15EE832

Operation and Maintenance of Solar

Electric System
Module I
Solar Resource and Radiation
PV Industry and Technology
PV Cells, Modules and Arrays
• Solar resources
• Quantifying solar radiation
• The effect of the Earth’s atmosphere
on solar radiation
• Sun geometry
• Geometry for installing solar arrays
Sun geometry
• Because of the Earth’s orbit and rotation, the
position of the sun relative to a solar array is
constantly changing.
• Designers use several geometrical techniques
to design an array that will capture the most
solar energy possible.
• The location of the sun is specified by two
angles which vary both daily and annually.
• Solar altitude: The angle between the sun and
the horizon; the altitude is always between 0°
and 90°.
• Azimuth: The angle between north and the
point on the compass where the sun is
positioned. The azimuth angle varies as the
sun moves from east to west across the sky
through the day. In general, the azimuth is
measured clockwise going from 0° (true north)
to 359°.
• In the northern hemisphere solar arrays are
normally installed to face south as the sun is
always in the southern sky and in the southern
hemisphere solar arrays normally face north.
• In regions between the Tropic of Cancer and the
Tropic of Capricorn this is not always the case, at
certain times of year the sun will be in the
southern sky for those in the southern
hemisphere and in the northern sky for those in
the northern hemisphere.
• In summer the sun will always be higher in the
sky than in winter due to the natural tilt of the
Earth.
• The longest and shortest days of the year are
known respectively as the summer and winter
solstices and usually fall around 21 June and 21
December.
• The sun’s altitude is highest on the summer
solstice and lowest on the winter solstice.
• The midpoints between the two solstices are
known as the equinoxes, normally falling around
20 March and 23 September.
• Many prehistoric cultures learned to identify and
predict the solstices and equinoxes, these dates
being useful in planning harvests and religious
celebrations.
• The sun’s path in the sky for any particular
location can be depicted on a two- imensional
surface in a sunpath diagram.
• This diagram can be used to determine the
position of the sun in the sky at any time of
the day, for any day of the year.
• From this information the times at which an
area is shaded can be determined, which in
turn allows the yearly insolation to be
calculated
• The sunpath diagram is composed of:
• azimuth angles, represented on the
circumference of the diagram;
• altitude angles, represented by concentric
circles;
• sunpath lines from east to west for different
dates in the year;
• time of day lines crossing the sunpath lines;
• location information that refers to latitude.
• Sunpath diagrams may look entirely different for other
areas. Directly on the equator, the sunpath would
range equally north and south.
• Outside the tropics, sunpath diagrams generally look
like the one below, though in the northern hemisphere
they will be inverted.
• Note the seasonal variation in the path of the sun.
• Outside the tropics, the sun only rises to a low altitude
in winter and is always north or south (depending on
the hemisphere) of the observer.
• During summer, the sun rises to a higher altitude. The
sun will always be farthest north or south at the
solstices in all locations, north in June, south in
December
Sun path diagram of Sydney
Comparision of diiferent solar
Technologies
 Contacts
• For either PV cells or modules to work, they need
electrical connections.
• A solar cell has electrical connections provided by
metal conducting strips that collect electrons produced
in the cell and allow this current to flow through the
circuits.
• These metal strips are known as contacts and there are
several different contact technologies currently in use.
• The most common way to manufacture solar cells is by
screen printing, where the metal is simply printed onto
the cell.
• This method is very reliable and is typically applied to
solar cells producing efficiencies of about 12–15 per
cent.
Several factors need to be balanced when
using screen printing:
 If there is too much space between the contacts,
the cell will be less efficient
 If the area covered by the contacts is too large,
the cell will receive less sunlight and produce less
power
 For the contacts to be effective, the top of the cell
often needs to be treated in such a way that its
absorbance of high-energy blue light is reduced
 Front and back Solar Power Rear(back)
contact monocrystalline Silicon Solar cell
• Another method used by manufacturers to
achieve solar cell efficiencies over 20 per cent is
rear or back contacts.
• This technology increases the working cell area,
allows a simplified automated production and the
cell wiring is hidden from view.
• The most efficient commercially available silicon
solar cells use rear contacts (18–23 per cent).
