Theremaniac

Bringing Leon Theremin and his instrument from the twenties to

the twenty first century

By James Glettler
April 2002
Term paper and project for
Physics 489
Professor Daniel Axelrod
Winter 2002

Section/Topic Index
INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................................3
HISTORY OF LEON THEREMIN .........................................................................................3
Invention in Russia..................................................................................................................3
Coming to the United States ....................................................................................................4
Return to Russia......................................................................................................................4
Release ...................................................................................................................................5
BASIC THEORY FOR OPERATION.....................................................................................5
Oscillation ..............................................................................................................................5
Body Capacitance ...................................................................................................................7
Heterodyning and Detection....................................................................................................7
Vacuum Tubes.........................................................................................................................8
ORIGINAL THEREMIN DESIGN AND OPERATION........................................................9
MODIFIED AND MODERNIZED DESIGNS ......................................................................11
TROUBLES WITH CONSTRUCTION ................................................................................12
Simple CMOS Pitch-Only Theremin......................................................................................12
More complex CMOS Theremin ............................................................................................12
OPTICAL DESIGN ................................................................................................................13
The NE-555 Integrated Circuit..............................................................................................13
Circuit Design for Optical Control........................................................................................14
RESULTS................................................................................................................................15
FURTHER STUDIES .............................................................................................................16
FIGURE INDEX .....................................................................................................................17
BIBLIOGRAPHY...................................................................................................................18

