal of Economics and Finance (IOSR-JEF)

e-ISSN: 2321-5933, p-ISSN: 2321-5925.Volume 6, Issue 6. Ver. III (Nov. - Dec. 2015), PP 33-38
www.iosrjournals.org

The Impacts of Health and Education Components of Human


Resources Development on Poverty Level in Nigeria, 1980-2013.
Charles Uche Ugwuanyi (Ph.D)
Department Of Economics, Ebonyi State University Abakaliki, Ebonyi State, Nigeria.

Abstract: An investigation of the effects of health and education components of human resources development
on poverty level in Nigeria was carried out in this paper by employing cointegration test and VECM, using the
data of annual time series for the period 1980-2013. The findings reveal the existence of 8 cointegrating vectors
which show a long-rum relationship among the variables. The VEC result on health component shows that the
variables (HEXP, LR, and FR) have no significant impact on poverty level in Nigeria. The VEC result on
education component shows that the variables (EEXP, PER, and SER) have no significant effect on poverty level
in Nigeria. In contrast, only the TER that is statistically significant with t-statistic and p-value -2.142393 and
0.0421 respectively. The results suggest that level of poverty can be reduced through increases in health
programmes and urgent attention to the education system of the country. Thus, if the objective of a policy is to
reduce poverty level in Nigeria priority should be given to health-care system and welfare packages that will
positively impact on the health of the citizens. Also, the education system should be re-organized to provide
functional education and enrolment rate encouraged to serve the poverty reduction objective. This paper finds
support to health-education-poverty reduction link.
Keywords: cointegration, education component, health component, poverty reduction, VECM.

I.
1.1

Introduction

Background of the Study

Human resources development is seen as the process of increasing the knowledge, skills and capabilities of
people. This implies empowerment of people to growth and development of the nation and the society at large.
Studies have identified five major means of developing human resources which include-formal education,
training, extension services, health services and migration (i.e. visits or travels) [1], [2], and [3]. An earlier
study by [4] points that:

Human resources-not capital or income, not material resources constitute the


ultimate basis for wealth of nations. Capital and natural resources are passive factors
of production. Human beings are the active agents, who accumulate capital, exploit
natural resources, build social, economic and political organization and carry forward
national development. Clearly, a country which is unable to develop their skills and
knowledge, the national economy will be unable to develop anything else.
In summary, Harbison links national development to human resources development without which national
economy will not develop. In their own study [5], notes that underdevelopment, poverty and other social ills in
Nigeria is a consequence of decline in the quality and functional education in human resource development
and linked poverty, underdevelopment and other social ills to education. Therefore, deductively poverty is
linked to human resources development. To buttress the assertion, studies such as [6], and [7] recognized two
aspects of human capital- health and education aspects of human resources. Their studies considered both the
impact of health and education as components of human capital development on poverty reduction in Nigeria.
They conclude that poverty reduction objectives or economic growth cannot be achieved except these two
components are improved because of its causality from health-education- poverty reduction link. The studies
opined that, all things being equal, healthier workers are more likely to work longer hours, be more productive
and secure higher earnings than diseased- ridden workers. In the same vein, given good macroeconomic policy
framework, better health status leads to higher human capital accumulation in the form of education, on-thejob training, physical and cognitive development, technological advancement and enterprise development that
translate to poverty reduction in the form of higher levels of earnings and per capita gross national product.
There is a growing consensus amongst analysts that there is widening inequality, increasing poverty, poor
health, and reduction in educational standard, and general poor socio-demographic indicators [6]. In an earlier
study to find plausible solutions to the problems faced by the country, [8] notes that education is a leading
instrument for promoting economic growth and reducing poverty.
DOI: 10.9790/5933-06633338

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The Impacts Of Health And Education Components Of Human Resources Development On Poverty
It is against this backdrop that this paper aims to find out the structural relationship between human
resources development and poverty level in Nigeria. The outcome will be important to policy makers in
analyzing the structure and transmission mechanism of both health and education indicators to poverty and
determine the best policy mix to achieve poverty reduction objective in the country.
This paper is organized into five sections: section one is the introductory background of the study,
section two talks about the theoretical framework and literature review, section three gives information on the
research methodology, while section four deals with empirical results and discussion and finally section five
covers the summary of findings, policy implications and policy recommendations.