• There is no metal on the front of the cell, which
means the whole cell is producing electricity
• The highest efficiency silicon cells (25 per cent
laboratory efficiency) derive from another method
known as buried contact solar cells (BCSC).
• This method uses small laser grooves which are cut
in the cell and the metal is inserted in to the groove.
• Buried contact and rear contact technologies are
advantageous because they solve many of the
problems associated with screen printing
• Buried contacts cover very little surface area
because most of the contact is inside the groove.
• This means they don’t block as much sunlight and
the contacts can be very close together because
they are so thin.
• The sides of the grooves are treated instead of
the top, so the PV cell’s absorption of blue light is
not affected.
• Rear contacts also eliminate many of these
problems, because they are located at the back of
the cell, they do not shade the cell and so the
number of these cell contacts can be increased to
improve cell efficiency.
 Buying solar modules
• Many different PV modules are available
worldwide.
• It can, however, be difficult to determine whether
the products and suppliers are reliable.
• It is important to be able to ensure that the PV
modules and the electrical installation are safe
and of good quality.
• Poor practice and sub-quality products pose
serious risks to the safety and financial viability of
this investment.
• Outlined below are factors to consider when
purchasing a PV system, bearing in mind that a
good system should not only physically last for
the duration of the warranty but also work
effectively during that time. This means that
the
– modules
– additional equipment
– mounting frame and
– roof must all last as long as the modules or be
replaced during that time.
• Solar modules are sold with a lengthy
manufacturer’s warranty, e.g. 25 years for 80 per
cent of output.
• While the guaranteed output must be included in
any system output estimates, the buyer needs to
understand that if they are installing a product
with such a potentially long warranty, the
structure (e.g. the building and roof itself) and
other system components need to last a similar
length of time.
• For some equipment, i.e. the inverter, a
replacement may be planned over the life of the
PV system.
 Standards
• The PV industry is growing rapidly, resulting in many
new manufacturers producing PV modules. I
• t is important that only quality modules are installed
and standards do exist.
• The most common standards applicable to PV
modules are:
 IEC 61215 Crystalline silicon terrestrial photovoltaic (PV)
modules – Design qualification and type approval
 IEC 61646 Crystalline thin-film terrestrial photovoltaic (PV)
modules – Design qualification and type approval.
 IEC 61730 Photovoltaic (PV) module safety qualification –
Requirements for construction and requirements for
testing
 Contd.,
• These standards originate from the
International Electrotechnical Commission:
– www.iec.ch.
– In many countries a PV module must evidence
compliance with either IEC 61215 or IEC 61646
(depending on whether it is thin film or crystalline
silicon technology) and IEC 61730.
 Certifications
• Quality modules should comply with the IEC
standards but may also adhere to local
standards.
• Certifications generally ensure that modules
adhere to all relevant standards in addition to
the specific photovoltaics standards; examples
range from wind loading to salt mist corrosion
resistance (IEC 61701).
• The two most common certifications are:
• CE marking:
– The CE mark stands for conformité européenne. By
using this mark the manufacturer is declaring that
their module complies with the essential
requirements of the relevant European Union health,
safety and environmental protection legislation. The
CE marking is mandatory on modules sold and
installed in the EU.
• Underwriters Laboratory (UL):
– The Underwriters Laboratory is a US-based testing
facility. Modules bearing a UL mark have been tested
for compliance to IEC standards and local standards
(depending on the country code next to the UL mark).
 Warranties
• PV modules are typically supplied with three
levels of product warranty:
1. 1-, 2- or 3-year warranty on the physical
manufacture of the module itself, i.e. the
frame, encapsulant, glass, module junction
box etc.;
2. 10–12 year warranty that the module will
produce 90 per cent of its rated output;
3. 20–25 year warranty that the module will
produce 80 per cent of its rated output.
• If any of these conditions are not met, the question of
a warranty claim will depend on the manufacturer’s
published warranty and/or the commercial laws of the
country where the module was purchased.
• For example, if someone buys a module from overseas
and imports it for sale or their own use, then it is
assumed that they understand that they have to send
the module back to where they purchased it to claim
warranty.
• If an imported module is purchased from a ‘reseller’ of
the product, i.e. not the anufacturer itself or their
agent, the reseller might have an arrangement with the
manufacturer that all warranties are handled by the
manufacturer directly or, in some countries, the
importer is deemed to be the manufacturer, so all
warranties rest with them.