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Introduction
The Theremin (also Termenvox, Aetherophone) is a unique electronic musical instrument
played without touch by waving ones hands. One hand waving in front of a vertical antenna
controls the pitch while another hand waving above a horizontal ring antenna controls the
volume. The odd way of playing this instrument and ethereal sounds it produces lends itself to
the alternate name of the Aetherophone. Invented in 1920 by Leon Theremin (Lev Sergeivitch
Termen), the Theremin is the first fully electronic musical instrument to reach a large audienc
and still be used in music today. There is quite a story behind both the instrument and the man.
This paper was written as my term project for Physics 489 at the University of Michigan
for Professor Daniel Axelrod. Along with this paper, I built and tested a few Theremin designs
until I had a working optical Theremin. This paper will walk through the history of Leon
Theremin and his original instrument, followed by a few newer Theremin designs and my
experience over the term with building them.
A Short History of Leon Theremin
Invention in Russia
Leon Theremin led quite an amazing and at times, harrowing, life. He was born in St.
Petersberg, Russia in 1896 to the name Lev Sergeivitch Termen. He took interest in both
electronics and music at an early age before he turned 10. Leon started playing the cello around
this time. By the age of 13, he had become interested in high frequency electricity and the work
of Tesla. (Termen) He entered the University of St. Petersburg and majored in both physics and
astronomy. His studies eventually brought him to the institution of Physics, Technology and
Radio Sciences in 1920. Here, he worked on many things, one of which was an electronic alarm
system using radio waves to measure the presence and movement of a human body. (Termen)
Theremins work on the alarm system led the invention of the Termenvox using the same
principles. Leon was not content with the musical instruments of the time. He believed that no
instrument properly related the performer to the music. In a 1989 interview with Olivia Mattis
he said: I wanted to invent some kind of an instrument that would not operate mechanically, as
does the piano, or the cello and the violin, whose bow movements can be compared to those of a
saw. I conceived of an instrument that would created sound without using any mechanical
energy, like the conductor of an orchestra. The orchestra plays mechanically, using mechanical
energy; the conductor just moves his hands, and his movements have an effect on the music
artistry [of the orchestra]. Theremin was first able to demonstrate his device to his colleagues
in September of 1920 and by November, he had perfected it. (Termen)
The first prototype Termenvox was built in 1917 was a simple oscillator with a foot pedal
volume control and switching mechanism for pitch control. By 1920, the Termenvox had
evolved into the dual control-antenna design we see today and recognize as a Theremin. One
vertical antenna is used to control pitch and a horizontal loop antenna is used to control volume.
As the performers hands get closer or farther away from the antennas, the capacitance of the
antenna changes and the circuitry changes the pitch or volume in turn. (Crab) The name
Termenvox was used until Leon came to America in 1927 and anglicized his name at which
point the Termenvox became known as the Theremin.
The invention of the Theremin came at a time when everyone in the Soviet Union was
fascinated in the new uses of electricity. At a large electronics conference in Moscow, Leon
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Theremin made a splash that opened the door so to speak for him. The then leader of the USSR,
Vladimir Lenin showed immediate interest in Theremin and asked for a personal demonstration.
In May of 1922, Leon demonstrated his Termenvox to Lenin within his personal chambers.
Amazingly, Lenin was not only enthralled with the device, but due to his good ear, able to play it
quite naturally. (Mattis) Lenin and Theremin talked extensively on electricity and other subjects
including the electrification of the entire USSR. Theremin was given the right to travel freely
throughout the entire country and devote himself to electronic art, which at the time was quite a
freedom. During this time, Leon worked on some amazing devices, including the first color
television, years before television even existed. (Termen)
Coming to the United States
At the same time Theremin was given freedom, he was required to be an assistant to the
Soviet government. He was not against this but actually a strong supporter of socialism and
communism and especially of Lenin whom he looked up to. (Galeyev) It was in 1925 that he was
sent abroad to Europe to demonstrate his invention. In Europe he met and performed for both
music and science greats such as Ravel, Respighi and even Einstein. (TVOX) Finally, he arrived
in the United States at the end of 1927, where he and the USSR diplomatic service fought to be
accepted. (Termen) Theremin was to legitimately work on his experiments and selling his
inventions. However, he was also to spy on U.S. military technology for the Soviets. Although
this may be alarming, Theremin was convinced he wasnt hurting anyone. He liked America and
the Americans seemed to like him in return. (Galeyev)
In the United States, Theremin set up a laboratory and musical workshop in New York.
Companies like RCA and GE constructed and sold Theremins commercially while Leon set to
other inventions. One of the inventions would actually affect his personal life. The Terpsitone
was like a gigantic Theremin for dancers. A dancers full body movements were made into
music by the effect of the Terpsitone. Lavinia Williams was a student of the Terpsitone at
Leons music workshop. It was not long before she and Theremin were married. What made
this marriage notable that Lavinia Williams was black, and this was at a time when interracial
marriages were taboo. (Mattis)
In the end, the Theremin was not a commercial success due to its best feature: total
freedom. Most people did not deal well with having no point of reference at all and the
Theremin took a precise ear and accurate movements to produce a good sound. To most people,
