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Chapter 1
An Overview of Photovoltaics

Contents:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7

The Development of Photovoltaics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

Current and Emerging Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
Advantages of Photovoltaic Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Disadvantages of Photovoltaic Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Environmental, Health, and Safety Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Photovoltaic System Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Photovoltaic System Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

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1.1

The Development of
Photovoltaics

Photovoltaic systems are solar energy systems that

produce electricity directly from sunlight.
Photovoltaic (PV) systems produce clean, reliable
energy without consuming fossil fuels and can be
used in a wide variety of applications. A common
application of PV technology is providing power for
watches and radios. On a larger scale, many utilities
have recently installed large photovoltaic arrays to
provide consumers with solar-generated electricity, or
as backup systems for critical equipment.
Research into photovoltaic technology began
over one hundred years ago. In 1873, British scientist
Willoughby Smith noticed that selenium was
sensitive to light. Smith concluded that seleniums
ability to conduct electricity increased in direct
proportion to the degree of its exposure to light. This
observation of the photovoltaic effect led many
scientists to experiment with this relatively
uncommon element with the hope of using the
material to create electricity. In 1880, Charles Fritts
developed the first selenium-based solar electric cell.
The cell produced electricity without consuming any
material substance, and without generating heat.
Broader acceptance of photovoltaics as a power
source didnt occur until 1905, when Albert Einstein
offered his explanation of the photoelectric effect.
Einsteins theories led to a greater understanding of
the physical process of generating electricity from
sunlight. Scientists continued limited research on the
selenium solar cell through the 1930s, despite its low
efficiency and high production costs.
In the early 1950s, Bell Laboratories began a
search for a dependable way to power remote
communication systems. Bell scientists discovered
that silicon, the second most abundant element on
earth, was sensitive to light and, when treated with
certain impurities, generated a substantial voltage. By
1954, Bell developed a silicon-based cell that
achieved six percent efficiency.
The first non-laboratory use of photovoltaic
technology was to power a telephone repeater station
in rural Georgia in the late 1950s. National
Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
scientists, seeking a lightweight, rugged and reliable
energy source suitable for outer space, installed a PV
system consisting of 108 cells on the United States

first satellite, Vanguard I. By the early 1960s, PV

systems were being installed on most satellites and
spacecraft.
Today, over 200,000 homes in the United States
use some type of photovoltaic technology. Solar
modules contribute power to 175,000 villages in over
140 countries worldwide, producing thousands of jobs
and creating sustainable economic opportunities. In
2001, worldwide sales of photovoltaic products totaled
over 350 megawatts and over $2 billion in the global
market. The applications include communications,
refrigeration for health care, crop irrigation, water
purification, lighting, cathodic protection,
environmental monitoring, marine and air navigation,
utility power, and other residential and commercial
applications. The intense interest generated by current
photovoltaic applications provides promise for this
rapidly developing technology.

1.2

Current and Emerging

Opportunities

Conventional fuel sources have created myriad

environmental problems, such as global warming, acid
rain, smog, water pollution, rapidly filling waste
disposal sites, destruction of habitat from fuel spills,
and the loss of natural resources. Photovoltaic systems
do not pose these environmental consequences. Today,
the majority of PV modules use silicon as their major
component. The silicon cells manufactured from one
ton of sand can produce as much electricity as burning
500,000 tons of coal.
Photovoltaic technology also creates jobs. Solar
industries directly employ nearly 20,000 people and
support over 200,000 jobs in areas such as glass and
steel manufacturing, electrical and plumbing
contracting, architecture and system design, and
battery and electrical equipment manufacturing. By
some estimates, 3,800 jobs are created for every $100
million in PV sales.
The photovoltaic market grows each year.
Economists have predicted that photovoltaics will be
the most rapidly growing form of commercial energy
after 2030, with sales exceeding $100 billion. In fact,
the use of solar and renewable energy is expected to
double by the year 2010, which would create more
than 350,000 new jobs. It is no surprise that this
clean, reliable source of electric power is regarded as
the future of energy production.

