Module 10: Scaler Fields, Limit and Continuity Lecture 28: Series of Functions (Section 28.1)

Module 10 :
Scaler fields, Limit and
Continuity
Lecture 28 : Series of functions [Section 28.1]

Objectives
In this section you will learn the following :
The notion of distance in
and
Notions of neighborhoods of points.
Notion of convergence of sequences in
28 .1 Spaces
and
and
In these notes we shall develop many concepts that helps us understanding functions of several
variables: limits, continuity, differentiability, problems of maxima minima, and integration. We shall see
how these concepts resemble, and are different, that of a single variable. Since most of the theorems
that can be proved for functions of two variables can be extended to functions of three or more
variables, we confine our analysis to two/three variables only.
28.1.1The spaces
and
Recall that for the function of one variable, the underlying set was
variables, corresponding role is played by the set
the set of all ordered pairs

plane. For
, where
, the Cartesian product of
. Geometrically,
with itself:
is represented by points in the
represents the Cartesian coordinates of the point
an orthogonal system of coordinate axes. Similarly,

where
, the set of real numbers. For two
in plane with respect to
space can be represented by
called the Cartesian coordinates or components of a point.
and
Figure 1. Coordinates of a point in

In the language of vectors, a point
final point
in
represents the vector
, with initial point
and
Vectors can be added, scalar multiplied component wise. For example for vectors
the vector sum is
Figure 2. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors

and the multiplication of
by a scalar
is
The origin represents the vector

Various properties of these operations are given in Exercise 1. We identify points in
vectors they represent. A vector
is also represented as
, where
with the
are
vectors of unit length along the respective coordinate axes.

The notion of 'closeness' between points on
can be described in terms of the magnitudes of
vectors. We
do this for points in
For points in
these can be defined by adding suitable terms corresponding
to the third component.

Similar to the situation in
For
the
that is the set of all points

definition.
28.1.2Definition:
(i)
For a point
we use the above notion of distance to define the neighborhoods in
in
with
-neighborhood of a point in
was the open interval
which are at most at a distance
from
. This motivates the next
is called the norm or magnitude of the vector.

(ii)
For
, the distance between then, denoted by
is defined to be
Figure 3. Norm of a vector

(iii)
For vectors
and
, the dot product of these vectors is defined to be
28.1.3 Theorem:
and scalars
For vectors
the following holds:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
(viii)
where
(ix)
is the angle between the vectors
. This is called Cauchy- Schwarz inequality.
(x)
(xi)
(xii)
and
if and only if
This is called triangle- inequality.
(xiii)
Proof:
All the statements are easy to prove.
28.1.4Definition:
and
For
, the
-circular neighborhood of the point
, which are at a distance at most
This is also called an open ball at

center
from
is the set of all points
, i.e., the set
with radius
. The open ball
is called a deleted open ball and will be denoted by
without the
. Thus,
Figure 4. Open ball and deleted open ball.

,
For points
and
Recall that in
the notion of an sequence helped us to understand the various properties of functions of

and
a single variable. We can do the same in

28.1.5Definition:
is an ordered collection of points
An sequence in
sequence in
and
, we say sequence
in
We write it as
converges to a point
. In analogy with
if the distance between
goes to zero, that is
We can write it in terms of

that
We write this as
definition. This means that given
there exists an
such
An equivalent criterion is given by the following theorem.
28.1.6Theorem:
Then, the following are equivalent:
Let
(i)
(ii)
and
Practice Exercises
(1)
Prove theorem 28.1.3.
(2)
For
Module
, and
10 :
Scaler
fields,
Limit and
, prove the following:
(i)
(ii)
.
(iii)
for every
(iv)
implies
(v)
(3)
Give examples to show that for

need not imply
(4)
Cross product of vectors

Let
The cross product of
with
is the vector,
, given by
(A convenient way to remember this is to write
Prove the following statements for

.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
as a determinant:)
and
(vii)
(viii)
, where
if and only if
(ix)
(5)
For
point
-rectangular neighborhood at
Show that every circular neighborhood of a
in
is said to be Cauchy if for all
there exists
. Prove the equivalence of the following:

is convergent
(i)
and
(ii)
is Cauchy in
(iii)
includes a circular neighborhood and vice-versa.
A sequence
for all
for some
and
let
This is called an
(6)
is the angle between
are Cauchy sequence in

.
Recap
In this section you have learnt the following

The notion of distance in
and
Notions of neighborhoods of points.
Notion of convergence of sequences in
and
Continuity
Lecture 28 : Series of functions [Section 28.2]
Objectives
In this section you will learn the following :

The notion of functions with domains in
Notions of contour lines and level curves.
and
such that
28 .2 Functions of two or three variables:

Functions of two or more variables arise in almost every field. For example, in topography, the height of
the land depends on the two coordinates that gives its location. The reaction rate of two chemicals A and
B depends upon their concentrations A and B, and the temperature t. The pressure at a place can be
regarded as a function of time, temperature and the location of the place. The amount of food grown in
India depends upon the amount of rain and the amount of fertilizer used. The strength of gravitational
attraction between two bodies depends on their masses and the distance between them.
28.2.1Definition:
For
, a function
is called a function of two (or three) variables. The set
is called the range of the functions . If

for which
is called its domain and the set
is given by a formula, then the set of all those points
is defined is called the natural domain of
28.2.2 Examples:
(i)
Let
Then
, has natural domain the set

,
and its range is the interval

(ii)
Let
Then, the natural domain of
is the set
and its range its range is the set
Recall that, a function of one variable can be represented geometrically as a curve in the plane. We may
try to represent a function of two variables by a 'surface' in
.
28.2.3Definition:
Let
be a function of two variables. Let
The set
is called the graph of the function
One can get an idea of
the graph of a function
as follows:
28.2.4Definition:
For a function
of two variables, for each
the set
Figure 1. Graph of a unction of two variables

gives a curve in the
-plane. This is called a level curve of the function
set of points in the domain of
where
takes a constant value
28.2.5Examples:
(i)
For
the level curves of
are
These are the lines through the origin with slope
at
. This is the
Figure 2. Level curves for
(ii)
For
the level curves are
These are circles centered at origin with radius

only for
. Thus, they are defined
Figure 3. Level curves for

Another concept that helps us to visualize
the graph of a function, is as follows:
28.2.6Definition:
For every
, the contour line for a function
is the curve in 3-space given by
Contour line indicates the points on the surface

section of the surface
by the plane
28.2.7Examples:
(i)
For
the contour line for
is
that is
Figure 4. Contour lines for

(ii)
For
the contour line for
is the circle
that are at a given height

.
or it is the
Figure 5. Contour lines for
28.2.8Note:
(i)
Like taking sections of a surface by planes perpendicular to

the
surface by planes perpendicular to
the surface.
(ii)
-axis or
-axis, one can also consider sections of
-axis. These sections are care
-traces (
For functions of three variables, contour lines generalize to contour surface ( or also called level
surfaces ).
For example for
the level surfaces are

spheres concentric about the origin in the
coordinate system.
CLICK HERE TO SEE AN INTERACTIVE VISUALIZATION - APPLET

Practice Exercises
(1)
For the following functions find the natural domain and range:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
.
(iv)
Answers
(2)
For the following functions, sketch the contour lines corresponding to
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(3)
-traces) of
For the following, sketch the level curves for the following:
(i)
(ii)
.
(iii)
(iv)
Answers
Recap
In this section you have learnt the following

The notion of functions with domains in
Notions of contour lines and level curves.
and

Module 10: Scaler Fields, Limit and Continuity Lecture 28: Series of Functions (Section 28.1)

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Module 10 :

Scaler fields, Limit and

Lecture 28 : Series of functions [Section 28.1]

Notions of neighborhoods of points.

Notion of convergence of sequences in

the set of all ordered pairs

, the Cartesian product of

is represented by points in the

represents the Cartesian coordinates of the point

an orthogonal system of coordinate axes. Similarly,

, the set of real numbers. For two

in plane with respect to

space can be represented by

called the Cartesian coordinates or components of a point.

Figure 1. Coordinates of a point in

represents the vector

, with initial point

Figure 2. Scalar multiplication and addition of vectors

The origin represents the vector

vectors of unit length along the respective coordinate axes.

can be described in terms of the magnitudes of

do this for points in

these can be defined by adding suitable terms corresponding

to the third component.

that is the set of all points

we use the above notion of distance to define the neighborhoods in

was the open interval

which are at most at a distance

. This motivates the next

is called the norm or magnitude of the vector.

, the distance between then, denoted by

Figure 3. Norm of a vector

, the dot product of these vectors is defined to be

the following holds:

is the angle between the vectors

. This is called Cauchy- Schwarz inequality.

-circular neighborhood of the point

, which are at a distance at most

This is also called an open ball at

is the set of all points

, i.e., the set

. The open ball

is called a deleted open ball and will be denoted by

Figure 4. Open ball and deleted open ball.

the notion of an sequence helped us to understand the various properties of functions of

a single variable. We can do the same in

is an ordered collection of points

goes to zero, that is

We can write it in terms of

definition. This means that given

An equivalent criterion is given by the following theorem.

Prove theorem 28.1.3.

, prove the following:

Give examples to show that for

Cross product of vectors

The cross product of

(A convenient way to remember this is to write

Prove the following statements for