this would be like singing but with someone elses voice. However, there were some composers
at the time that took note of the Theremin and started to compose music for it that could not be
played on any other instrument. At the same time, Hollywood also took an interest in the
Theremin and began using the instrument for sound effects and eerie music most commonly
connected with mid-century science fiction movies. (TVOX) Some major movies to use the
Theremin include Spellbound by Alfred Hitchcock, The Day the Earth Stood Still and The Lost
Weekend. One artist that was noticed however was Clara Rockmore. Once a violinist, she
became probably the one and only master of the Theremin and her performances are still moving
today. (Sirin)
Return to Russia
Leons happy life in the United States was not to last. In 1938, he disappeared. Many
people believe that he was kidnapped by the NKVD, the precursor to the KGB, and brought back
to the Soviet Union. They thought the NKVD had accused him of anti-Soviet activities, placed
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him in a Siberian Labor camp and then forced him to work on spy technology. People in the
West were led to think that Leon Theremin had been kidnapped and executed. (Crab) However,
Leon himself disputed in at least two separate interviews. He said that he was in the New York
on assignment only and actually had requested to go home with his wife at least three times
before his wish was granted. When it worked out, Leon did get back to the USSR but his wife
did not. They exchanged many letters and this was when he was arrested. (Mattis)
Leon said that he was put to work in a special isolated lab within the Ministry of Internal
Affairs as a prisoner. There, he worked on many military electronic devices, such as television
and communications equipment, but would not give any specifics when interviewed about them
either due to security requirements or memory. During this time he was under investigation
twice and always under suspicion and supervision. (Mattis)
Release
After all this hardship, in 1947 he was given not only his freedom but also the First Class
Stalin Prize. The Stalin Prize was the most prestigious award in the USSR at the time and would
be like receiving the Nobel Prize. The award was for the invention of the Buran bugging system
for surveillance and eavesdropping of U.S. embassies. Some of the bugging devices were so
advanced that the U.S. did not discuss them until 1960, over ten years since their discovery.
(Galeyev)
Little is known of the next twenty years of Leons life. After he gained his freedom, he
continued to work for the KGB until 1966. Although freed from isolation and suspicion, most
people in the West did not learn of his survival until 1960s. (Mattis) On this, Galeyev says: Our
planet is probably not completely sane if the military industry can succeed in transforming an
artist into a James Bond and a musical instrument into an alarm system. I ask the reader to make
an allowance for Theremin, whose suffering far outweighed his guilt.
Theremin finally returned to teach at the Moscow conservatory of music. However,
when the administration found out he was working on his electronic musical instruments, he was
stopped after only a year. The New York Times had interviewed Theremin and the article found
its way into the administration. According to Theremin, an administrative assistant said:
electricity is not good for music; electricity is to be used for electrocution. (Mattis)
Theremin and his instruments have been undergoing a kind of revival over the last
fifteen years or so and has gathered almost a cult following. The last ten years of his life were
spent actively promoting his inventions. He did travel once back to the United States to give a
lecture. He died in 1993, only two day after the release of the American documentary
"Theremin. An Electronic Odyssey. (TVOX) The documentary helped lead to the foundation of
the Theremin Enthusiasts Club International, where the members call themselves theremaniacs
(Galeyev) His work also lives on today indirectly as he has inspired others such as Robert Moog
of the Moog synthesizer, giving rise to almost all electronic music today. (Sirin)
Basic Theory Behind the Operation
Oscillation
The simplest sound is a sine wave produced by some body oscillating in the air with a
motion that is a function of sine. How fast the body is oscillating with respect to time is the
frequency, which is measured in cycles-per-second (cps) or Hertz (Hz). In mechanics and
acoustics, a vibrating body connected to a spring is a example of this simple motion. The body is
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initially moved and the restoring force of the spring pulls the body back to its resting place.
However, as the body moves it gains momentum because it has mass and this causes it to
overshoot its resting place. Therefore, the spring again pulls the body back in the opposite
direction to its resting place but the same problem with momentum occurs. This cyclic action is
known as Simple Harmonic Motion. The properties of the restoring force and the mass give the
system a characteristic frequency, also known as its resonant frequency. (Backus, 23)
An electrical circuit, known as an LC Tank, can be constructed to operate like the
vibrating string as an electrical analog to simple harmonic motion. The LC Tank is comprised of
two two-terminal circuit elements: an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C). An inductor is a coil of
wire that current can flow though. The current creates a magnetic field in the inductor that stores
energy. The most important property of an inductor is that it restricts the change of current
through it but the voltage across it can change instantaneously. The voltage across an inductor is
proportional to its inductance measured in Henries (H) and the change in current over time
through the inductor. A capacitor on the other hand stores energy in an electric field between
two insulated conductors. The most important property of a capacitor is that it restricts the
change in voltage across its two terminals but the current through it can change instantaneously.
The current in a capacitor is proportional to its capacitance as measured in Farads (F) and the
change in voltage across its terminals over time. (Nilsson & Riedel, 230-242)
Mathematical
Formula:

Vinductor = L

di
dt

I capacitor = C

dv
dt

Symbol:
When the inductor and capacitor are connected together, they form a parallel resonant
circuit. The inductor acts like the mass, giving a pseudo-momentum to the electric current in the
system. The capacitor acts like a spring that stores up energy and provides a restoring force in
the opposite direction of the current. (Electrical.., 34d) The resonant frequency is inversely
proportional to both the inductance and capacitance of the circuit. The resonant frequency fr and
schematic of a tank is:

fr =

1
2 L C

(Electrical.., 35a)

An LC tank circuit needs an initial displacement to start oscillating or nothing will

happen. Once oscillating, it also needs to be recharged so to speak, because the inductor,
capacitor and connecting wires all have resistance. The resistance is like friction in the
mechanical oscillator and over time it will cause the oscillations to be dampened out. Therefore,
some form of recurring excitation is needed to turn the simple LC tank circuit into a full
oscillator. What is used is an active element such as a transistor or vacuum tube (discussed later)
that is connected to the tank with some sort of feedback element. The arrangement makes the
oscillator self-sustaining by supplying pulses of energy at least once each cycle to keep the
oscillation going. (Electrical.., 35a)

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Body Capacitance
In order to change the frequency of an LC oscillator, one needs to change one of the two
characteristics of the LC tank. Between inductance and capacitance, capacitance is the easiest to
change. Since capacitance is created by two conductors separated by an insulator, a human body
can be part of a capacitor. The capacitance is dependent on both the distance between the
conductors and the area of their faces. So therefore, it stands to reason that a person moving near
a metal antenna will change the capacitance seen by the circuit connected to that antenna. If the
circuit happens to be an LC tank circuit, a person can control the resonant frequency of that
circuit. (Max)
However, the change in capacitance will be very small, measured in only pico-Farads. If
the LC circuit was set up to operate at audio frequencies (between 20Hz and 20kHz) then the
inductor would have to be outrageously huge to let a pico-Farad change in the capacitance to
noticeably change the resonant frequency. In order for the minute change in capacitance to have
an effect and the device to be feasible, the oscillator must operate in the radio frequency band
upwards of 500kHz. Here a small 1% change in capacitance could change the resonant
frequency by around 5kHz. (Max)
Heterodyning and Detection
An oscillator producing a signal at 500kHz is pretty useless musically as it is far beyond
the audible range. However, this signal is being frequency modulated, or changed, by a person at
the antenna and it is the modulation that we want to hear. The method used here is exactly the
same as used in almost every radio receiver for most of the past century and is based on
trigonometry. When two sine waves of different frequencies are mixed together, it produces two
related sine waves: one at the sum of the two frequencies and one at the difference of the two
frequencies. This is shown mathematically in two ways: (Jared Mehl)

cos( ) + cos( + ) = 2 cos cos +

2
2

+

cos( ) + cos( ) = 2 cos

cos
2
2
In the first equation, ? is some base frequency and d? is the frequency by which ? is
shifted by the change in capacitance. The second equation is a substitution of the first and means
the same thing where a and are two arbitrary frequencies. In both cases, the result is the same
with the first sine being low frequency modulating (changing the amplitude) the second sine at a
higher frequency. The next diagram below shows a graphical representation of a low frequency
amplitude modulating (AM) a higher frequency. When this process of mixing sine waves is
applied to signals and electrical systems, it is known as heterodyning.
The important thing to note is that two oscillators (a and ) are needed instead of just
one. Both oscillators are tuned to the same frequency ? with one being fixed and one being
variable by the antenna. Changing the capacitance of the antenna will cause a deviation from the
base frequency by d? . When the signals from the two LC oscillators are mixed, the result will
be a signal that contains a high radio frequency modulated by a lower audio frequency. The third
graphic in the following diagram shows what this looks like. However, the result is generated
from heterodyning two frequencies that are close together, not a high and low frequency as
shown in the first two graphics, which would be amplitude modulation.
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modulating signal low frequency

carrier signal higher frequency

carrier amplitude modulated

Example of AM modulation. http://www.radio.gov.uk

In order to get just the lower frequency of a the heterodyned or AM modulated signal, we
need to demodulate or detect the lower frequency, again just like a radio receiver. This is usually
done using a diode square law detector which rectifies the signal. A diode only allows current to
flow through it in one direction so the resulting signal is one polarity with all the negative peaks
cut off. An example of this signal is shown in a graph below. The rectified signal is then low
pass filtered to recover its envelope which is clearly visible in the graph. This envelope is the
detected difference signal d? . The math behind square law detection is beyond the scope of this
paper but can be found in many textbooks and online. One source is the Electrical Engineering
II Laboratory Manual for EECS211 (University of Michigan) by Professor Gabriel Rebeiz.
Example of Rectified AM signal
Example of Rectified AM signal

Vacuum Tubes
Above in the section on oscillators, the vacuum tube was introduced but not discussed.
The vacuum tube, also known as the valve, was really an invention that drove the electronics
revolution in the early part of the twentieth century. The simplest vacuum tube has heated
cathode and a plate within a vacuum glass envelope. The cathode could be a conductor heated
by a heater filament, or just the heater filament itself. The heat causes free electrons to boil off
the cathode by the Edison Effect. If an electric potential is applied between the plate and cathode
with the plate being more positive, the electrons from the cathode will accelerate to the plate and
an electric current will be set up. If the electric potential is higher on the cathode side, electrons
cannot jump off the plate and go towards the cathode so no there is no current. This type of tube
is a diode, because electrons can only flow in one direction from cathode to plate. However, this
type of tube is unable to do what we want which is switching and amplification. By adding a
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grid electrode between the cathode and plate, the current can be controlled. A negative voltage
on the grid builds up a negative electric field, which repels electrons and keeps electrons from
reaching the plate, hence decreasing current or even stopping it completely. The effect of the
grid allowed the triode vacuum tube to operate both as a current switch and a voltage controlled
current amplifier. (Simonton) More grids can be added and the configuration of the parts
changed to have different effects. A diagram and schematic symbol are shown below:

Physical Diagram of Triode

Schematic symbol for Triode

John Simonton

Michael S. McCorquodale

The vacuum tube was replaced about mid-century by the semiconductor transistor. With
the advent of semiconductors, electronics could become smaller, lighter, more robust and more
efficient. Yet some applications of tubes still exist in high power radio applications and the
ubiquitous television and computer monitor. In the 1920s however, the vacuum tube was the
only available amplifying device and was used in almost all electronic equipment at the time. It
is for this reason that knowing about the tube is important to understanding the Theremin.
Original Theremin Design and Operation
Now that the fundamental theories behind the Theremin are understood, it is time to dive
into original Theremin design per the 1928 U.S. patent of the same. Theremin was granted
number 1,661,058 for an exhaustively detailed patent application. It covered not only his
original design, but also many modifications for various styles of volume control, polyphony
(multiple pitches), and timbre controls.
Below is an edited schematic of Figure 27 from the original patent. I have labeled the
individual sections of the circuit. Figure 27 illustrates a complete system for simultaneously
producing a plurality of sound or musical tones on the same or different pitches, and embodying
means for controlling the characteristics thereof. (Theremin)
On the left is an Antenna marked with an X connected to an LC tank oscillator comprised
of 178 and 179. This is the variable oscillator and antenna for one of the two tone generators.
Two sections over is a fixed LC tank oscillator 194 and 195. This signal from this fixed
oscillator is actually shared between the two separate pitch circuits. The signal from the variable
oscillator and the fixed oscillator is mixed, which is the described process of heterodyning. Then
the detector, marked as 180, detects the heterodyned signal. The second tone generator is
marked in purple and is identical to the first one and is not important to the understanding of the
device. The audio frequency output of the two detectors is sent to a first stage audio frequency
(A.F.) amplifier (193) with fixed gain. The next amplifier stage (197) is a variable gain amplifier
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for volume control. The gain is controlled by another LC tank oscillator and the volume antenna.
(Theremin) However, as a volume control instead of pitch generator, the operation is slightly
different and rather ingenious.
In the volume control circuits section, 210 and 209 form another LC oscillator. The
volume control antenna is connected to an LC tank circuit (208). This time, the LC tank circuit
is not used as another oscillator but as an absorption system. (Theremin) The absorption tank
and the oscillator are coupled together. As the hand is brought near the volume control antenna,
it changes the resonant frequency of the absorption tank. The farther away the resonant
frequencies get, the lower the amplitude of the output signal gets. This output signal is used to
control the volume control amplifier (197) and that is how the volume control circuit works.
(Max)

Original Theremin Schematic from Patent

The remaining two sections of the Theremin design shown are the main amplifiers and
loudspeakers. The main amplifiers include some additional circuitry to control the timbre and
tone quality of the sound but are not required to the functioning of the Theremin. Also output to
the loudspeakers includes some filters to correct for any unwanted resonance in the loudspeakers
themselves. (Theremin)
One interesting quality of the original Theremin is the sound it produces. Although the
theory put forth in earlier sections says the output should be purely sinusoidal, the final
waveform in a Theremin is filled with harmonics. The harmonics are due to the multiple
oscillators trying to match frequencies through coupling. Furthermore, harmonics are generated
in all circuits with non-linear distortion. Tubes are the most notorious generators of this
distortion by clipping the top and bottom of a waveform when it gets to big, but inductors can
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also cause distortion whey they magnetically saturate. (Max) Below is a picture of Leon
Theremin and one of his instruments. The large triangular object in the upper right is actually
the loudspeaker.