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1.3

Advantages of
Photovoltaic Technology

Photovoltaic systems offer substantial advantages

over conventional power sources:
Reliability. Even in harsh conditions,
photovoltaic systems have proven their
reliability. PV arrays prevent costly power
failures in situations where continuous
operation is critical.
Durability. Most PV modules available today
show no degradation after ten years of use. It
is likely that future modules will produce
power for 25 years or more.
Low Maintenance Cost. Transporting
materials and personnel to remote areas for
equipment maintenance or service work is
expensive. Since PV systems require only
periodic inspection and occasional
maintenance, these costs are usually less than
with conventionally fueled systems.

generator at higher altitudes must be de-rated

because of losses in efficiency and power
output.

1.4

Disadvantages of
Photovoltaic Technology

Photovoltaics have some disadvantages when

compared to conventional power systems:
Initial Cost. Each PV installation must be
evaluated from an economic perspective and
compared to existing alternatives. As the
initial cost of PV systems decreases and the
cost of conventional fuel sources increases,
these systems will become more economically
competitive.
Variability of Available Solar Radiation.
Weather can greatly affect the power output
of any solar-based energy system. Variations
in climate or site conditions require
modifications in system design.

No Fuel Cost. Since no fuel source is

required, there are no costs associated with
purchasing, storing, or transporting fuel.

Energy Storage. Some PV systems use

batteries for storing energy, increasing the
size, cost, and complexity of a system.

Reduced Sound Pollution. Photovoltaic

systems operate silently and with minimal
movement.

Efficiency Improvements. A cost-effective use

of photovoltaics requires a high-efficiency
approach to energy consumption. This often
dictates replacing inefficient appliances.

Photovoltaic Modularity. PV systems are

more cost effective than bulky conventional
systems. Modules may be added
incrementally to a photovoltaic system to
increase available power.
Safety. PV systems do not require the use of
combustible fuels and are very safe when
properly designed and installed.
Independence. Many residential PV users cite
energy independence from utilities as their
primary motivation for adopting the new
technology.
Electrical Grid Decentralization. Small-scale
decentralized power stations reduce the
possibility of outages on the electric grid.
High Altitude Performance. Increased
insolation at high altitudes makes using
photovoltaics advantageous, since power
output is optimized. In contrast, a diesel

Education. PV systems present a new and

unfamiliar technology: Few people
understand their value and feasibility. This
lack of information slows market and
technological growth.

1.5

Environmental, Health,
and Safety Issues

Electricity produced from photovoltaics is much

safer and more environmentally benign than
conventional sources of energy production. However,
there are environmental, safety, and health issues
associated with manufacturing, using, and disposing
of photovoltaic equipment.
The manufacturing of electronic equipment is
energy intensive. On the other hand, photovoltaic
modules produce more electricity in their lifetimes
than it takes to produce them. An energy break-even
point is usually achieved after three to six years.
As with any manufacturing process, producing

Section 1.3 1.5

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photovoltaic modules often poses environmental and

health hazards. Workers may be exposed to toxic and
potentially explosive gases, such as phosphine,
diborane, hydrogen deselenide, and cadmium
compounds. Manufacturers have made steps to
minimize environmental and worker hazards by
implementing carefully designed industrial processes
and monitoring systems.
Safety for installation technicians is also a
concern. Only qualified personnel, using equipment
that complies with national safety standards, should
install photovoltaic systems.
The disposal of photovoltaic system components
poses a moderate environmental hazard. Most solar
modules have an expected useful life of at least 20
years. Most of the components can be recycled or
reused (for example, glass and plastic encasements,
and aluminum frames), but semiconductor recycling
is extremely limited.

