IPS CTB Cement Treated Base

August 2011
Guide to Cement-Based
Integrated Pavement Solutions
Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

This page illustrates the land-use applications for
the cement-based integrated pavement solutions
described in this guide.
For more information on these applications, please see

the table of contents to locate page numbers for each
application.
LAND USE
Heavy Industrial
Light Industrial
Airports
Commercial
Residential
Recreation
CEMENT-BASED INTEGRATED PAVEMENT SOLUTIONS

VIBRATORY COMPACTION
1
2
3
Conventional
Heavy Industrial
Light Industrial
Residential
Overlays
EXTERNAL COMPACTION
5
6
7
CRCP
Roller- Compacted Concrete
1 4
1 4
Airports
Interstates
1 2 4
1 2 3
1 4 6
** The use of 7 & 8 applies to all uses depending on quality of soil and need for stabiliaztion
Full-Depth
Reclamation
Highways
Arterials
Pervious
Concrete
Cement- Treated Base
CementModified
Soils
1 2 4
1 4
Country Roads
Commercial
1 2 4 7
1 4 6
SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE - PRESERVATION OF THE SYSTEMS EQUITY
Concrete Recycling
Full-Depth Repair
Partial-Depth Repair
Dowel Bar Retrofit
Slab Stabilization
Diamond Grinding
Technical Report Documentation Page

1. Report No.
2. Government Accession No.
4. Title and Subtitle

Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions
3. Recipients Catalog No.
5. Report Date
August 2011
6. Performing Organization Code
7. Author(s)
Sabrina Garber, Robert Otto Rasmussen, and Dale Harrington
8. Performing Organization Report No.
9. Performing Organization Name and Address

Institute for Transportation
Iowa State University
2711 South Loop Drive, Suite 4700
Ames, IA 50010-8664
10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)
12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address

Portland Cement Association
5420 Old Orchard Road
Skokie, IL 60077
11. Contract or Grant No.
13. Type of Report and Period Covered

14. Sponsoring Agency Code
15. Supplementary Notes

16. Abstract
This guide provides a clear, concise, and cohesive presentation of cement-bound materials options for 10
specific engineering pavement applications: new concrete pavements, concrete overlays, pervious concrete,
precast pavements, roller-compacted concrete, cement-treated base, full-depth reclamation with cement,
cement-modified soils, recycled concrete aggregates, and repair and restoration. Each application is presented
as a method for meeting specific design and construction objectives that todays pavement practitioners must
accomplish. The benefits, considerations, brief description, and summary of materials, design, and construction
requirements, as well as a list of sustainable attributes, are provided for every solution. This guide is intended
to be short, simple, and easy to understand. It was designed so that the most up-to-date and relevant
information is easily extractable. It is not intended to be used as a design guide for any of the applications
identified herein. Recommendations for additional information that can provide such details are given at the
end of each solution discussion. The intended audience is practitioners, including engineers and managers who
face decisions regarding what materials to specify in the pavement systems they design or manage. The
audience also includes city and county engineers, along with the A/E firms that often represent them, and state
DOT engineers at all levels who are seeking alternatives in this era of changing markets.
17. Key Words

pavement solutions, portland cement concrete, overlays, pervious pavement,
roller-compacted concrete, full-depth reclamation, cement-treated base, cementmodified soils, pavement repair, pavement restoration
18. Distribution Statement

No restrictions.
19. Security Classification (of this

report)
Unclassified.
21. No. of Pages
Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)
20. Security Classification (of this

page)
Unclassified.
22. Price
92
Reproduction of completed page authorized
Guide to Cement-Based
Integrated Pavement Solutions
August 2011
Authors
Technical Advisory Committee
Sabrina Garber, The Transtec Group, Inc.
Wayne Adaska, Portland Cement Association
Robert Otto Rasmussen, The Transtec Group, Inc.
Tom Cackler, National Concrete Pavement Technology

Center
Contributing Author
Greg Dean, American Concrete Pavement Association,

Southeast Chapter
Dale Harrington, Snyder and Associates
Gary Fick, Trinity Construction Management Services
Editorial Staff
Sabrina Shields-Cook, Managing Editor
Jerry Reece, North Carolina Concrete Pavement

Association
Carol Gostele, Copyeditor
Matt Singel, Cement Council of Texas
Mina Shin, Graphic Designer
Gordon Smith, Iowa Concrete Paving Association

Leif Wathne, American Concrete Pavement

Association
iii
About This Guide
Photo Credits
This Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions is a product of the National Concrete Pavement
Technology Center (National CP Tech Center) at Iowa
State Universitys Institute for Transportation, with
funding from the Portland Cement Association. It
provides a clear, concise, and cohesive presentation of
cement-bound materials options for specific engineering pavement applications. Each application identified
in this guide is presented as a method for meeting
specific design and construction objectives that todays
pavement practitioners must accomplish.
The photographs on the cover and throughout this

guide were provided by the following individuals and
organizations:
Acknowledgments
Chicago Department of Transportation
The authors and co-authors, the National CP Tech

Center, and the Portland Cement Association are
grateful to the knowledgeable and experienced professionals, public and private, who contributed to the
development of this guide. While the authors generated the overall content, it was the technical advisory
committees and technical reviewers careful reviews
of drafts, thoughtful discussions, and suggestions for
revisions and refinements that make this guide a comprehensive resource for practitioners. The National
CP Tech Center and the Portland Cement Association
appreciate the committees and reviewers invaluable
assistance.
iv
For More Information
For technical assistance regarding cement-based concrete paving,

contact the Portland Cement Association or the National CPTech
Center:
Wayne Adaska, Director, Pavements
5420 Old Orchard Rd.
Skokie, IL 60077
847-966-6200, info@cement.org, www.cement.org/
Tom Cackler, Director
Sabrina Shields-Cook, Managing Editor
National CP Tech Center
Institute for Transportation, Iowa State University
2711 S. Loop Drive, Suite 4700
Ames, IA 50010-8664
515-294-7124, shieldsc@iastate.edu, www.cptechcenter.org/
American Concrete Pavement Association

American Concrete Pavement Association, Southeast
Chapter
California Nevada Cement Association
Cement Council of Texas
Charger Enterprises
Illinois Tollway
Iowa Concrete Paving Association
John Kevern, University of Missouri-Kansas City
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center
The Transtec Group, Inc.
Disclaimers
Neither Iowa State University nor this documents authors,

editors, designers, illustrators, distributors, or technical
advisors make any representations or warranties, expressed or
implied, as to the accuracy of information herein and disclaim
liability for any inaccuracies.
Iowa State University does not discriminate on the basis of
race, color, age, religion, national origin, sexual orientation,
gender identity, sex, marital status, disability, genetic testing,
or status as a U.S. veteran. Inquiries can be directed to the
Director of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, Iowa State
University, 3680 Beardshear Hall, 515-294-7612.
Contents
About This Guide ............................................................................iv

Acknowledgments .........................................................................iv
Photo Credits ...................................................................................iv
Contents .............................................................................................v
List of Figures ................................................................................. vii
List of Tables ......................................................................................x
Preface ................................................................................................xi
Important Definitions ..................................................................xii
Table of Solutions ........................................................................ xiv
1. New Concrete Pavements....................................................1-1
2. Concrete Overlays...................................................................2-1
Objectives ......................................................... 2-1

Solution ............................................................ 2-1
Benefits ............................................................. 2-1
Considerations .................................................. 2-1
Typical Applications .......................................... 2-1
Description ....................................................... 2-1
Materials ........................................................... 2-2
Design .............................................................. 2-3
Construction ..................................................... 2-5
Sustainability .................................................... 2-6
For More Information ....................................... 2-7
Objectives ......................................................... 3-1

Solution ............................................................ 3-1
Benefits ............................................................. 3-1
Considerations .................................................. 3-1
Description ....................................................... 3-2
Materials ........................................................... 3-3
Design .............................................................. 3-4
Construction ..................................................... 3-5
Sustainability .................................................... 3-6
4. Precast Pavements..................................................................4-1
Objectives ......................................................... 4-1

Solution ............................................................ 4-1
Benefits ............................................................. 4-1
Considerations .................................................. 4-1
Description ....................................................... 4-1
Materials ........................................................... 4-2
Design .............................................................. 4-3
Construction ..................................................... 4-3
Sustainability .................................................... 4-5
5. Roller-Compacted Concrete ...............................................5-1
Objectives.......................................................... 5-1
Solution ............................................................. 5-1
Benefits.............................................................. 5-1
Considerations .................................................. 5-1
Typical Applications........................................... 5-1
Description ........................................................ 5-2
Materials ............................................................ 5-3
Design ............................................................... 5-3
Construction ..................................................... 5-5
Sustainability ..................................................... 5-6
For More Information ........................................ 5-7
Objectives ......................................................... 1-1

Solution ............................................................ 1-1
Benefits ............................................................. 1-1
Considerations .................................................. 1-1
Description ....................................................... 1-1
Materials ........................................................... 1-3
Design .............................................................. 1-4
Construction ..................................................... 1-5
Sustainability .................................................... 1-7
3. Pervious Concrete...................................................................3-1
6. Cement-Treated Base ............................................................6-1
Objectives ......................................................... 6-1

Solution ............................................................ 6-1
Benefits ............................................................. 6-1
Considerations .................................................. 6-1
Description ....................................................... 6-1
Materials ........................................................... 6-2
Design .............................................................. 6-3
Construction ..................................................... 6-3
Sustainability .................................................... 6-5
7. Full-Depth Reclamation with Cement (FDR) .................7-1
Objectives ......................................................... 7-1

Solution ............................................................ 7-1
Benefits ............................................................. 7-1
Considerations .................................................. 7-1
Description ....................................................... 7-1
Materials ........................................................... 7-2
Design .............................................................. 7-2
Construction ..................................................... 7-2
Sustainability .................................................... 7-3
8. Cement-Modified Soils (CMS).............................................8-1
vi
Objectives ......................................................... 8-1

Solution ............................................................ 8-1
Benefits ............................................................. 8-1
Considerations .................................................. 8-1
Description ....................................................... 8-1

Materials ........................................................... 8-2
Design .............................................................. 8-2
Construction ..................................................... 8-2
Sustainability .................................................... 8-3
9. Recycled Concrete Aggregates ..........................................9-1
Objectives ......................................................... 9-1