1.2

II. Theoretical Framework and Literature Review


Theoretical Framework

Human capital theory is premise on the notion that an increase in the persons stock of knowledge and
health raises his or her productivity in both market and non-market activities. The theory emphasizes how
education increases the productivity and efficiency of workers by increasing the level of their cognitive stock.
The provision of education is seen as a productive investment in human capital. Human capital development
presupposes investments, activities and processes that produce technical education knowledge, skill, health or
values that are embodied in people. It implies building on appropriate balance and critical mass of human
resource base and providing an enabling environment for all individuals to be fully engaged and contribute to
goals of an organization or a nation. Any effort to increase human knowledge, enhance skills, health, and
productivity and stimulate resourcefulness of individuals is an effort on human capital development [9] and [10]
notes that human capital consists of inherited and acquired abilities of labour, with education being the primary
source of acquiring these abilities. Studies such as [11] and [12], identified effective investment in human
capital and human resources development as critical components of long-run economic growth and improved
productivity.

1.3

Empirical literature

The vision of ensuring reduction of mass poverty at a meaningful magnitude is conventionally


enshrined in Nigerias vision 20:2020 development strategy document. In his study, [13] sees human capital as
the stock of competencies, knowledge, social and personality attributes, including creativity, cognitive abilities,
embodied in the ability of labour to perform so as to produce economic value. The increasing government
expenditure on human capital development is justified based on its impact on individuals lifetime incomes,
economic growth and fostering economic development and poverty reduction in general [14], [15], [16], [17]
and [18]. [19], opined that health could be seen as physical and mental wellbeing of people which is measured
using indicators such as life expectancy, adult mortality rate, and child mortality and survival rates and so on.
Health has been considered to be very important in terms of how it affects productivity as well as other means of
human capital formation. The level of productivity and growth in an economy will be hampered by ill- health
and prevalence of diseases. According to [20], health is a direct source of human welfare and also an
instrument for raising income levels. This suggests that poverty is a direct incidence of ill-health because the
major indices of poverty are the levels of income, and good health is an instrument for raising income levels.
But adequate recognition has not been given to the health component of human capital resources. [21], in his
study on the relationship between health and productivity in Canada found that health is an important driver of
productivity. [22] studied the impact of health on economic growth in 52 countries drawn from
Europe(thirteen), Africa (twelve), America (sixteen), and Asia (eleven) from 1970-1990, and found that health
capital has significant positive impact on economic growth and recommended inclusion of health investment as
a tool of macroeconomic policy. [23] studied the effect of health on the growth of countries. He used derivatives
to show different channels through which improvement in a countries population health will impact on its longrun growth performance. He found that health raises the productivity and per-capita GDP relative to world
technology leaders. Studies by [24], [25] and [26] found that human capital impact positively to economic
growth in Nigeria. Most of the empirical literatures reviewed support that both health and education components
of human capital impact positively to productivity of individuals and economic growth of Nigeria. But the
structural and transmission mechanism of indicators of these two components to poverty reduction in Nigeria
has not been robust.

III.
3.1

Data and Method of Analysis

Data

The data used for this study are time series covering 1980-2013 periods and were obtained from the
Bulletin of Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) and the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) of various issues.