1.6

Photovoltaic System
Components

Photovoltaic systems are built from several important

components:
Photovoltaic Cell. Thin squares, discs, or
films of semiconductor material that generate
voltage and current when exposed to
sunlight.
Module. A configuration of PV cells
laminated between a clear superstrate
(glazing) and an encapsulating substrate.
Panel. One or more modules (often used
interchangeably with module).
Array. One or more panels wired together at a
specific voltage.
Charge Controller. Equipment that regulates
battery voltage.

1.7

Photovoltaic
System Types

Photovoltaic systems can be configured in many

ways. For example, many residential systems use
battery storage to power appliances during the night.
In contrast, water pumping systems often operate
only during the day and require no storage device. A
large commercial system would likely have an
inverter to power AC appliances, whereas a system in
a mobile home would likely power only DC
appliances and wouldnt need an inverter. Some
systems are linked to the utility grid, while others
operate independently.
Integrated Photovoltaic Battery-Charging
Systems: These systems incorporate all their
components, including the application, in a single
package. This arrangement may be economical when
it compliments or replaces a disposable battery
system. Small appliances, complete with a
rechargeable battery and integrated PV batterychargers, are a common example. Solar lanterns and
photovoltaic chargers for radio batteries have
worldwide market potential. Kits for photovoltaic
flashlights, clocks, and radios may eventually replace
similar units that use expensive, wasteful, disposable
batteries.
Day Use Systems: The simplest and least
expensive photovoltaic systems are designed for day
use only. These systems consist of modules wired
directly to a DC appliance, with no storage device.
When the sun shines on the modules, the appliance
consumes the electricity they generate. Higher
insolation (sunshine) levels result in increased power
output and greater load capacity.
Examples of day use systems include:
Remote water pumping for a storage tank.

Battery Storage. A medium that stores direct

current (DC) electrical energy.

Operation of fans, blowers, or circulators to

distribute thermal energy for solar water
heating systems or ventilation systems.

Inverter. An electrical device that changes

direct current to alternating current (AC).

Stand-alone, solar-powered appliances such as

calculators and toys.

DC Loads. Appliances, motors, and

equipment powered by direct current.
AC Loads. Appliances, motors, and
equipment powered by alternating current.

Section 1.6 1.7

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12VDC

DC Pump
12VDC

PV Array

Figure
1-1
Day
Use System
figure
1-1
DAY USE SYSTEM

Direct Current Systems With Storage Batteries:

To operate loads at night or during cloudy weather, PV
systems must include a means of storing electrical
energy. Batteries are the most common solution. System
loads can be powered from the batteries during the day
or night, continuously or intermittently, regardless of
weather. In addition, a battery bank has the capacity to
supply high-surge currents for a brief period, giving the
system the ability to start large motors or to perform
other difficult tasks. A simple DC system that uses
batteries is illustrated in Figure 1-2. This systems basic

components include a PV module, charge controller,

storage batteries, and appliances (the systems electrical
load).
A battery bank can range from small flashlightsize batteries to dozens of heavy-duty industrial
batteries. Deep-cycle batteries are designed to
withstand being deeply discharged and then fully
recharged when the sun shines. (Conventional
automobile batteries are not well suited for use in
photovoltaic systems and will have short effective
lives.) The size and configuration of the battery bank
depends on the operating voltage of the system and
the amount of nighttime usage. In addition, local
weather conditions must be considered in sizing a
battery bank. The number of modules must be
chosen to adequately recharge the batteries during
the day.
Batteries must not be allowed to discharge too
deeply or be overchargedeither situation will
damage them severely. A charge controller will
prevent the battery from overcharging by
automatically disconnecting the module from the
battery bank when it is fully loaded. Most charge
controllers also prevent batteries from reaching
dangerously low charge levels by stopping the supply
of power to the DC load. Providing charge control is
critical to maintaining battery performance in all but
the simplest of PV systems.
Direct Current Systems Powering Alternating
Current Loads: Photovoltaic modules easily produce
DC electrical power, but many common appliances
require AC power. Direct current systems that power