Solution ............................................................ 9-1
Benefits ............................................................. 9-1
Considerations .................................................. 9-1
Description ....................................................... 9-1
Materials ........................................................... 9-2
Design ............................................................... 9-2
Construction ..................................................... 9-3
Sustainability..................................................... 9-4
10. Repair and Restoration .................................................... 10-1
Description .................................................... 10-1

Full-Depth Repairs ........................................ 10-1
Partial-Depth Repairs..................................... 10-2
Stitching ........................................................ 10-2
Slab Stabilization ........................................... 10-2
Slab Jacking ................................................... 10-3
Joint Resealing ............................................... 10-3
Dowel Bar Retrofit ......................................... 10-3
Diamond Grooving and Grinding .................. 10-4
For More Information .................................... 10-5
List of Figures
Figure 1-1. Schematic of typical concrete pavement cross-section...................................................................... 1-1

Figure 1-2. Schematic of the various types of new concrete pavements.............................................................. 1-2
Figure 1-3. Concrete mixture constituents.......................................................................................................... 1-3
Figure 1-4. Sawcutting JPCP.............................................................................................................................. 1-5
Figure 1-5. Concrete placed over dowel baskets................................................................................................. 1-6
Figure 1-6. Dowel-bar inserter........................................................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-7. JRCP reinforcement in place before paving....................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-8. CRCP reinforcement placed before paving....................................................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-9. Burlap drag on fresh concrete........................................................................................................... 1-7
Figure 1-10. Curing compound applied by spray nozzles on a cure cart ............................................................ 1-7
Figure 2-1. Unbonded overlay............................................................................................................................ 2-2
Figure 2-2 Overlay applications.......................................................................................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-3. Typical cross-section of unbonded overlay........................................................................................ 2-3
Figure 2-4. Unbonded concrete overlay construction over a nonwoven geotextile interlayer.............................. 2-5
Figure 3-1. Miller Park in Fair Oaks, California.................................................................................................. 3-1
Figure 3-2. Imperial Beach Sports Park, California............................................................................................. 3-1
Figure 3-3. Pervious concrete for alley in Chicago, Illinois................................................................................. 3-2
Figure 3-4. Pervious concrete............................................................................................................................. 3-2
Figure 3-5. Pervious concrete pavement parking lot........................................................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-6. Fresh pervious concrete................................................................................................................... 3-3
Figure 3-7. Pervious concrete pavement in the rain............................................................................................ 3-4
Figure 3-8. Schematic of pervious full exfiltration pavement design................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-9. Schematic of pervious partial exfiltration pavement design.............................................................. 3-5
Figure 3-10. Schematic of pervious no exfiltration pavement design.................................................................. 3-5
Figure 3-11. Compacting the placed pervious concrete...................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-12. Curing pervious concrete with plastic sheeting.............................................................................. 3-6
Figure 2-5. Bonded overlay construction............................................................................................................ 2-6
vii
Figure 4-1. Precast pavement system cross-section............................................................................................. 4-1

Figure 4-2. Nighttime placement of precast panels in Virginia............................................................................ 4-2
Figure 4-3. Precast pavement system in Indonesia.............................................................................................. 4-2
Figure 4-4. Concrete poured into form for precast panel.................................................................................... 4-4
Figure 4-5. Vibrators for consolidation of concrete around reinforcement in precast prestressed panel............... 4-4
Figure 4-6. Placement of precast panel for precast JCP system............................................................................ 4-4
Figure 4-7. Placement of a prestressed precast panel.......................................................................................... 4-4
Figure 5-1. Typical RCC versus PCC surface....................................................................................................... 5-2
Figure 5-2. Pavement cross-section with RCC surface........................................................................................ 5-2
Figure 5-3. Pavement cross-section with RCC base............................................................................................. 5-2
Figure 5-4. RCC construction for commercial and heavy industrial applications................................................ 5-2
Figure 5-5. Typical mix design constituents........................................................................................................ 5-3
Figure 5-6. RCC material looks drier than conventional concrete....................................................................... 5-3
Figure 5-7. Flexural beam testing....................................................................................................................... 5-4
Figure 5-8. Typical RCC design relies on aggregate interlock at cracks................................................................ 5-4
Figure 5-9. RCC delivered to jobsite................................................................................................................... 5-5
Figure 5-10. Tilt-drum mixer............................................................................................................................. 5-5
Figure 5-11. Ready-mix transit trucks dumping into haul trucks........................................................................ 5-5
Figure 5-12. Mobile RCC pugmill mixing plant and mixing chamber................................................................. 5-6
Figure 5-13. RCC placement.............................................................................................................................. 5-6
Figure 5-14. Compacting RCC using both vibratory and pneumatic-tired rollers............................................... 5-6
Figure 5-15. RCC in-place density measurement................................................................................................ 5-7
Figure 5-16. Curing RCC................................................................................................................................... 5-7
viii
Figure 6-1. Load distribution of CTB compared to unstabilized granular base.................................................... 6-2
Figure 6-2. Typical pavement cross-sections showing CTB layers....................................................................... 6-2
Figure 6-3. Completed CTB for new pavement construction in Oklahoma......................................................... 6-2
Figure 6-4. Spreading dry cement on grade prior to mixing............................................................................... 6-4
Figure 6-5. Applying cement slurry on grade prior to mixing
(cement slurry is applied the same way for FDR and CMS applications).......................................... 6-4
Figure 6-6. Constructing CTB using mixed-in-place method.............................................................................. 6-4
Figure 6-7. Placement of plant-mixed CTB on prepared subgrade...................................................................... 6-4
Figure 7-1. Schematic of the mixing chamber of a reclaimer machine................................................................ 7-2
Figure 7-2. Reclaimer pulverizing existing asphalt pavement and base material.................................................. 7-2
Figure 7-3. Dry cement placed on pulverized material....................................................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-4. Applying cement slurry on grade prior to mixing
(cement slurry is applied the same way for CTB applications).......................................................... 7-3
Figure 7-5. Mixing the cement into the pulverized material................................................................................ 7-3
Figure 7-6. Equipment for compaction and finishing......................................................................................... 7-3

Figure 8-1. Typical cross-section with CMS........................................................................................................ 8-2
Figure 8-2. Cement slurry added to subgrade material
(cement slurry is applied the same way for CTB and FDR applications).......................................... 8-2
Figure 8-3. Pulvermizer used for in-place mixing of CMS.................................................................................. 8-3
Figure 8-4. Sheepsfoot roller used for compaction.............................................................................................. 8-3
Figure 9-1. Recycled concrete aggregates............................................................................................................ 9-2
Figure 9-2. Example of equipment used to break existing concrete.................................................................... 9-3
Figure 9-3. Broken concrete pavement is removed for recycling......................................................................... 9-3
Figure 9-4. Existing concrete recycled in-place and reused
for base material on the Tri-State Tollway in Illinois......................................................................... 9-3
Figure 10-1. Full-depth repair of a concrete pavement slab.............................................................................. 10-1
Figure 10-2. Partial-depth repair process at joint.............................................................................................. 10-2
Figure 10-3. Cross-section of concrete pavement showing stitching................................................................. 10-2
Figure 10-4. Drilling operation as part of slab stabilization............................................................................... 10-3
Figure 10-5. Application of joint sealant........................................................................................................... 10-4
Figure 10-6. Contiguous concrete slabs prepared for dowel bar retrofitting...................................................... 10-4
Figure 10-7. Diamond grinding concrete pavement for surface restoration....................................................... 10-4
Figure 10-8. Longitudinal grooving of a concrete pavement to restore macrotexture........................................ 10-5
ix
List of Tables
Table 1. Table of solutions....................................................................................................................................xv

Table 2-1. Current state-of-the-practice overlay design methodologies............................................................... 2-3
Table 2-2. Joint pattern for bonded concrete overlays......................................................................................... 2-4
Table 2-3. Joint pattern for unbonded concrete overlays of concrete pavements................................................. 2-5
Table 2-4. Joint pattern for unbonded concrete overlays of HMA and composite pavements.............................. 2-5
Table 3-1. Typical values for material properties................................................................................................. 3-3
Table 5-1. List of design methodologies.............................................................................................................. 5-4
Table 6-1. Typical CTB properties....................................................................................................................... 6-3
Preface
How is this guide unique?
Portland cement is the fundamental ingredient in concrete. When you think of cement, it may be automatic
to think of concrete; when you think of cement and
pavements, you probably think of cement in conventional concrete used for pavement surface layers. But
did you know that cement can be used in other pavement layers and for other applications? In fact, cement
can be used in many other applications for pavement
systems.
In addition to being the key constituent of new concrete pavement and concrete overlay surfaces, other
unique surface applications of cement include rollercompacted concrete (RCC), precast pavements, and
pervious concrete pavements. Cement is also used
in numerous pavement repair techniques, as well
as an array of pavement recycling and reclamation
applications.
A great deal of research and effort by many sources
has gone into developing literature about the individual pavement applications using cement. With so
The Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

provides a clear, concise, and cohesive discussion of 10
cement-bound material options for specific engineering
pavement applications, or solutions: new concrete pavements, concrete overlays, pervious concrete, precast
pavements, roller-compacted concrete, cement-treated
base, full-depth reclamation with cement, cementmodified soils, recycled concrete aggregates, and repair
and restoration. Each application is presented as a
method for meeting specific design and construction
objectives that todays pavement practitioners must
accomplish. The benefits, considerations, brief description, and summary of materials, design, and construction requirements, as well as a list of sustainable attributes, are provided for every solution.
This guide is intended to be short, simple, and easy to
understand. It was designed so that the most up-to-date
and relevant information is easily extractable. It is not
intended to be used as a design guide for any of the
applications identified herein. Recommendations for
additional information that can provide such details are
given at the end of each solution discussion.
Who is this guide for?