DOI: 10.9790/5933-06633338

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The Impacts Of Health And Education Components Of Human Resources Development On Poverty
3.2

Method of Analysis

This paper made use of econometric procedure in estimating the relationship between the variables.
The Vector Error Correction Mechanism (VECM) was employed in obtaining the coefficients of the equation.
The Augment Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Perron (PP) tests were used to test the stationary of the
variables. Equally, Johanson co-integration procedure was used to test the existence of long-run equilibrium
(stationary) relationship among the variables. This is necessary because the existence of co-integration of the
variables will lead us to employ VECM to capture and correct the short-run dynamics in the time services. In
demonstrating the application of VECM, the multiple linear regression analysis was used where the poverty
index, life expectancy rate, fertility rate, ratio of health expenditure to GDP, primary school enrolment rate,
secondary school enrolment rate, tertiary school enrolment rate and ratio of education expenditure to GDP were
the relevant variables. The poverty index was used as the dependent variable while others were used as
independent variables.

3.3

Model Specification
This paper employed a multiple linear regression function of the form:

PI=f(LR, FR, HEXP, PER, SER, TER, EEXP) -------------- (1)


Where:
PI=Poverty index
LR =Life expectancy rate
FR=Fertility rate
HEXP= Ratio of health expenditure to GDP
PER=Primary school enrolment rate
SER=Secondary school enrolment rate
TER=Tertiary school enrolment rate
EEXP=Ratio of education expenditure to GDP
The general model is expressed in a mathematical equation as: PI= bo +bILRt + b2FRt +b3HEXPt +b4PERt

+b5SERt +b6TER +b7EEXP +ut.. (2)


3.3.1. Health component of the model:
PI=bo + b1 LRt +b2 FRt+ b3HEXP+ Ut-------------- (3)
3.3.2. Education component of the model:
P1=bo+ b1PERt +b2SERt +b3TER +b4EEXPt+Ut-------------- (4)
VI.

Empirical Results and Discussion

4.1 Unit Root Test


We tested to determine if the variables in equation (2) are stationary and to know their order of
integration. We applied both the Augmented Dickey-Fuller (ADF) and Phillips-Peron (PP) tests to find the
existence of unit root in each of the variables. The results of both the ADF and PP tests are presented inTable1.
Table 1: Unit Root Test Result
Time series
variables
PI
FR

LR
HEXP
PER
SER
TER
EEXP

ADF (intercept
and Trend)
-5.554150
_________
-9.183670
__________

PP (intercept and
Trend)
_________
-5.554150
_________
-8.761026

1 % level

5%

10 %

-3.653730 3.653730
-3.661661
-3.661661

-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.960411
-2.960411

-2.617434
-2.617432
-2.619160
-2.619160

Order of
integration
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (2
1 (2))

-3.564308
__________
-8.446214
__________
-8.112114
_________
-4.902747
_________
-5.790630
__________
-8.140236
__________

__________
-7.649353
__________
-9.459204
__________
-5.297566
__________
-4.902747
__________
-5.794101
__________
-7.224702

-3.661661
-3.661661
-3.653730
-3.653730
-3.689194
-3.653730
-3.653730
-3.653730
-3.653730
-3.653730
-3.646342
-3.646342

-2.960411
-2.960411
-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.971853
-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.957110
-2.954021
-2.954021

-2.619160
-2.619160
-2.617434
-2.617434
-2.625121
-2.617434
-2.617434
-2.617434
-2.617434
-2.617434
-2.615817
-2.615817

1 (0)
1 (2)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (1)
1 (0)
1 (0)

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The Impacts Of Health And Education Components Of Human Resources Development On Poverty
Note: Mackinnon (1996) one sided P-value and critical value for rejection of hypothesis of unit root were
applied. Source: Authors estimation using E-views 7.0.
The above table (Table 1) reveals that EEXP is stationary at levels while PI, HEXP, PER, SER and TER are
stationary at first difference. Only FR is stationary at second difference while LR is stationary at levels in ADF
at 5% and 10% levels of significance and stationary at second difference in PP at 1%, 5% and 10% levels of
significance. On these bases, the null hypothesis of non-stationary of the time series is rejected we conclude that
the series are stationary.

4.2 Cointegration Test Result


As we confirmed the stationary of the variables, we proceeded to examine the presence or nonpresence of cointegration among the variables. When a cointegration relationship is present, it means that the
variables share a common trend and long-run equilibrium as suggested theoretically. We started the
cointegration by employing the Johansen and Juselius multivariate cointegration test.