Leon Theremin playing one of his instruments

Modified and Modernized Designs
Building an original style Theremin with vacuum tubes and large hand wound inductors
and large open-air plate style capacitors would be a wonderful project. However, it would also
be a very difficult and expensive project. The difficulty and cost of obtaining parts put this
option out of reach. However, many tested an interesting designs exist from tube Theremins. A
great source of schematics is available from Max Whistler online at
http://www.maxiespages.com/theremin/schematics2.shtml
In lieu of building a vacuum tube Theremin, the only other option is to use modern
semiconductor devices, either discrete transistors, or integrated circuits with hundreds (or more)
of transistors on one chip. Once again, Max provided a good starting ground to build and test
modern Theremin designs. (http://www.maxiespages.com/theremin/schematics.shtml)
There are a few types of modernized Theremins ranging from extremely simple to very
complex and sometimes straying very far from Leons original design but getting the same
result. The most unchanged type of Theremin replaces the vacuum tubes of Leons designs with
solid-state transistors with little change to the overall circuit design. However, these designs still
require somewhat difficult to find inductors. Other designs use CMOS logic, similar to the chips
in a computer, but operate them in an analog manner. This type of hacked up design actually
worked for many people and was nice due to its simplicity and low cost. Still others use light
instead of an electric field to control their circuit. My favorite Theremin actually uses a
computer and a video camera to create a truly digital Theremin.
I wanted to find a design where I could forgo the need to use inductors and have a simple
and cheap circuit. To do this, I would need to use a different type of oscillator known as an
astable RC oscillator or astable multivibrator. The astable RC oscillator works on a different
principle than the LC tank. A resistor and capacitor are connected in series and connected to a
power source. The time it takes for the capacitor to charge to a certain voltage is determined by
the values of the resistor and capacitor. This is analogous to an hourglass where a higher
resistance means a smaller hole for the sand to flow through and a larger capacitance is more
sand. The RC circuit is connected to some kind of circuit that triggers when the capacitor
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reaches a certain voltage. When triggered it shorts the circuit out which is like flipping the
hourglass. The voltage on the capacitor now drains until the circuit is triggered to connect it
back to power and the cycle repeats. (Electrical.., 36a)
Troubles with Construction
I tried about five different circuits on Maxs page, each of them using CMOS logic chips
as astable RC oscillators but basically following the same system layout as Theremins original
design. Each of these circuits also did not have a volume control; they were pitch only for
simplicity. I wont go into the details of each one of the designs because they were fairly similar
but I will give an overview of two of the circuits. The first is a very simple design and should
worked well.
The first circuit is shown as a schematic below. The triangles with the circle on the point
are inverting CMOS logic gates. The 4093 is acting like a NOT gate or just an inverter, and the
4077 is an XOR gate or exclusive Or function. An inverter has a high output for a low output and
a low output for a high input. A OR gate has a high output as long as at least one of its inputs is
high. Each 4093 is configured as an astable RC oscillator. The top one has an antenna for
controlling it while the bottom one acts as the fixed oscillator but has an adjustable resistor to
tune the circuit. The 4077 XOR acts like a mixer and detector rolled into one. I was able to get
sound out of this circuit but no matter how much I tried, I could not get any response due to hand
motion around the antenna.

Schematic for Simple CMOS Theremin (Max)

One of the other circuits, named Minimum Theremin, (below) I built had much more
complexity but again, I was having the same problems. In this circuit (below), the each triangle
represents on inverter but six inverters are combined onto one chip. On the left are two astable
RC oscillators comprised of two inverters (A&B). These are buffered each by another inverter
(C) and mixed by R3 and R4 before being fed to U1F. Because of the non-linear transfer
function of the inverter, U1F effectively detects the heterodyned signal and the following
resistors and capacitors filter out all the high frequencies. On the far right, two remaining
inverters buffer the output signal. An in depth analysis of this circuit by the designer, Arthur
Harrison, can be found at http://home.att.net/~theremin1/minimum/minimum.html#Circuit.
This circuit should have performed well but it did not. I followed the design and
construction recommendations of Arthur Harrison except for I was building the circuit on
breadboard instead of directly to circuit board. Since none of these circuits performed as
expected, I came to the conclusion that either the parts I am using are faulty or my construction
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and troubleshooting skills are not up to par. After reviewing my parts purchases, I am more
willing to accept faulty parts.

Schematic for Minimum Theremin by Arthur Harrison

The schematics all specify either general-purpose CMOS logic gates like the type
common ten years ago, or a specific part, namely the Motorola MC14069UBCP. The parts I had
ordered from DigiKey were manufactured by Texas Instruments. They were supposed to be
drop in replacements because the 40xx series of CMOS logic chips are industry wide standards.
However, it turns out that the Texas Instruments chips I had contained pulse shaping input and
output circuitry to make them more robust against electrical shock and increase noise immunity,
which included varying capacitance. Basically, although the logic functionality of the chips I
had was exactly what I needed, the small-signal operation was completely different and made my
circuits at best non-operable.
Optical Design
The NE-555 Integrated Circuit
After disappointment with the CMOS logic based circuits that followed the circuit
topology of the original Theremin, I took a break and thought about other methods of sound
generation. I remembered one of the first things I built when I got into electronics as a kid was a
little tone generator using a NE-555 general-purpose timer chip. The NE-555 was first
introduced in 1972 but has become a mainstay in the electronics world. It is a very versatile chip
that can operate in many modes.
The NE-555 is an 8 terminal device that contains a resistor ladder, two comparators, a
flip-flop and an output stage. The resistor ladder divides the power supply voltage into two
references at 1/3Vcc and 2/3Vcc, which are used as the reference points for the two comparators.
(Vcc is the supply voltage referenced to ground) Each comparator is like a decision maker; it
looks at its two inputs and turns its output on or off depending on which input is higher. The
Threshold comparator turns on if the voltage on the threshold pin is greater than 2/3Vcc. The
Trigger comparator turns on if the voltage on the trigger pin is less than 1/3Vcc. The flip-flop is
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like a single memory cell that can hold only one value. It sets to a one only when the threshold
comparator goes high and sets to a zero only when trigger comparator goes high. The flip-flop
holds its state until the other input goes high, even if the other input goes low some time before
that. The flip-flop can also be reset with the Reset input pin. The output is capable of supplying
or sinking current (Jung, 25-32)