It was developed for practitioners, including engineers
and managers who face decisions regarding what materials to specify in the pavement systems they design or
manage. The audience also includes city and county
engineers, along with the A/E firms that often represent
them, and state DOT engineers at all levels who are
seeking alternatives in this era of changing markets.
Pavement systems containing cement-bound layers

have been used worldwide for over a century, with
great success. Portland cement can be used in virtually
every layer in a pavement system. Typical applications include improving the quality of subgrade soils
and stabilizing base materials. Integrating multiple
cement-based layers into a pavement design may provide a cost-effective method for achieving a stronger,
more durable, sustainable pavement. For instance,
using a cement-modified soil and cement-treated
base as opposed to an unbound granular base placed
on an unprepared subgrade can reduce the required
thickness of the base material. In addition, a cementtreated base may decrease the thickness needed for the
concrete or asphalt surface, resulting in less materials
and overall reduced cost.
many applications, engineers and other practitioners

could benefit from one publication that integrates and
summarizes all cement-based pavement applications
and helps them select and apply appropriate solutions
for specific needs. This publication fills that need.
xi
Important Definitions
Highways
This symbol represents applications of highly trafficked roadways that experience high volumes of
heavy truck traffic such as major highways and
interstates.
Streets & Local Roads
This symbol represents applications for city streets

and local roads that experience moderate levels of
passenger vehicle traffic and maybe some heavy truck
traffic.
xii
Shoulders
This symbol represents roadway shoulder

applications.
Commercial / Lightweight
This symbol represents applications including commercial parking lots, driveways, and residential
roadways.
Airfields
This symbol represents applications for general-purpose aviation and/or commercial or military airfield
facilities.
Heavy Industrial
This symbol represents applications for facilities that

experience high volumes of heavy truck traffic and/or
storage facilities, such as shipping yards, where heavy
containers are stored for long periods of time.
ASTM
Fines
ASTM International, originally known as the American Society for Testing and Materials, is an international standards setting organization.
Portion of the soil finer than a No. 200 (75 m) sieve.
Base
A pavement system in which the surface layer is hotmix asphalt (HMA). Typical flexible pavement systems
include an HMA surface over a base, subbase, and
subgrade layers.
The pavement layer constructed immediately beneath

a hot-mix asphalt (HMA) surface and sometimes
beneath a concrete surface. Material requirements for
this layer are more stringent than those for most subbase and subgrade layers.
Flexible pavement
Pavement system
Concrete
The combination of surface, base/subbase, and

improved subgrade layers constructed for the purpose
of supporting traffic.
An initially plastic (slumpable) mixture created by the

combination of cement, coarse and fine aggregates,
water, and various chemical admixtures that hardens
to a solid material over time.
Portland cement
Concrete pavement
A pavement system in which the surface layer is

concrete. Typical concrete pavement systems include a
concrete surface over a subbase and subgrade layers.
Fine aggregate
Defined by ASTM C33 as sand with 95100 percent

of the total material passing a No. 4 (4.75 mm) sieve.
A commercial product that, when combined with

water, forms a paste that over time becomes a hardened solid. It is typically combined with fine aggregates to form mortar or a combination of fine and
coarse aggregates to form concrete.
Subbase
The pavement layer constructed between the base and

subgrade in a flexible pavement system, or the layer
often found beneath a concrete surface in a concrete
pavement system.
xiii
Table of Solutions
Within an integrated pavement solutions system,

numerous alternative paving materials and techniques
are available. While their common link is the use of
portland cement, there remain notable differences that
must be recognized. To assist in the selection of the
most appropriate solutions for a given project, Table 1
should be referenced.
xiv
Within this table, the various solutions are shown

in the left column, along with a brief description of
each. To assist in the selection of the most appropriate
solutions, the challenges that a user might be facing
are in the adjacent columns. This cross-referencing is
intended to help narrow the selection of the available
solutions. Complementing the table are both the benefits and typical applications. These too are intended
to refine the selection of possible solutions.
Table 1. Table of solutions

Solution / Definition
Objectives
Benefits
New Concrete Pavements
Provide long life and reduced

maintenance.
Concrete pavements
can withstand many
environments.
New concrete pavements include both

jointed and continuously reinforced concrete
pavements. Thicknesses can range from 6 to
15 inches, depending on traffic, environment,
and soils.
Improve the surface.

Provide high load-carrying
capacity.
Expedite construction/renewal.
Reduce urban heat island effect.
Increase light reflectance.
Typical
Applications
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Concrete pavements typically

Shoulders
last much longer than their
Commercial/
original design life.
Lightweight
Concrete pavement surfaces

Airfields
reflect light and reduce the
urban heat island effect.
Heavy Industrial
Provide a sustainable option.
Vehicle fuel consumption for

the driving public is reduced
on concrete surfaces.
Concrete Overlays
Extend pavement life.
Overlays are a method of rehabilitating and/

or increasing the structural capacity of
existing pavements. Bonded overlays are
thin (2- to 6-in.) layers of concrete bonded
directly to a sound underlying pavement
in order to increase structural capacity.
Unbonded overlays are used principally when
the underlying pavement is in fair to poor
condition and are thick (4 to 11in.) enough
to support the traffic loads but recognizing
the structural capacity of the underlying
pavement.
Reconstruction costs are

avoided.
Pervious Concrete
Satisfy EPA Storm Water Phase II

regulations.
Pervious concrete is an EPA

Best Management Practice.
Streets and Local

Roads
Earn LEED credits.
Stormwater runoff and flash

flooding is minimized.
Shoulders
Pervious concrete is a paving material

consisting of almost exclusively coarse
aggregate, but with sufficient cement paste
to bind the mixture into a strong but open
(porous) material with exceptional drainage
properties.
Increase load-carrying capacity.

Improve safety.
Reduce tire-pavement noise.
Construction of an overlay
is much faster than
reconstruction.
Concrete pavement surfaces
reflect light and reduce the
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Shoulders
Commercial/
Lightweight
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Hydroplaning and splash and

spray are minimized.
Commercial/
Lightweight
Pervious concrete surfaces

reflect light and help reduce
the urban heat island effect.
Precast Pavements
Provide long life.
Precast pavements are a technique for

constructing or repairing a concrete pavement
surface where casting and curing of panels
are done in advance. Precast pavements are
a highly durable finished pavement and not
just a temporary fix. They are a repair option
for jointed concrete pavements (JCP) or
reconstruction option for both JCP and HMA
pavements. Rapid placement of the hardened
panels can then be conducted within short
traffic closure windows.

capacity.
Construction can be
completed during short
(overnight or weekend)
closures.
Lane closures and
associated user delays
during construction are
minimized.
Precast pavements are
a highly durable finished
pavement and not just a
temporary fix.
Precast pavement surfaces
reflect light and help reduce
Highways
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Noise from the tire-pavement

interaction is reduced.
xv
Table 1. Table of solutions (Continued)

Typical
Applications
Objectives
Benefits
Roller-Compacted Concrete
Provide low-cost option.
Roller-compacted concrete (RCC) is a stiff

and strong concrete mixture that is typically
placed with asphalt pavers as either a
surface or a support layer. Roller-compacted
concrete surfaces can be used for low-speed
or industrial applications. Roller-compacted
concrete layers can also serve as a
support layer to a thin (1.5- to 2-in.) HMA (or
occasionally concrete) surface.

capacity.
Highways
Roller-compacted concrete
provides a strong, dense, and
Streets and Local
durable material that can be
Roads
quickly constructed.
Shoulders
Construction is fast with no
Airfields
forms or finishing.
Expedite construction.
Allow early opening to traffic.
No steel reinforcement and

minimum labor make RCC
economical.
Commercial/
Lightweight
Heavy Industrial
For many applications,

joint sawing is optional for
aesthetic purposes resulting
in additional cost savings.
Roller-compacted concrete
pavement surfaces reflect
light and help reduce the
Cement-Treated Base
Cement-treated base (CTB) is a mixture of
aggregate material and/or granular soils
combined with engineered amounts of
portland cement and water that hardens after
compaction and curing to form a stronger,
stiffer, and more durable paving material.
Cement-treated base is used as a pavement
base for flexible pavements or a subbase for
concrete pavements.
Provide a strong, uniform base/

subbase for current and future
loading conditions using in-place
or locally available marginal soils
and granular material.
Reduce stresses on the subgrade.
Stabilize a variety of soils with a
single stabilizer.
Reduce rutting and deflections in a
flexible pavement surface.
Improve the structural capacity of
the existing soil.
Full-Depth Reclamation
xvi
Full-depth reclamation (FDR) is a technique in

which hot-mixed asphalt (HMA) material from
the existing pavement is removed, combined
with portland cement, and used to create a
new and improved base. The FDR base is then
topped with a new HMA or concrete surface
layer.
Provide a strong, uniform base/

subbase for current and future
loading conditions using existing
failed asphalt surface and base
material.
Maintain existing grade with
minimum material removal or
addition.
Reduce or totally eliminate the
need for virgin aggregates.
Reduce rutting and deflections in a
flexible pavement surface.
Improve the structural capacity of
stabilized base over unstabilized
base material.
Provide pavement reconstruction
method that is fast and minimizes
traffic disruption.
A stiffer base reduces

deflections due to traffic
loads, thereby extending
pavement life.
Subgrade failures, pumping,
rutting, joint faulting, and
road roughness are reduced.
Base thickness is reduced
compared to unbound
granular base thicknesses.
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Shoulders
Airfields
Commercial/
Lightweight
Heavy Industrial
Marginal aggregates,
including recycled materials,
can be used, thus reducing
the need for virgin, highquality aggregates.
The performance of the base
layer is improved over an
unbound granular base.
Little, if any, material is
hauled off or onto the site,
resulting in less truck traffic,
lower emissions, and less
damage to local roads. Work
can be completed quickly
compared to removal and
replacement techniques.
Full-depth reclamation
process is economical
compared to removal and
replacement and thick
overlays.
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Airfields
Commercial/
Lightweight
Heavy Industrial
Table 1. Table of solutions (Continued)

Objectives
Benefits
Cement-modified soils
Reduce the plasticity and highprovide a weathervolume change characteristics
Cement-modified soils (CMS) are soils and/
resistant work platform for
of
clay
soils
due
to
moisture
or manufactured aggregates mixed with a
construction operations.
variations.
small proportion of portland cement. Cementmodified soils exhibit reduced plasticity,
Improve stability of a poorly graded Fatigue failures caused by
minimized volumetric changes due to moisture
repeated high deflections are
sandy soil. Improve the properties
changes, increased bearing strength, and
controlled.
of a sandy soil containing a highimproved stability.
plasticity clay.
There is a reduction in
moisture sensitivity and
Provide a method to dry out a wet
subgrade seasonal load
subgrade.
restrictions.
Provide a firm construction
No mellowing period is
platform to work on.
needed as required by other
stabilizing agents.
Cement-Modified Soils
Recycled Concrete Aggregates

Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) are
aggregates produced from the recycling
of existing concrete. Existing concrete
is removed, processed into appropriate
aggregate sizes, and reused in various
pavement applications.
Recycle excavated concrete

pavement.
Minimize construction cost.
Reduce dependence on good
quality virgin aggregates, which
may be hard to find or expensive to
bring in.
Recycled concrete
aggregates are versatile
because they can be used in
any pavement layer.
Material costs are reduced.
Construction time can be
expedited with on-site
recycling plants.
Pavement suffering from
ASR or D-cracking can
be recycled instead of
discarded.
Typical
Applications
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Shoulders
Airfields
Commercial/
Lightweight
Heavy Industrial
Highways
Streets and Local
Roads
Shoulders
Airfields
Commercial/
Lightweight
Heavy Industrial
The need for old concrete

disposal is reduced.
Extend life.
Repair and restoration is a series of

techniques including diamond grinding, dowel
bar retrofit, full and partial depth repairs,
joint sealing, patching, and slab stabilization
that extend the life of a concrete pavement.
These techniques can often be used in lieu of
resurfacing or reconstructing.