 Emerging technologies
• Dye-sensitized solar cells
• Dye solar cells are still technologically immature. At the
atomic level they operate very differently from other
solar cells and do not use silicon.
• Dye solar cells use titanium dioxide (also used in
toothpaste) and coloured dyes; they can be
manufactured at a much lower cost than other solar
cells and work better in low light.
• Dye solar cells are transparent and can be produced in
many different colours, making them ideal for
architectural applications as windows.
• Dye solar cells also have potential in military
applications as they can be made in camouflage
patterns.
Dye Solar cell
Currently the highest cell
efficiency achieved in a
laboratory is 12 per cent
and cells with an efficiency
of 7 per cent are in
production.
 Sliver cells
• Sliver cells were developed at the Australian
National University and are very thin
monocrystalline silicon solar cells.
• They are unique as silicon cells because they are
bifacial (they can absorb light from both
directions).
• Sliver technology has achieved cell efficiencies of
over 19 per cent and module efficiencies of 13.8
• per cent.
• The technology is in its early stages of
commercialization but shows a lot of potential for
applications in building-integrated photovoltaics.
Heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer
(HIT) photovoltaic cells
• HIT modules use both crystalline silicon solar
cells and amorphous silicon thin film
technology and have achieved module
efficiencies of 17 per cent and cell efficiencies
of 22 per cent.
 III-V Semiconductors
• III-V or extrinsic semiconductor solar cells use an element from group III of
the periodic table and an element from group V (as opposed to silicon
which is a group IV element), such as gallium arsenide which is commonly
used in space grade solar cells.
• These solar cells are commonly multi-junction so they are in fact many
layers of solar cells, which will collect different colours of visible light.
• They also frequently use advanced solar concentrator technology to
maximize incoming solar radiation.
• Extrinsic semiconductor multi-junction solar cells are the most efficient
and most expensive technology on the market.
• The highest recorded laboratory efficiency is 41.6 per cent and is held by
Spectrolab Inc in the US.
• Due to their high cost, III-V semiconductor cells are normally used for
space applications such as satellites or other big-budget, high-
performance, solarpowered devices such as solar planes and solar racing
cars (see Figure).
Solar car nuna5
Solar concentrators
• Solar concentrators are used to increase the intensity of
light hitting the cell so that it will generate more
electricity (the output power produced by a solar cell is
dependent on the intensity of light hitting that cell).
• There are many different kinds of solar concentrators
available for a variety of applications, but the most
common are lenses or reflective troughs used to focus
light.
• Solar concentrators are advantageous because they
increase the power output so that the system requires
fewer solar cells (solar cells are always the largest cost
when installing a system).
• Many of these cells require a cooling system to perform
well, as cell temperatures can get very high. Challenges
to this technology involve developing concentrators that
are sturdy and reliable enough to survive decades in
solar installations, sometimes in harsh conditions such as
desert, and to keep costs as low as possible.
 PV cells Modules and Arrays
• Characteristics of PV cells
• Each type of PV cell is unique and has its own
individual characteristics; it is very imporrant
to be aware of this when designing an array as
the characterisrics of the cells in one type of
module can affect the power output of the
other modules connected to it.
 Kiey Terminology
• Open circuit:
– A circuit is broken and no current can flow
• Short circuit:
– There is a connection across two terminals of a power source,
so current can flow freely between them; this is usually due to a
fault in the circuit. Voltage in short-circuit conditions is zero.
• Open-circuit voltage Voc:
– The voltage measured across a PV cell under opencircuit
conditions, current is zero.
• Short-circuit current Isc:
– The current measured across a PV cell under shortcircuit
conditions, voltage is zero.
• Maximum power point:
– The theoretical maximum power output of a PV cell. The
maximum power point (Pmax) is the product of the maximum
power point voltage (Vmp) and the maximum power point
current (Imp).
 Graphic representations of PV cell performance
• It is very common for the features of a PV cell
to be represented graphically as a current-
voltage (or I-V) curve.
• An I-V curve tracks the PV cell’s performance
and highlights key features such as Voc, Isc
and Pmax.
• A PV cell will always operate along this curve,
i.e. at a given voltage; the current produced
will always have the same value and vice
versa.