NE-555 Block Diagram

Philips Semiconductors Linear Products

The NE-555 can easily be configured into an RC astable multivibrator. An RC chain is

connected from the output to the ground with the capacitor connected to ground. The threshold
and trigger inputs are tied together and connected to the middle of the RC chain at the top of the
capacitor to sense the capacitor voltage. When powered on, the output will be high and the
capacitor will start to charge through the resistor. Once the capacitor voltage reaches 2/3Vcc the
threshold comparator will set the flip-flop and the output will go low. Now the capacitor
discharges through the resistor until it reaches 1/3Vcc and the trigger comparator resets the flipflop sending the output back high and restarting the cycle. (Jung, 149-151) The voltage on the
capacitor is somewhat triangular. The frequency is easily selectable using the formula:

f0 1.4 R C
Circuit Design for Optical Control
Instead of operating this circuit at radio frequencies, I want to create the audio
frequencies directly. However, using reasonable values for the circuit makes varying
capacitance absolutely useless. Instead, I have to vary the resistance of the circuit in some way
but do it without touch. The easiest way to do that is with a Cadmium-Sulphide (CdS) photocell.
This is a simple device that acts exactly like a resistor with one catch. More light causes the CdS
cell to decrease resistance and less light causes the CdS cell to increase in resistance. The more
general name for the CdS cell is a light dependent resistor (LDR). The CdS cell Im using varies
from about 1kohm to about 300kohms over the range of its use. Without changing the
capacitance, this gives a few octaves of range. The catch is that it must be played in bright light
and unlike the Theremin, which is based on absolute distance, the pitch is based only on light
falling on the CdS cell. This turned out to be both bad and good but it was definitely fun.
The output of the NE-555 multivibrator is an imperfect square wave. This is just a little
too rich in harmonics to be pleasing to the ear but it was powerful enough to drive an amplifier
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directly. I could pass the output through a resistive divider with another CdS cell to act like a
volume control but there was still the problem with the harsh sound. The waveform across the
capacitor however was somewhat triangular and had much less harmonic content. Taking the
output from the capacitor loaded down the multivibrator circuit due to current leaking into the
audio output. This basically ceased the operation of the instrument.
In order to utilize the waveform on the capacitor without loading down the circuit I used
an LM741 general-purpose operational amplifier (op-amp). An op-amp is just a special
amplifier for signals that has an inverting and non-inverting input. By using the LM741 and
some other circuitry I was able to isolate the multivibrator but still read the waveform of the
capacitor. Then I could put the output of the LM741 though the same resistive CdS cell divider
for volume control. The final circuit is shown below with the individual sections labeled:

Final Schematic of Optical Theremin

The RC chain with the CdS cell that controls the frequency of the astable oscillator is
easily seen on the leftmost part of the circuit. A second capacitor (C2) can be connected to the
circuit with a switch to decrease the range of frequencies. Switching in C2 doubles the
capacitance in the circuit and drops the frequency range by about an octave. In the middle of the
circuit is an LED, which is just a solid state light. The LED is used as both a power indicator
and for troubleshooting. It blinks once for each cycle of the oscillator. At audio frequencies this
is too fast to see, but when the frequency is low (because light is blocked from the pitch control
LDR, the LED slowly blinks on and off. The rest of the circuit is exactly as described above
with some added components for stability and isolation. The audio output can be coupled
directly to any high input impedance amplifier like a stereo.
Results
The 555/CdS based optical Theremin I designed has a minimal parts count and was easy
to build. Because it operates at low audio frequencies and is just based on ambient light, there is
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no need to worry about circuit layout, radio radiation concerns and tuning. The cheap and
abundant parts made cost of the final design under $5. The simplicity of this circuit and the
ability to build it on a bread board would make it a good project for students interested in getting
involved in electronics.
The sound coming from this circuit isnt too exciting but succeeds because it is neither
pure like a sine wave nor harsh like a square wave. The sound color or timbre is pretty constant
from the lowest to highest pitches. The very lowest frequencies (those below about 40Hz) arent
produced very well. This is due for the most part to the capacitive coupling in the isolation
amplifier, which blocks DC and low frequencies. Also, because the output resistance of this
Theremin is variable, its sound is somewhat dependent on the amplifier connected to it. If the
amplifier had a highly capacitive input, changing the volume control could possibly change the
frequency content of the signal.
Modifications could be added to this circuit to improve its performance. For instance, the
volume control LDR could be incorporated into the feedback loop of the LM741 op-amp to
make the output independent of the connected amplifier. A second op-amp or other non-linear
element configured as an overdrive or distortion circuit could be added to increase the harmonics
in the signal. For a more complex circuit, the LDRs could be replaced by infrared
phototransistors and a modulating circuit. In this circuit, modulated infrared light would shine
up from the circuit and be reflected by objects in front of it and demodulated by the
phototransistors. The result would be a circuit producing a light field to interact with, analogous
to Theremins original design producing an electric field.
Further Studies
Many musicians and composers throughout the years have used the Theremin as an
instrument. It would be a great project to compile a list of all the different pieces and styles of
music that used the Theremin. Some classic thereminists are Clara Rockmore, Lydia Kavina
and Dr. Samuel Hoffman. Clara Rockmore is by far the greatest Theremin player of all time.
She developed techniques for greater control and articulation that had been seen before in the
1930s. Today, Lydia Kavina is the leading thereminist and just so happens to be the
granddaughter of Leons first cousin. Dr. Hoffman was a major thereminist and was involved
not only in instrumental music but also movie scores. (Max)
But the Theremin is not only made for traditional chamber and classical music. Many
popular bands throughout the years from Air, to Led Zeppelin, have used the Theremin. A very
good list of bands that have used the Theremin are listed on a webpage hosted by Theremin
World at http://www.thereminworld.com/bands.asp.
I would like in the future to build a full vacuum tube Theremin. This is a large jump in
complexity from what I accomplished here, but I would really like an instrument that I could
learn to play. I would also like to work on additional effects and circuit optimizations to utilize
the non-contact control effects in other ways.

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Figure, Picture and Formula Index

Leon Theremin displaying Theremin...........................................................................................1
NE-555 chip ...............................................................................................................................1
Formulas and Symbols for the Inductor and Capacitor ................................................................6
Resonance Formula for and Schematic of LC Tank Circuit .........................................................6
Formulas for Mixing Sine Waves (Heterodyning) .......................................................................7
Example of AM Modulation .......................................................................................................8
Example of Rectification of AM signal .......................................................................................8
Physical Diagram of Triode Vacuum Tube..................................................................................9
Schematic Symbol for Triode Vacuum Tube...............................................................................9
Original Theremin Schematic from Patent (Fig. 27) ..................................................................10
Leon Theremin Playing a Theremin ..........................................................................................11
Schematic for Simple CMOS Theremin ....................................................................................12
Schematic for Minimum Theremin design by Arthur Harrison ..................................................13
NE-555 Block Diagram ............................................................................................................14
Formula for frequency of NE-555 Astable circuit......................................................................14
Final Schematic of Optical Theremin ........................................................................................15

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Bibliography
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Company, 1977.
Crab. The Theremin. 120 Years of Electronic Music. February 1998.
http://www.obsolete.com/120_years/machines/theremin/ (April 21, 2002)
Bulat M. Galeyev. (Translated by Vladimir Chudnovsky) Light and Shadows of a Great Life.
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21, 2002)
Walter G. Jung. IC Timer Cookbook. Second Edition. Indianapolis. Howard W. Sams & Co, 1988
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Max Whiskers. Maxies Pages - sitemap. Maxies Pages. April 7, 2002
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emin1.pdf (April 4, 2002)
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V. Sirin. Lev Termen and the Amazing Theremin. Disinformation. December 28, 2000.
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Leon Theremin. Method of and Aparatus for the Generation of sound: US Patent 1,661,058.
USPTO. December 5, 1925. http://theremin.info/articles-1928-patent1.shtml (April 4, 2002)
Also available at http://patft.uspto.gov/netahtml/srchnum.htm
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