Repair and restoration

fixes distressed concrete
pavement (Commentareas
may not be isolated, i.e.,
diamond grinding an entire
roadway).
These are options for lowcost concrete pavement life
extensions.
Highways
Airfield
Streets and Local
Roads
Repair and Restoration
xvii
xviii

1
New Concrete Pavements
Objectives
Provide long life and reduced maintenance.
roads, as well as heavy industrial applications, airfields

(runways, taxiways, roadways, aprons, parking facilities), and commercial/lightweight industrial applications such as driveways and parking lots.
Provide high load-carrying capacity.

Highways

Solution
Construct a new concrete pavement.
Benefits
Concrete pavements can withstand many
environments.
Concrete pavement surfaces reflect light and reduce

Vehicle fuel consumption for the driving public is
reduced on concrete surfaces.
Considerations
The concrete mixture must be designed properly for
the environment.
Proper construction practices are essential to longterm performance.
Typical Applications
Concrete pavement applications include highways
(mainline, shoulders, frontage roads), streets and local
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Description
A pavement structure is a combination of a surface
course and base/subbase courses placed on a prepared
subgrade. A new concrete pavement is one where the
surface course is made of concrete (Figure 1-1).
Concrete Surface
Surface
Concrete
Subbase
Subbase
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 1-1. Schematic of typical concrete
pavement cross-section
Concrete pavements typically last much longer than

their original design life.
Shoulders
1-1
NEW CONCRETE PAVEMENTS
Concrete pavements have been built in the United

States since the first concrete street was built in Bellefontaine, Ohio, in 1891. This pavement is still in service today. Concrete pavements can be very versatile;
they can be designed to handle the freezing winters of
Michigans Upper Peninsula or the scorching heat of
New Mexico in the Southwest. Concrete pavements
can be a durable, economical, and sustainable solution
for many applications if proper material mixtures are
used and the pavement structure is both designed and
constructed properly.
Concrete pavements are often designed specifically for

a given project; however, some agencies have adopted
standard values for the geometric characteristics of
There are different types of concrete pavements built

in the United States; however, the two most common ones are jointed concrete pavements (JCP) and
continuously reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP).
Each type is suitable for new construction, reconstruction, and overlays of existing roads.
1-2
Jointed concrete pavement can be either plain (JPCP)

or reinforced (JRCP). Both have regularly spaced
transverse contraction joints with dowels for load
transfer and longitudinal construction joints held
together with tie bars. Concrete will crack; joints are
designed to control where these cracks occur. The idea
is to design a joint spacing that ensures that cracks
occur under the joints instead of randomly across
the pavement. Jointed reinforced concrete pavement
includes wire mesh and/or deformed steel bar reinforcement throughout each slab (the area bounded by
transverse and longitudinal joints). The reinforcement
is intended to hold tight any cracks that may form
within the slab.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements do not
require transverse contraction joints, but do include
transverse and longitudinal construction joints.
Continuously reinforced concrete pavements contain
continuous longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
through the entire pavement (more than JRCP). Reinforcement in CRCP is designed to control transverse
crack widths; reinforcement keeps cracks held tightly
together and is not designed to help carry traffic loads.
Standard CRCP designs are often chosen by states
(like Texas, Virginia, and Illinois) to accommodate
high traffic and heavy loads.
Figure 1-2 illustrates typical jointing and reinforcement for JPCP, JRCP, and CRCP designs.
Figure 1-2. Schematic of the various types of new

concrete pavements (from IMCP manual, Iowa
State University, 2006)
The excellent performance of concrete pavements

relies on the use of suitable materials, an adequate
design, and sound construction practices. Both structural and functional performance is enhanced when all
of these aspects are carefully identified and accounted
for. The most influential design-related variables for
structural performance (at a given level of traffic) are
slab thickness, joint spacing, reinforcement, concrete
strength, and support conditions. Functional performance of the pavement is often related to features like
smoothness, texture, and noise. These are affectedin
partby the concrete pavement texture along with
the concrete material used and, in particular, its
durability.
Materials
Mixtures for concrete pavements typically incorporate
the following constituents: a blend of coarse and fine
aggregates, portland cement, water, and sometimes
other cementitious materials such as fly ash and slag
cement, and/or chemical admixtures (see Figure 1-3).
The compatibility of materials in concrete pavements
is important because it will affect long-term pavement
performance.
A blend of coarse and fine aggregates is typically

used in concrete paving mixtures. The aggregates are
often natural but can also be manufactured. Coarse
aggregates may even include a percentage of recycled
aggregates. A fine aggregate is defined by ASTM
C33 as having 95 percent or more material particles
passing the #4 (4.75 mm) sieve. ASTM C33 also
provides guidelines on typical aggregate gradations
for concrete. Most states have standards and specifications that identify certain gradation limits for specific
applications and further identify a limit for recycled
aggregate content. Aggregates strongly influence concretes fresh properties (particularly workability) and
long-term durability. A well-graded blend of aggregates will further ensure long-term pavement performance. Achieving a well-graded aggregate supply can
often be attained by adding an intermediate (#8 to 3/8
in. [2.36 to 9.5 mm]) aggregate.
Portland cement gives the material its strength and
binds the aggregates together. There are different types
of cement, but the most common for paving include
Types I, II, I/II, and III. Type I is commonly used in
normal concrete mixtures. Type II is similar to Type I
but gives off less heat and is moderately sulfate resistant. It is common to use a Type I/II cement in paving
applications, which meets the requirements as both
a Type I and a Type II. Type III cements gain strength
Paste (cement + water)
1516% Water
Mortar (paste + fine aggregate)
Concrete (mortar + coarse aggregate)
3045% Coarse aggregate
Figure 1-3. Concrete mixture constituents (from IMCP Manual, Iowa State University, 2006)
915% Cement
2535% Fine aggregate
pavements as well as for the materials specifications

so that designs become more practical.
1-3
quickly and are often used in fast-track paving or

repair. Blended cements such as Type IP (portlandpozzolan cement) or Type IS (portland blast-furnace
slag) cements include other cementitious materials
and are options for use in paving mixtures.
It is common for paving mixtures to include supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) that are added
to the mixture by replacing a percentage (either mass
or volumetric) of the portland cement content. These
may include industrial byproducts like fly ash or slag
cement. The proportions in which the materials are
used usually vary in every design and are typically
selected to balance cost, strength requirements, workability, and durability.
Water for concrete should be potable (fit for human

consumption). Some water recycled from returned
concrete and plant washing can be acceptable. Specifications for mixing water in concrete mixtures can be
found in ASTM C1602. Typical water-to-cementitious
materials (w/cm) ratios for normal concrete paving mixtures range from 0.40 to 0.45. Higher w/cm
ratios will result in increased workability but also
lower strength and decreased long-term pavement
performance.
1-4
Admixtures commonly used in concrete mixtures

include air-entraining admixtures, water-reducing
admixtures, retarders, and accelerators. Air-entraining
admixtures are used to develop an air void system
that is necessary for concrete durability, particularly in
freeze-thaw environments. Water-reducing admixtures
are used to reduce w/cm ratios while improving workability. Retarders decrease set time and are generally
used in hot weather placements. Accelerators increase
set times for cold weather concreting. The amount of
admixture required for each depends on the amount
and type of cementitious material used. It is a good
practice to follow the manufacturers recommendations for dosage. Several admixtures can be used in
one mixture, but trial batches must be run in order to
ensure compatibility.
If designed properly for the environment in which
they will be placed, concrete pavements will last a
long time. Various American Concrete Institute (ACI)
international documents, the National Concrete Pavement Technology Centers (CP Tech Center) Integrated
Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement (IMCP) Manual, and the Portland Cement Associations (PCA) Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures
provide detailed recommendations of how to proportion a mixture and ensure good performance in a variety of environments. In general, compatible materials
coupled with low permeability (i.e., low w/cm ratios
and the use of SCMs) and a proper air void system
will result in good long-term concrete performance.
Design
A concrete pavement design includes calculating a
required pavement thickness, determining a joint
layout, and identifying the required steel content (if
applicable). The most nationally accepted method for
concrete pavement design is the American Association
of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Design Guide (1993). A major effort is currently underway to regionally calibrate and shift to the new
AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design
Guide (M-E PDG).
Other design tools such as tables from the ACI Committee 330 report Guide for the Design and Construction
of Concrete Parking Lots, the Continuously Reinforced
Concrete Pavement Design and Construction Guidelines
(Rasmussen, Rogers, and Ferragut 2009), and the
American Concrete Pavement Associations StreetPave
software program can be used to provide satisfactory
results.
A concrete pavement needs to be thick enough to
withstand the stress and fatigue caused by the environment in which it is constructed and the loads
under which it must perform over an anticipated
lifetime. Some critical design inputs for calculating
thickness include the estimated traffic loading during
the design life, failure criteria, concrete strength, and
stiffness and drainage characterization of supporting
layers.
For JCP, the spacing of contraction joints is designed
at intervals such that potential volumetric changes
of the concrete do not result in unintended damage
to the pavement (i.e., uncontrolled cracking). The
Federal Highway Administrations High Performance
Concrete Paving (HIPERPAV) software can be used as
an effective tool for designing proper joint spacing.
Reinforcement used in concrete pavements includes