Table 2: unrestricted Cointegration Bank Test (Race)


Hypothesized No. of
CE (s)
None *
At most 1*
At most 2*
At most 3*
At most 4*
At most 5*
At most 6*
At most 7*

Eigen Value
0.933127
0.873081
0.793710
0.679443
0.504312
0.387955
0.319373
0.316163

Trace
Statistic
302.1717
215.6131
149.5585
99.04741
62.64118
40.18329
24.47288
12.16116

0.05 Critical Value

Prob.**

159.5297
125.6154
95.75366
69.81889
47.85613
29.79707
15.49471
3.841466

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0001
0.0011
0.0023
0.0017
0.0005

Trace test indicates 8 cointegrating eqn (s) at the 0.05 level; *denotes rejection of the hypothesis at the 0.05
level; **Mackinnon-Haug-Michelis (1999) P-values.
Source: Authors Estimation using E-views 7.0.
Table 2 shows the result of the cointegration test. The trace statistic indicates Eight (8) cointegrating equations
at the five percent (5%) level of significance. It shows existence of long-run relationship among all the variables
tested. The result in the Table 2 was obtained after the sample was adjusted from 1980 to 1982-2013, i.e by
including 32 observations. Linear deterministic trend assumption and lags interval (in first differences) 1 to 1 in
the series were made.

4.3 VECM Test Result


The presence of long-run equilibrium relation among the variables led us to apply VECM. With this
approach, both the long-run equilibrium and short-run dynamic relations among the variables were established.

Table 3: VECM with P-values (Health component of poverty index)


Error Correction
CointEq1 = C(1)

Coefficient
-0.594161

Std. Error
0.234033

t-statistic
-2.538794

P-value
0.0175

D(P1(-1)) = C(2)

0.192913

0.218480

0.882978

0.3853

D(LR(-1)) = C(3)

2.574259

1.921056

1.340023

0.1918

D(FR(-1)) = C(4)

27.08952

19.30076

1.403547

0.1723

D(HEXP(-1))=C(5)

3.608051

1.969103

1.832332

0.0784

0.694616

0.561199

1.237735

0.2269

= C(6)

R =0.339656, F-Statistic = 2.674688, Prob(F-Statistic)=0.044385, DW=1.902756.


Source: Authors Estimation using E-view 7.0.
From the results in Table 3 above, the t-statistic for LR, FR and HEXP are 1.340023, 1.403547 and 1.832332
respectively while their p-values are 0.1918, 0.1723 and 0.0784 respectively and the chosen level of significance
is 0.05 that is less than the p- values, it shows that the variables have no significant impact on poverty level in
Nigeria. From Table 3, the coefficient of ECM(-1) is -0.594161 satisfying the negativity condition and its pvalue is 0.0175 that is less than 0.05 level of significance satisfying the second condition of statistical
significance. The coefficient indicates that the speed of adjustment between the short-run dynamics and the
long-run equilibrium is 59.42% in absolute value. The computed coefficient of determination (R 2) =0.339656. It
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The Impacts Of Health And Education Components Of Human Resources Development On Poverty
shows that 34% of the total variations in the dependent variable are accounted for by the variations in the
explanatory variables while 66% of the total variations in the poverty level are attributable to the influence of
other factors not included in the regression equation.

Table 4: VECM with P-Values (Education component of poverty index)


Error Correction

Coefficient

Std. Error

t-statistic

P-value

Cointeq1=C(1)

0.051920

0.047822

1.085691

0.2880

D(PI(-1))=C(2)

-0.102616

0.195058

-0.526078

0.6035

D(EEXP(-1))=C(3)

-0.288963

0.582524

-0.496053

0.6242

D(PER(-1)) =C (4)

-0.146097

0.092535

-1.578834

0.1269

D (SER(-1))=C (5)

0.096026

0.067065

1.431840

0.1646

D(TER(-1))=C(6)