Figure Voc and Isc are the x and y intercepts respectively. Ideally the PV cell
operates around the knee of the curve, where the maximum power point is
located
• A power curve is used to find the maximum power
point.
• A power curve plots the voltage along the horizontal
axis and the power (current multiplied by voltage)
along the vertical axis.
• When this is superimposed on the I-V curve for the
same cell, it is very clear where the maximum power
point lies.
• The I-V and power curves are important because it is
necessary to know the characteristics of each
individual cell when designing a module. Connecting
cells with dramatically different characteristics
together will have a large (generally negative) effect
on the power output of the PV module.
Figure Pmp is the highest point on the power curve; by extrapolating back to
the x-axis, Vmp can be found. Vmp is also on the I-V curve and so the
corresponding current can be found for this particular voltage (Imp)
 Photovoltaic modules and arrays

Figure Single photovoltaic module; the module’s 36 cells can be seen arranged in a 4 x 9 grid
Figure PV array composed of monocrystalline modules
Connecting PV cells to create a module
• PV cells of identical characteristics are wired together
in series to create a module.
• In series, their voltages will add while the current
remains constant, i.e. the current of the module is
equal to the current of one cell.
• Power losses occur when a cell is underperforming. It
may be damaged or more commonly shaded.
• The characteristics of cells are given on the
manufacturer’s data sheet, freely available on the
manufacturer’s website; these are used to design a PV
array.
• Designers should always contact the manufacturer to
make sure the data sheet on their website is current.
Specification sheets
 Standard test conditions (STC)
• These are defined as the conditions under
which all modules are tested and
specifications given so that comparison
between different cells and modules is
possible.
• These are:
– Cell temperature 25°C
– Irradiance 1000W/m2
– Air mass 1.5
 Creating a string of modules
• A string comprises a number of PV modules connected in
series.
• The electrical characteristics of PV modules connected in
series to form a string are the same as PV cells connected in
series to form a module: meaning the output voltage of the
string will be the sum of the output voltages of all the
modules and the output current of the string will be the
lowest output current of any module.
• Modules can also be connected in parallel. In this case the
current output of the modules will add instead of the
voltage.
• The output voltage is that of a single module.
Figure When three identical modules are connected in series to
form a string their voltages add and the total current is that of
one single module. The power output of the string is calculated
using P = I x V
• Figure When non-identical modules are connected in series the
voltages will still add; however, the current of the string will be the
lowest current of any single module (in this case 4A). The power
output of the string is then calculated using P = I x V
Figure Three identical modules are connected in parallel; the
total current is the sum of each individual current, while the
total voltage is the voltage of a single module. The power is once
again calculated using P = I x V
Figure When non-identical modules are connected in parallel the currents add
while the output voltage is equal to the lowest single module voltage. The power
output of the modules is then calculated using P = I x V
 Creating an array
• Array designers will connect PV modules using
a combination of series and parallel to
produce the output current and voltage
suitable to a market
Figure The process of making an array; starting from cells, modules are created, then
connected in series to form strings and finally strings are connected in parallel to make an array
 Photovoltaic array performance
• The performance of a PV array is affected by a variety
of factors: the most significant of these temperature,
irradiance and shading .
• Irradiance
• The amount of solar radiation (sunlight) hitting the cell
will largely determine its power output.
• The output of a PV array can be estimated using
performance data provided by the manufacturer on
the data sheet.
• All arrays have a rated peak power output, i.e. an array
can be described as a 1.5kWp array – meaning that PV
is installed to provide a 1.5kW peak of power.
• This output has been determined by the manufacturer
using standard test conditions.
• Using this information and local solar insolation data it
is possible to estimate the output of an array.
 Example
• On a clear sunny day a 2kWp PV array
received 6 peak sun hours: the 6 peak sun
hours equate to an energy input of 6000W/m2
per day. Expected output can be determined
as follows:
– peak power output × peak sun hours = expected
output
– 2kW × 6PSH = 12kWh
Figure The I-V curves for a cell operating at different
irradiance values show the increase
in power output with irradiance
Annual average: 4.84 peak sun hours/day
A 2kWp PV array would produce an average of 2kW X 4.84PSH/day
= 9.68kWh/day.
This results in an average of 9.68Wh/day X 365days/year =
3533.2kWh/year.