dowels, tie bars, and continuous steel bars throughout
the slab. Dowels provide load transfer and vertical
support for jointed pavements at the transverse joints.
Tie bars promote aggregate interlock and are most
often used along longitudinal joints. Wire or deformed
steel bar reinforcement in JRCP keeps random cracks
held tightly together. Designing the reinforcement
includes identifying the type, size, and spacing. Most
states already have standards and specifications for the
design of pavement reinforcement. The critical design
factors for reinforcement include pavement thickness,
concrete material properties, and type of support.
Concrete is placed using slipform or fixed-form paving methods, depending upon the nature of the project. The concrete mixtures required by either placement method can vary significantly. Slipform paving
operations require a low-slump mixture that will not
slough after extrusion by the paving machine, while
fixed-form paving operations rely on a higher slump
mixture that will flow easily to fill the forms. Slipform
paving is generally for placements that require high
production rates, such as mainline paving. Fixed-form
paving is adaptable to nearly any placement circumstance, but because it requires setting up side forms
to hold the concrete, it is generally used in irregular
sections where slipform paving is not practical.
Contraction joints should be formed or sawcut as
soon as possible and are typically sawed to a depth of
one-third that of the pavement thickness. Figure 1-4
depicts this process. Contractor experience and tools
such as the Federal Highway Administration HIPERPAV computer software program can help identify
proper sawcut times based on materials, design, and
construction methods. Joints should be sealed with
an appropriate material, although some states are
Construction
The construction of a concrete pavement involves
obtaining the materials, batching and mixing, placing,
texturing, and curing.
Batching is the process of measuring the constituents
by mass or volume according to a mixture design and
introducing them into a mixer. The size of the batch
depends on the capacity of the mixer. In most cases,
either a stationary or a ready-mix plant is used for
mixing paving concrete, which is then typically transported to the job in dump trucks for slipform paving.
Truck mixers can also transport paving concrete but
are used more often for fixed-form placements. When
planning for equipment, it is important to consider
Figure 1-4. Sawcutting JPCP
A subbase is usually advisable for heavier trafficked

pavements. A subbase in light duty pavements (e.g.,
residential and collector streets and parking lots) is
not always necessary and depends on underlying soils,
drainage needs, and loads.
the production capacity and typical haul times. Projects in congested areas, which do not allow for on-site
production, may require a mix design that permits
extended hauling and placement times.
Jointed plain concrete pavement transverse contraction joints are typically spaced at 15 to 20 ft (5to
6.1m) in order to control cracking. Transverse
contraction joints in JRCP can be spaced farther apart
(typically about 30 to 40 ft [9 to 12 m]) because of
the steel content. Contraction joints are not required
in CRCP. Continuously reinforced concrete pavement
is designed to have random transverse cracks that are
held tightly together by the reinforcing steel. In all
concrete pavements, longitudinal construction joints
are placed between lanes and transverse construction
joints are constructed at the end of each days paving.
1-5
experimenting with unsealed contraction joints. Local

practice should govern accordingly.
When used, dowels can be placed in prefabricated
dowel baskets and secured in place prior to paving.
Figure 1-5 shows fresh concrete placed over dowel
bars secured in dowel bar baskets. Alternatively,
dowels can be inserted into the fresh concrete during
placement using a dowel-bar inserter (see Figure 1-6).
There are several options for placing tie bars as well.
A tie-bar inserter is commonly used to place tie bars
between lanes when two lanes are constructed at the
same time. For lane additions, single-piece tie bars
can be drilled and inserted into the existing hardened
concrete and epoxied into place. Bent tie bars can also
be inserted during paving and pulled straight after the
pavement has hardened. Finally, two-piece tie bars
can be used, where one-half of the tie bar is inserted

during placement and later the second half is screwed
into the first half.
Reinforcing steel for JRCP and CRCP is placed before
paving begins as seen in Figure 1-7 and Figure 1-8.
Texture is applied to the surface of the concrete after
placement and before curing. The purpose is to
increase friction and improve wet weather driving
conditions. Two commonly used wet texture tech-
Figure 1-7. JRCP reinforcement in place before

paving
1-6
Figure 1-5. Concrete placed over dowel baskets
Figure 1-6. Dowel-bar inserter
Figure 1-8. CRCP reinforcement placed before

paving
Proper curing measures prevent rapid water loss from

the mixture and allow more thorough cement hydration. It is essential to apply curing as early as possible
after placing concrete and to continue until enough
hydration has taken place and the required hardened
properties have been achieved. A variety of curing
methods and materials is available for concrete pavement, including water spray or fog, wet burlap sheets,
plastic sheets, and insulating blankets. Most commonly used, however, is the application of a liquid
membrane-forming compound (see Figure 1-10).
Concretes light surface reduces the urban heat

island effect.
Studies suggest concrete surfaces reduce vehicle fuel
consumption for the driving public.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 1993. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Design
Guide.
American Concrete Institute. 2008. Guide for the
Design and Construction of Concrete Parking Lots. ACI
Report 330R-08.
American Concrete Pavement Association. 2002.
Concrete Pavement for General-Aviation, Business and
Commuter Aircraft. Concrete Information, IS202.
StreetPave Computer Program. SW03.
Industrial by-products (e.g., fly ash, slag cement,

silica fume) can be used in mixture design.
Federal Highway Administration. 1990. Concrete Pavement Joints. Technical Advisory, T 5040.30.
Concrete pavement surfaces are highly reflective,

making them more visible at night. Better visibility
improves safety. Brighter streets require less lighting;
therefore, energy requirements are reduced.
Federal Highway Administration. 2007. HIPERPAV

software, www.HIPERPAV.com, www.fhwa.dot.gov/
pavement/pub_details.cfm?id=660.
Figure 1-9. Burlap drag on fresh concrete
Figure 1-10. Curing compound applied by spray

nozzles on a cure cart
Concrete pavements have longevity.

Design of Concrete Pavement for Streets and Roads. Concrete Information, EB237.
Sustainability
niques include tining and drag. Tined surfaces are

applied using a steel rake and can be applied longitudinally or in the transverse direction. Drag textures are
applied by dragging a piece of artificial turf or heavy
burlap on the surface (see Figure 1-9). Additional
textures include diamond grinding and grooving. If
used, grinding and grooving are done after curing and
once the pavement is able to withstand the weight of
the machine that must be used.
1-7
Novak, L. and D. Bilow. 2009. A Sustainable Approach

to Outdoor Lighting Utilizing Concrete Pavement. SP393.
Portland Cement Association. 2011. Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures. 15th edition.
Portland Cement Association. 2010. Integrated Paving
SolutionsConcrete Pavements. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/concretepavements.html.
Rasmussen, R. O., S. I. Garber, G. Fick, T. R. Ferragut,

and P. D. Wiegand. 2008. How to Reduce Tire-Pavement
Noise: Interim Better Practices for Constructing and
Texturing Concrete Pavement Surfaces. Pooled Fund
TPF-5(139).
1-8
Rasmussen, Rogers, and Ferragut. 2009. Continuously

Reinforced Concrete Pavement Design and Construction
Guidelines. Draft, Federal Highway Administration and
Continuously Reinforced Concrete Institute, May.
Taylor, G. and J. Patten. 2006. Effects of Pavement
Structure on Vehicle Fuel ConsumptionPhase III. Project 54-HV775, Technical Report CSTT-HVC-TR-068,
NRC-CNRC, January 27.
Taylor, P., S. Kosmatka, G. Voigt, et al. 2006. Integrated
Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice Manual. National Concrete
Pavement Technology Center/Center for Transportation Research and Education, Iowa State University,
December.

2
Concrete Overlays
Objectives
Extend pavement life.
Increase load-carrying capacity.
condition, overlay design details, pre-overlay work,

construction materials, and future maintenance and
rehabilitation.
Highways

Shoulders
Solution
Construct a concrete overlay.
Benefits
Reconstruction costs are avoided.
Concrete pavement surfaces reflect light and reduce

Considerations
Proper assessment of existing pavement conditions
is necessary to determine feasibility.
Any loss of subgrade support or drainage problems
must be corrected.
Concrete overlays can be used for the rehabilitation of
a variety of surfaces. However, various factors need to
be taken into account before selecting the appropriate overlay system including the existing pavement
Heavy Industrial
Description
Concrete overlays are a durable and cost-effective
maintenance and rehabilitation alternative when
properly designed and constructed. Rehabilitation of
the existing pavement is simplified by the fact that
it does not need to be removed, and quite often, few
pre-overlay repairs need to be carried out. Overlays
preserve pavement serviceability for several decades
beyond the original design life.
Overlays are constructed using conventional concrete
paving procedures. Joint spacing, load transfer design,
and reinforcement methods are similar to new pavements. In addition, typical concrete mixtures are used,
which can be adjusted to allow for higher strengths or
an expedited construction process.
Construction of an overlay is much faster than

reconstruction.
Airfields
2-1
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
Concrete overlays are able to restore the function of

a facility very effectively. The construction of a new
surface results in substantially improved surface characteristics including rideability, improved noise levels,
and increased friction. Before placement of an overlay
can occur, the existing pavement must be sufficiently
evaluated in order to ensure it is a good candidate for
overlay construction. There are two main types of concrete overlays: bonded and unbonded (see Figure 2-1).
Both overlay types can be constructed over concrete,

flexible, and composite pavements (see Figure 2-2).
Bonded overlays are relatively thin and constructed
directly on top of existing pavements. Bonded overlays restore the surface and add some structural
capacity to roadways that are somewhat to moderately
distressed.
Unbonded concrete overlays are typically thicker than
bonded overlays and require a separation layer (i.e.,
bond breaker). Unbonded overlays restore the structural capacity of existing pavements that are moderately to significantly deteriorated.
Materials
Figure 2-1. Unbonded overlay
Bonded Overlay Systems
Unbonded Overlay Systems
In general, bonded overlays are used to add structural capacity