12VDC

Charge Controller
Storage Battery
12VDC

DC Loads
12VDC

PV Array

DC System
with 1-2
Batteries
Figure
figure
1-2BATTERIES
DC SYSTEM
WITH

Section 1.7

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12VDC120VAC

Charge Controller

Storage Battery
12VDC

12VDC

Branch Circuits
to DC Loads
PV Array

DC Load Center
12VDC

Inverter

Branch Circuits
to AC Loads
120VAC

AC Load Center

System with
DC and
Figure
1-3AC Loads
figure
1-3
SYSTEM WITH DC AND AC LOADS
AC loads must use an inverter to convert DC
electricity into AC. Inverters provide convenience
and flexibility in a photovoltaic system, but add
complexity and cost. Because AC appliances are
mass-produced, they are generally offered in a wider
selection, at lower cost, and with higher reliability
than DC appliances. High quality inverters are
commercially available in a wide range of capacities.
Utility Grid Interconnected Systems:
Photovoltaic systems that are connected to the utility
grid (utility-connected, grid-tie, or line-tie systems)
do not need battery storage in their design because
the utility grid acts as a power reserve. Instead of
storing surplus energy that is not used during the day,
the homeowner sells the excess energy to a local
utility through a specially designed inverter. When
homeowners need more electricity than the
photovoltaic system produces, they can draw power
from the utility grid. See figure 1-4.
If the utility grid goes down, the inverter
automatically shuts off and will not feed solargenerated electricity back into the grid. This ensures
the safety of linepersons working on the grid. Because
utility-connected systems use the grid for storage
these systems will not have power if the utility grid
goes down. For that reason, some of these systems are
also equipped with battery storage to provide power
in the event of power loss from the utility grid.
The Public Utilities Regulatory Policies Act
(PURPA) of 1978 requires electric utilities to

purchase power from qualified, small power

producing system owners. The utilities must pay the
small power producers based on their avoided
costs, or costs the utility does not have to pay to
generate that power themselves. Additional terms
and conditions for these purchases are set by state
utility commissions and vary from state to state.
While this law allows homeowners in areas with
utility power to purchase photovoltaic systems and
sell their excess power to an electric utility, people
contemplating doing so should remember that this is
rarely a profitable venture at the present time.
Some utility companies offer netmetering to
their customers, where a single meter spins in either
direction depending upon whether the utility is
providing power to the customer or the customer is
producing excess power. The customer or
independent power producer pays or collects the net
value on the meter. Net metering is very desirable to
the independent power producer because he/she can
sell power at the same retail rate that the utility
charges its customers.
Hybrid Systems: Most people do not run their
entire load solely off their PV system. The majority
of systems use a hybrid approach by integrating
another power source. The most common form of
hybrid system incorporates a gas or diesel-powered
engine generator, which can greatly reduce the initial
cost. Meeting the full load with a PV system means
the array and batteries need to support the load

Section 1.7

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Solar Power
AC to Grid

Solar PV Array

Grid-Tie Inverter

AC Utility Meter

Main Utility
Breaker Panel
DC Voltage
Input

AC Voltage
Output

Figure 1-4
Utility Grid Interconnected
System
figure
1-4?
UTILITY-INTERACTIVE SYSTEM WITHOUT BATTERIES

under worst-case weather conditions. This also

means the battery pack must be large enough to
power large loads, such as washing machines, dryers,
and large tools. A generator can provide the extra
power needed during cloudy weather and during
periods of heavier than normal electrical use, and can
also be charging the batteries at the same time. A
hybrid system provides increased reliability because
there are two independent charging systems at work.
Another hybrid approach is a PV system

integrated with a wind turbine. Adding a wind turbine

makes sense in locations where the wind blows when
the sun doesnt shine. In this case, consecutive days of
cloudy weather are not a problem, so long as the wind
turbine is spinning. For even greater reliability and
flexibility, a generator can be included in a PV/Wind
system. A PV/Wind/Generator system has all of the
advantages of a PV/Generator system, with the added
benefit of a third charging source for the batteries.

Section 1.7