-0.554104

0.258638

-2.142393

0.0421

C =C(7)

0.427916

0.278734

1.535215

0.1373

R
=0.175028, F-statistic = 0.884010, prob (F-statistic) =0.521034, DW= 1.790435. Source: Authors
Estimation using E- view 7.0.
From the results in Table 4 above, the t-statistic for EEXP, PER, and SER, are -0.496053,-1.578834 and
1.431840 respectively while their p-values are 0.6242,0.1269 and 0.1646 respectively and the chosen level of
significance is 0.05 that is less than the p- values, it shows that the variables have no significant impact on
poverty level in Nigeria. In contrast, the t-statistic and p-value for tertiary school enrolment rate (TER) are 2.142393 and 0.0421 respectively. This shows that the variable (i.e. tertiary school enrolment rate (TER) has
significant impact on poverty index in Nigeria. From Table 4, the coefficient of ECM (-1) is 0.051920 that does
not satisfy the negativity condition and its p-value is 0.2880 that is higher than 0.05 level of significance and
does not satisfy the second condition either. This implies that the educational system in Nigeria, taking ratio of
education expenditure, primary school enrolment, secondary school enrolment and tertiary school enrolment
into consideration do not significantly impact on poverty reduction in Nigeria. By extension, this result suggests
non functionality of the education system. That is the system does not provide the functional education needed
to help reduce poverty. The coefficient indicates that the speed of adjustment between the short-run dynamics
and the long-run equilibrium is 5.2%. This is statistically very low, the computed coefficient of determination
(R2) = 0.175028. It shows that only 17.5% of the total variations in the dependent variable are accounted for by
the variation in the explanatory variables while 82.5% of the total variation in the poverty level is attributable to
the influence of other factors.

V. Summary Of Findings, Policy Implications And Policy Recommendations.


This paper has attempted to investigate the effects of health and education components of human
resources development on poverty level in Nigeria by employing co integration test and VECM, using the data
of annual time series for the period 1980-2013. The Johansen multivariate co integration test indicates 8 co
integrating equations, showing a long-run relationship between ratio of health expenditure to GDP (EEXP),life
expectancy rate (LR), fertility rate (FR), primary school enrolment rate (PER), secondary school enrolment
rate(SER),tertiary school enrolment rate (TER) and poverty index (PI). The VEC result on health component
shows that the variables (HEXP, LR and FR) have no significant impact on poverty level in Nigeria. The VEC
result on education component shows that the variables (EEXP, PER, and SER) have no significant impact on
poverty level in Nigeria. In contrast, only the tertiary school enrolment rate (TER), that is statistically significant
with t-statistic and p-value -2.142393 and 0.0421 respectively. The finding shows that, the health component of
human resources development satisfy the first and second ECM(-1) conditions of negative coefficient and pvalue less than 0.05 chosen level of significance with -0.594161 coefficient and 0.0175 p-value. The finding
also indicates that the education component of human resources development did not satisfy the first and second
ECM(-1) conditions of negative coefficient and p-value less than 0.05 chosen level of significance with
0.051920 coefficient and 0.2880 p-value. The results on health component support the findings by World Bank,
Levine & Renelt, Barro & Sala-i-, Martin, Romer, Lucas and Bloom & Canning. The results on education
component support the finding by Oshofowo, and Ibidapo-Obe. The results suggest that level of poverty can be
reduced through increases in health programmes that will enhance life expectancy rate, fertility rate and increase
in health expenditure. The results also suggest urgent attention to the education system of the country for it to
have significant impact on poverty reduction. Thus, if the objective of a policy is to reduce poverty level in
Nigeria priority should be given to health-care system and welfare packages that will positively impact on the
health of the citizens. Also, the education system should be re-organized to provide functional education and
enrolment rate encouraged to serve the poverty reduction objective. Equally, the findings of this study by
extension find support to health-education-poverty reduction link.
DOI: 10.9790/5933-06633338

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The Impacts Of Health And Education Components Of Human Resources Development On Poverty
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