and/or eliminate surface distress when the existing pavement
is in good structural condition.
In general, unbonded overlays are used to rehabilitate

pavement with some structural deterioration.
(Resurfacing/Minor Rehabilitation)
2-2
The type of project and the construction schedule

dictate the concrete mixture materials. Conventional
mixtures should be carefully selected to allow the
resulting mixture to be dense, relatively impermeable,
and resistant to environmental effects over the length
of its service life. Most agencies specify a 28-day
unconfined compressive strength requirement of
4,000 psi (28MPa) for their pavements. On the other
Bonding is essential, so thorough surface preparation is

necessary before resurfacing.
(Minor/Major Rehabilitation)
They are basically new pavements constructed on an

existing, stable platform (the existing pavement).
Bonded Concrete Overlays of Concrete Pavements

previously called bonded overlays
Unbonded Concrete Overlays of Concrete Pavements

previously called unbonded overlays
Bonded Concrete Overlays of Asphalt Pavements

previously called ultra-thin whitetopping
Unbonded Concrete Overlays of Asphalt Pavements

previously called conventional whitetopping
Bonded Concrete Overlays of Composite Pavements
Unbonded Concrete Overlays of Composite Pavements
Figure 2-2. Overlay applications
Type I and Type II cements are normally used in concrete mixtures for concrete overlays. Type III cement
can be used when high early strength is desired. Various admixtures are commonly introduced as well and
include water reducers, air entrainment, and SCMs.
Supplementary cementing materials such as fly ash
and slag cement improve the workability of the concrete, increase durability and long-term strength, and
extend placement time during hot weather. A maximum w/cm ratio of 0.45 is common for pavements in
a moist environment with many freeze-thaw cycles,
although lower values are used to minimize drying
shrinkage.
Aggregates used in overlays range from crushed stones
and river gravels to recycled concrete aggregate and
should possess adequate strength and be physically
and chemically stable within the concrete mixture.
The maximum coarse aggregate size should be used in
order to minimize paste requirements, reduce shrinkage, minimize costs, and improve mechanical interlock properties at joints and cracks.
Overlay
Overlay
Existing
Existing Pavement
Pavement
Separation
Layer
Base/Subbase
Base/Subbase
Prepared/Untreated
Prepared/Untreated
Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 2-3. Typical cross-section of unbonded
overlay
Concrete overlays have been shown to add 15 to 30

years of service life to a roadway. Long-term durability
will result from proper materials selection, sufficient
pre-overlay work, effective design methods, and successful construction practices. Pavement management
and preservation activities such as routine and preventive maintenance and minor rehabilitation should
be carefully considered as well in order to further
increase the service life of a concrete overlay.
Design
The design of an overlay includes calculating a thickness, establishing a joint layout, and determining
reinforcement content. There are several state-of-thepractice design methods that are listed in Table 2-1.
In the case of an unbonded overlay, the overlay design
must include an interlayer.
Bonded Overlays
The design of a bonded concrete overlay depends on
the assumption that the overlay and existing pavement
will be one monolithic structure.
For bonded overlays, typical thicknesses range from
2 to 5 in. (50 to 125 mm). For high-traffic roads,
a 6 in. (150 mm) bonded overlay or greater can be
constructed.
Table 2-1. Current state-of-the-practice overlay
design methodologies
State-of-the-Practice Concrete Overlay
Design Methods
Bonded concrete overlay of concrete pavements
1993 AASHTO Guide
M-E PDG
Bonded concrete overlay of HMA and composite
pavements
1993 AASHTO Guide
M-E PDG
Modified ACPA method
Unbonded concrete overlay of all types
1993 AASHTO Guide
M-E PDG
The separation layer in unbonded overlays is critical

to their long-term performance (see Figure 2-3). A
1-in. (25 mm) thick conventional HMA surface mixture is most commonly used. However, the use of a
nonwoven geotextile interlayer has been shown to be
a promising alternative. Research and project experience has shown that nonwoven geotextiles provide
uniform, elastic support of the concrete slab, reduce

pumping processes, and prevent reflective cracking.
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
hand, some states use rapid-strength concrete mixtures that have a high cementitious material content, a
low water-to-cementitious materials (w/cm) ratio, and
smaller top size aggregate. These types of mixtures
can be used with accelerating admixtures to allow for
faster opening times.
2-3
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
Typical joint design patterns are listed in Table 2-2.

Recommendations for joint depth depend on the type
of joint and existing pavement, as well as the equipment used for construction.
Overlay joint widths for bonded concrete pavements
are equal to existing pavement joints. For conventional saws, transverse joints in bonded overlays of
concrete pavements should be full depth plus 0.50 in.
(13 mm). Similarly, longitudinal joints are cut either
full depth or no less than half of the pavement thickness. Transverse joints in bonded overlays of HMA
and composite pavements constructed using a conventional saw should be cut to a depth of one-fourth
of the pavement thickness (T/4); longitudinal joints
should be sawcut to a depth of one-third of the pavement thickness (T/3).
Reinforcement such as tie bars, dowel bars, and other
embedded steel products are typically not used for
overlays less than 6 in. (150 mm) thick.
Continuously reinforced bonded overlays have been

constructed by some agencies, and in these cases steel
is placed at sufficient depth to provide a minimum of
3 in. (75 mm) of concrete cover. The steel can be positioned directly on top of the old pavement, which has
the added benefit of effectively restraining concrete
volume changes at the interface.
2-4
Table 2-2. Joint pattern for bonded concrete

overlays
Joint Pattern for Bonded Overlays
Bonded Overlay of JPCP
Match joints with existing

pavement joints.
Match longitudinal joints

Bonded Overlay of CRCP with existing pavement
joints.
Use small square patterns
in the range of 3 to 8 ft. (0.9
to 2.4 m).
Bonded Overlay of HMA
and Composites
Maximum dimensions of
the square panels should
be no greater than 1.5 times
the thickness of the overlay.
Avoid longitudinal joints in
the wheel paths.
Unbonded Overlays
The design of an unbonded overlay is similar to
designing a new concrete pavement over a stabilized
subbase. An unbonded overlay design assumes there
is no bond between the bottom surface of the overlay
and the top surface of the existing pavement.
The design thickness of an unbonded overlay typically
ranges from 6 to 11 in. (150 to 280 mm) but can be as
thin as 4 in. (100 mm) for lower-volume roads or when
overhead clearance is an issue and loading is light.
Unbonded overlays of concrete pavements require an
interlayer as a separation layer. The design of the separation layer is critical to the long-term performance of
the overlay because it helps prevent reflective cracking
and allows the overlay and existing pavement structure to move independently of one another. Drainage
must be considered during design of this interlayer.
The most common separation layer is a 1-in. (25-mm)
HMA surface mixture; however, a nonwoven geotextile specifically manufactured for use as an interlayer
between cementitious layers has also been used as an
alternative. The thickness of the HMA interlayer is
sometimes increased slightly for unbonded overlays of
CRCP. An increase in interlayer thickness may also be
required if the existing pavement experiences larger
degrees of faulting. A geotextile is not a good alternative in such cases.
It should be noted that while unbonded overlays
of HMA or composite pavements do not require an
interlayer, if a full-depth concrete patch has been constructed in the existing pavement it must be isolated.
One technique for isolating the patch is to apply a
debonding agent or material (e.g., asphalt emulsion
coating) to the surface of the patch before the construction of the overlay.
For an unbonded overlay of concrete, many states
try to match the transverse joints in the overlay with
those in the existing pavement. However, some states
intentionally design transverse joints in the overlay at
an offset from those in the existing pavement. Joint
spacings are designed based on the thickness of the
overlay. Typical joint patterns for unbonded overlays
are listed in Table 2-3 and Table 2-4. Joint depths
depend on the type of saw used for construction.
Dowels are used in joints when the overlays design

thickness is greater than 8 in. (200 mm) and expected
to carry heavy truck traffic. Tie bars may be appropriate in open-ditch (or shoulder) sections if the design
thickness is greater than 5 in. (125 mm). Tied shoulders are the approved method for providing overlay
edge support. Tie bars at confined curb-and-gutter
sections should be considered if the overlay design
thickness is greater than 6 in. (150 mm).
Construction
The construction of an overlay (see Figure 2-4) is a
process similar to conventional concrete pavement
Table 2-3. Joint pattern for unbonded concrete
overlays of concrete pavements
Unbonded Overlays of Concrete Pavements
Design Thickness
Joint Pattern
Use square panels measuring
6 x 6 ft (1.8 x 1.8 m) panels
5 7 in.
(125 175 mm)
Maximum joint spacing in feet =

2 times thickness in inches
> 7 in. (175 mm)
Maximum joint spacing =15 ft.

(4.6 m)
While mixing and placing are the same for both

bonded and unbonded overlays, there are subtle differences in the other steps of the process based on
the type of overlay to be constructed and the type of
existing pavement.
Bonded Overlays
For bonded overlays of any kind, repairs need to be
made to place the existing pavement in good condition or at least in fair condition. For existing concrete
pavement, that would include repairing wide cracks
and subsurface voids. For existing HMA and composite pavements, repairs include addressing potholes,
moderate to severe alligator cracking, and loss of
subgrade support. Methods for addressing the vertical movement of concrete in composite pavements are
explained in the National Concrete Pavement Technology Centers Guide to Concrete Overlays.
After repair, the surface of an existing pavement is
prepared and cleaned of any loose debris. Surface
preparation and cleaning promotes a bond between
the overlay and existing pavement. The most common method used to prepare a concrete surface is
shotblasting. The surface is then cleaned by sweeping
and/or using compressed air. Milling HMA and/or
composite surfaces can also be an appropriate method
of repair; however, too much milling (for either repair
or preparation) will reduce structural capacity. The
Table 2-4. Joint pattern for unbonded concrete

overlays of HMA and composite pavements
Unbonded Overlays of Concrete Pavements
Design Thickness
Joint Pattern
<6 in. (150 mm)

1.5 times thickness in inches
6 15 in.
(150 380 mm)

2 times thickness in inches
> 15 in. (380 mm)
Maximum joint spacing =15 ft.

(4.6 m)
Figure 2-4. Unbonded concrete overlay

construction over a nonwoven geotextile interlayer
<5 in. (125 mm)
and includes concrete production, preparation of the

existing surface, and the placement, curing, and sawcutting of new concrete.
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
Unbonded overlays of concrete, HMA, or composite

pavements should include transverse joints that, when
cut with conventional saws, are constructed at depths
of T/4 to T/3. Longitudinal joints should be at depths
of T/3.
2-5
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
minimum remaining HMA needs to be at least 3 in.

(75 mm), preferably 4 in. (100 mm) Milling needs
to be done to the top of the nearest HMA lift line to
prevent fracturing of the HMA. Hot-mix asphalt and
composite pavements are then swept clean or blown
with compressed air.
Placement of concrete over existing pavements should
follow standard conventional concrete paving practices (see Figure 2-5). Placement over HMA or composite pavements can be accomplished using fixedform or slipform construction techniques. When HMA
surface temperatures are greater than 120F (49C),
the surface should be cooled by applying water in
front of the paver; however, no standing water should
be allowed at the time of paving. If the surface cannot be cooled sufficiently, placement may need to be
rescheduled for another part of the day.
Curing a bonded overlay and properly timed sawcuts

are critical factors no matter what type of existing
pavement lies beneath it. The new concrete layer has a
high surface-to-volume ratio that makes it vulnerable
to rapid moisture loss. Curing compounds should be
applied at twice the rate typical for conventional concrete practices and should coat the surface and edges
evenly. Joints must be cut as soon as possible and can
be constructed with conventional or early-entry saws.
It may be necessary to have multiple saws on hand in
order to sawcut joints fast enough to prevent uncontrolled cracking. Joint sealants may not be required.
2-6
Unbonded Overlays
Before an unbonded overlay is constructed over any
existing pavement type (i.e., concrete, HMA, or composite), distresses that cause a major loss of structural
integrity will require repair. Hot-mix asphalt and
composite pavements may be milled to correct surface
defects that are 2 in. (50 mm) or deeper. A minimum
of 3 to 4 in. (75 to 100 mm) of HMA must remain in
place after milling if the overlay design thickness is
6in. (150 mm) or greater. If less than 6 in. (150mm),
an overlay of at least 6 in. (150 mm) of remaining
HMA is recommended; otherwise, a bonded overlay
should be designed.
After repair, if any are necessary, the surface is swept
or air blown. If the existing pavement is concrete,
the surface must be void of any loose debris before
the bond-breaker interlayer is constructed. Hot-mix
asphalt and composite surfaces can be simply swept
clean; small remaining debris is not an issue.
Like bonded overlays, placement of unbonded overlays over existing concrete should follow standard
conventional concrete paving practices. Placement
over HMA or composite pavements can be accomplished using fixed-form or slipform construction
techniques. The pavement needs to be cooled prior
to paving, when surface temperatures are greater
than 120F (49C). Dowel baskets must be secured
properly to the existing pavement unless a dowel bar
inserter is used.
Curing and sawcutting follows the same logic as that
for bonded overlays: quick, thorough, even application of curing and properly timed saw cuts are critical
to long-term performance.
Sustainability
Concrete overlays make use of the existing pavement, eliminating the need for removal and
disposal.
Concrete overlays can be constructed and opened to
traffic within a day, reducing user costs and driver
frustration.
Figure 2-5. Bonded overlay construction
Concrete overlays possess a low life-cycle cost, with

long lives and minimal maintenance costs.
Concrete pavement surfaces are highly reflective,

making them more visible at night. Better visibility
improves safety.
Concretes light surface reduces the urban heat
island effect.

American Concrete Institute. 2006. Concrete
Overlays for Pavement Rehabilitation. Report No. ACI
325.13R-06.
Harrington, D., et al. 2008. Guide to Concrete

OverlaysSustainable Solutions for Resurfacing and
Rehabilitating Existing Pavements. Second Edition.
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center.
September.
2010. Guide for the Design of Concrete Overlays Using
Existing Methodologies (Draft). Fall.
CONCRETE OVERLAYS
Industrial by-products (e.g., fly ash, slag cement,

silica fume) can be used in mixture design.

SolutionsConcrete Overlays. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/ConcreteOverlays.html.
2-7

3
Pervious Concrete
Objectives
Satisfy EPA Storm Water Phase II regulations.
Earn LEED credits.
Improve safety.
Reduce tire-pavement noise.
Solution
Organizations such as the Green Highways Partnership are actively facilitating the redevelopment of
many inner-city landscapes in an effort to make them
more sustainable. Pervious concrete pavements are
becoming more attractive alternatives for a variety
of new construction and urban retrofit applications.
Figure 3-1 shows pervious concrete installed at a
park to meet Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)
accessibility requirements. Figure 3-2 shows pervious
concrete installed at a park to minimize impervious
Use pervious concrete.
Benefits
Pervious concrete is an EPA Best Management
Practice.
Stormwater runoff and flash flooding is minimized.
Hydroplaning and splash and spray are minimized.
Noise from the tire-pavement interaction is reduced.
Considerations
Pervious concrete may require periodic maintenance
to prevent clogging.
Figure 3-1. Miller Park in Fair Oaks, California
Pervious concrete may cause raveling and abrasion

problems on higher-speed roadways.
Shoulders
Figure 3-2. Imperial Beach Sports Park, California
Pervious concrete surfaces reflect light and help

reduce the urban heat island effect.
3-1
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
surface runoff. Figure 3-3 shows a Chicago, Illinois,

neighborhood alley constructed of pervious concrete
to minimize runoff. The ability to manage stormwater
runoff makes pervious concrete a common choice for
applications, including city streets and local roads,
shoulders, pedestrian walkways, alleys, and parking
lots.
Pervious pavement can also be used as a subbase
for conventional concrete, at low-water crossings,
and for recreational areas such as tennis courts and
greenhouses.
storage and retention time for egress and percolation

of water into the subgrade. The mix design is composed of narrow specially graded coarse aggregate,
cement, water, and a small amount of fine aggregate.
The result is a material with interconnected air voids
of between 15 to 25 percent, depending on the mix
design. When compared to conventional concrete
pavements, the exposed aggregate surface of pervious concrete can provide enhanced traction for both
pedestrians and vehicles. The potential for vehicles
hydroplaning during wet weather conditions is also
reduced. If not cured properly, surface particles may
become loose or ravel. With proper compaction and
curing, raveling can be prevented.
Figure 3-3. Pervious concrete for alley in Chicago,

Illinois
3-2
Description
Pervious concrete (see Figure 3-4) is used in a highly
permeable pavement that captures rainwater and
allows it to pass through the surface and percolate into
the underlying layer. Pervious concrete pavements
minimize stormwater runoff, flash flooding, and
standing water; they can reduce or even eliminate the
need for on-site holding ponds or buried stormwater
retention structures. Figure 3-5 shows a parking lot
made of pervious concrete.
Pervious concrete can be placed directly on a drainable aggregate base, above sand, or on soils with sufficient drainage properties. Pervious concrete may also
be placed over impermeable soils such as clay; however, provisions need to be made for adequate water
Figure 3-4. Pervious concrete
Figure 3-5. Pervious concrete pavement parking lot
Pervious concrete mixes contain minimal amounts of

water, with water-to-cementitious materials (w/cm)
ratios around 0.30; however, ratios as high as 0.34
to 0.40 have been used successfully with the proper
inclusion of chemical admixtures, such as retarders.
Portland cements and blended cements may be used
in pervious concrete applications. In addition, SCMs
such as fly ash, pozzolans, and slag cement can be
used to improve material properties such as workability and strength. In freeze-thaw environments, airentraining admixtures are recommended.
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
Pervious concrete pavements can last for more than 20

years with nominal maintenance. To ensure adequate
drainage, routine maintenance is typically required.
The amount of routine maintenance depends on the
rate of soil loading. Sweeping, vacuuming, or power
spraying can be used to mitigate clogging and restore
permeability. These pavements have been successful in
freeze-thaw and sulfate environments when designed
and constructed properly. The ability for pervious
concrete pavements to drain water quickly minimizes
the saturation within the voids that could otherwise
freeze and cause damage. Pervious concrete is more
susceptible to sulfate environments; however, if kept
isolated from sulfate rich soils or produced with
SCMs, pervious pavements can perform satisfactorily.
Materials
See Table 3-1 for typical values of material properties
for pervious concrete.
Table 3-1. Typical values for material properties

Property
Typical Values
Unit Weight
70-80% of conventional concrete

mixtures
Density
100-125 lb/ft3 (1600-2000 kg/m3)

this is dependent on mix design
and construction procedures
Percent Voids
15-25%
Permeability
100 in./hr over 2000 in/hr

(2.5-50 m/hr)
Compressive
Strength
2500 psi (17 MPa) but this can

range from 500 4000 psi
(3.5 28 MPa)
Figure 3-6. Fresh pervious concrete
Pervious concrete uses basically the same materials as

conventional concrete. One exception is that the fine
aggregate content is limited and the coarse aggregate
is kept to a narrow gradation (see Figure 3-6). Commonly used gradations of coarse aggregate include
ASTM C33 No. 67, No. 8, or No. 89. Number 89 is
typically used in mixtures for parking lots and pedestrian walkways. Rounded or angular (i.e., crushed)
aggregates can be used for pervious concrete mixtures.
Maximum aggregate size and the type of aggregate will
affect the final surface texture.
3-3
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
Design
A pervious pavement is designed as either an active
or a passive system. An active system is designed to
handle much more rainfall than is expected to fall on
just the pavement itself. A passive system is a pervious concrete pavement that handles rainfall that falls
directly on the pavement surface. A passive mitigation system can capture much, if not all, of the first
flush, but it is not intended to offset excess runoff
from adjacent impervious surfaces. An active mitigation system is designed to maintain runoff at a site at
specific levels. For either system (active or passive),
a proper thickness must be designed. Pervious pavement thickness is designed based on the calculation
of hydrologic and mechanical properties including
the amount of expected rainfall, pavement characteristics, and underlying soil properties. Standard design
procedures include ACI 522R, ACI 325.9R, or ACI
330R. See Figure 3-7 for pervious concrete subjected
to rainfall.
Designs for pervious concrete pavement surfaces

must consider permeability and storage capacity.
3-4
Figure 3-7. Pervious concrete pavement in the rain
Designers should ensure that permeability is sufficient

to accommodate all rain falling on the surface of or
running onto pervious concrete. While the permeability of pervious concretes is a factor in design, the flow
rate through the subbase and subgrade may be more
restrictive and control the amount of water leaving
the system. The total storage capacity of the pervious
concrete system includes the capacity of the pervious
concrete pavement, the capacity of any subbase used,
and the amount of water that leaves the system by
infiltration into the underlying soil.
In freeze-thaw climates, pervious concrete systems
should not be designed to store water in the concrete
itself because of the expansive nature of water when
it freezes. For typical designs, the storage capacity
and infiltration rate of the subbase and subgrades are
significant.
Typical design thicknesses include 5- to 6-in. (125- to
150-mm) thick pervious concrete with a drainable
aggregate base generally 6- to 12-in. (150- to 300mm) thick. The base layer should allow a percolation
rate of 0.5 in./hr (13 mm/hr) if no overflow piping is
Figure 3-8, Figure 3-9, and Figure 3-10 show typical

schematics of pervious pavement designs. Full exfiltration designs are only used where the natural soil
has a high infiltration rate or good lateral permeability.
Partial exfiltration designs are the most common and
typically used to control the water quality volume. No
exfiltration designs are used where problem soils are a
concern or where it is not desirable to introduce water
into adjacent locations.
Precast Pavement
Pervious
Pavement
Drainable Base
Drainable
Base
Untreated Subgrade
Untreated
Subgrade
Friction
Reducing
Medium
Figure 3-8. Schematic of pervious full exfiltration

pavement design
Precast Pavement
Pervious
Pavement
Untreated
Untreated Subgrade
Subgrade
Friction
Reducing
Medium
The construction of pervious concrete pavement

includes production of concrete, placement, compaction, and curing.
Pervious concrete production requires tighter control of mixture proportioning. It is also important to
maintain aggregate moisture at saturated surface dry
moisture content during production. Water absorbed
by the mixture from aggregates that are too dry will
result in a mix that is too dry for placement and compaction. Too much water in aggregates will increase w/
cm and decrease strength and durability.
A low slump and stiffer consistency may discharge
slower from transit mixers than conventional concrete.
Water reducers and viscosity-modified admixtures can
be used to increase flowability and maintain stability
of the concrete during discharge and placement. Unit
weight or bulk density tests provide the best routine
test to monitor quality, as well as seven-day cores to
evaluate thickness and strength.
Conventional formwork is typically used to place
pervious concrete, and placement should be continuous with spreading and strike off activities performed
in a rapid manner. Compaction and finishing is
generally accomplished by a weighted roller-screed
that spins as it is pulled across the fresh concrete.
The spinning tube provides some surface compaction
and creates a smooth uniform surface (Figure 3-11).
Recommended joint spacings of 20 ft (6 m) have been
suggested, although some installations have had joint
spacings of 45 ft (13.5 m) or more without
Figure 3-9. Schematic of pervious partial exfiltration

pavement design
Precast Pavement
Pervious
Pavement
Drainable Base
Drainable
Base
Untreated
Untreated Subgrade
Subgrade
Tile Drain
Friction
Reducing
Medium
Figure 3-10. Schematic of pervious no exfiltration

pavement design
Figure 3-11. Compacting the placed pervious

concrete
Drainable Base
Drainable
Base
Tile Drain w/
Up-Turned
Elbow
Construction
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
installed. In freeze-thaw environments, a minimum of

12 in. (300 mm) of a drainable aggregate base, such as
1-in. (25-mm) crushed stone, is typically constructed.
A thicker pavement system may need to be used if
heavier loads and higher traffic are anticipated, or if
the percolation rate of the base layer is inadequate.
3-5
PERVIOUS CONCRETE
uncontrolled cracking. Because setting time and

shrinkage are accelerated in pervious concrete construction, joints are usually tooled into the concrete
soon after consolidation with a rolling joint tool.
The open structure and relatively rough surface of
pervious concrete expose more surface area of the
cement paste to evaporation, making curing extremely
important. Curing for pervious slabs and pavements
begins before the concrete is placedthe subgrade
must be moistened to prevent it from absorbing
moisture from the concrete. After placement, fog misting followed by plastic sheeting is the recommended
curing procedure, and sheeting should remain in
place until the concrete achieves adequate strength to
support the traffic load without damaging the surface
(see Figure 3-12). Curing should be started as soon
as practically possible after placing, compacting, and
jointing.
Sustainability
Heat and light is reflected due to its lighter color
and lower density, decreasing the impact of heat
island effects.
Pervious concrete reduces runoff and thus helps

prevent pollution of natural bodies of water.
The need for on-site holding ponds or expensive
irrigation systems is reduced or eliminated, resulting
in decreased costs and more useable land space.
Safety is improved because the potential for hydroplaning is reduced since water is able to escape from
the surface.
Noise is reduced, improving traveling experience.

Stormwater Management with Pervious Concrete Pavement. Concrete Information, IS334P.
Green Highways. Concrete Pavement Research and
Technology Special Report, SR385P.
American Concrete Institute. 2010. Pervious Concrete.
ACI Committee 522, 522R.
Green Highways Partnership. www.greenhighwayspartnership.org.
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association. Pervious

Concrete. www.perviouspavement.org.
3-6
Obla, K. 2007. Pervious concrete for sustainable

development. In Recent Advances in Concrete Technology. Washington, D. C.
SolutionsPervious Concrete. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/perviousconcrete.html.
Figure 3-12. Curing pervious concrete with plastic

sheeting
Tennis, P. D., M. Leming, and D. J. Akers. 2004. Pervious Concrete Pavements. EB302.02. Skokie, Illinois:
Portland Cement Association; Silver Spring, Maryland:
National Ready Mixed Concrete Association.

4
Precast Pavements
Objectives
Highways
Provide long life.

Provide high load-carrying capacity.
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Description
Solution
Precast pavements are constructed using prefabricated

concrete slabs installed over a prepared subbase or
existing pavement (see Figure 4-1). Precast panels
are fabricated off site at established precast concrete
facilities prior to construction, transported to the
jobsite, and then installed on site and opened to traffic. Precast pavements have been used primarily for
reconstruction and repair of JCPbut have also been
used for new constructionand have the potential to
be used for reconstruction of HMA pavements. Precast
pavement systems can also be used as an unbonded
overlay, a cost-effective solution to add structural
capacity and extend the life of an existing roadway.
Use precast concrete pavement systems.
Benefits
Construction can be completed during short (overnight or weekend) closures.
Lane closures and associated user delays during
construction are minimized.
Precast pavements are a highly durable finished
pavement and not just a temporary fix.
Precast pavement surfaces reflect light and help
reduce the urban heat island effect.
Considerations
Initial costs are generally higher than conventional
PCC pavement.
The learning curve for production, placement, and
testing can be steep.
Precast concrete pavements are typically used for
highway, airfield, and heavy industrial applications.
The benefits of precast pavement are primarily

realized through reconstruction of existing facilities
PrecastPavement
Pavement
Precast
Subbase
Subbase
Friction
Reducing
Medium
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 4-1. Precast pavement system cross-section
4-1
PRECAST PAVEMENTS
during short closures, as shown in Figure 4-2 during the nighttime reconstruction of Interstate 66 in
Virginia. Precast pavement has also been used successfully for new construction of highways, like that
shown in Figure 4-3 in Indonesia. For this project, up
to 0.6 miles (1.0 km) of precast pavement was placed
daily.
Repair or reconstruction of JCP and HMA pavements
using precast pavement systems can be accomplished
quickly, during short overnight or weekend closures,
thus reducing user delay and associated costs. Precast
panels can be used for isolated full-depth repairs, such
as joint replacements, for single or multiple consecutive slab replacements, or for total reconstruction of
an entire section.
There are two primary types of precast pavement
systems used in the United States to date. The first
type of system uses prestressed concrete panels that

are pretensioned in one direction during fabrication
and posttensioned together in the other direction
after placement on site. The other type of system is
a jointed system, which replicates conventional JCP
using precast panels. For the prestressed system, load
transfer between panels is provided by posttensioning; dowels are used for the jointed system. Deciding
on which system to use will depend primarily on the
type of application but also on issues such as cost and
contractor expertise.
Unless they are to be used as a temporary patch,
precast pavements are designed to perform equal to
or better than new concrete pavement. While the
ride quality of the surface as installed is acceptable
for opening to traffic, diamond grinding can be used
to ensure the final riding surface meets the stringent
requirements for high-speed roadways.
Materials
4-2
Figure 4-2. Nighttime placement of precast panels

in Virginia
Figure 4-3. Precast pavement system in Indonesia
Precast concrete has been proven a durable highperformance product for bridge and commercial
building construction. The concrete mixtures used
are similar to those utilized for other precast elements
and are not restricted to paving mixtures. However,
consideration must be given to pavement-specific
requirements, such as requirements for skid resistance
and durability in potentially aggressive environments.
High strength, low permeability concrete mixtures
with a low w/cm ratio and uniform aggregate gradation are used routinely by precast fabrication plants
and will generally be suitable for pavement panels as
well.
Strength requirements are typically not difficult to
achieve due to the need for rapid production of
precast panels by turning over the casting beds every
day or every other day. Typical precast pavement
mixtures are designed for average 28-day compressive strengths between 4,000 and 6,000 psi (2841
MPa), and higher strengths usually achieved. For
prestressed precast panels, strengths of 3,000 to 4,000
psi (2128 MPa) are typically required for release of
pretensioning. Low permeability prevents chlorides
and other corrosive agents from penetrating the concrete and reaching the reinforcement and prestressing
Design
For prestressed precast pavement systems, the premise
for design is to first calculate the thickness that would
be required for conventional concrete pavement, then
to reduce that thickness, as much as practical, by
adjusting the prestress levels such that stresses in the
precast pavement will be equivalent to the conventional concrete pavement. Additional prestress can be
added to further increase the design life of the pavement. Precast panels are typically a minimum of 8 in.
(200 mm) thick, but they can be adjusted as necessary
to match the thickness and cross-section of the existing pavement.
Jointed precast pavement systems are typically
designed to replicate conventional JCP. For repair
or reconstruction projects, the precast panels are
designed to match the thickness of the slab being
removed minus 1/41/2 in. (613 mm) to accommodate irregularities in the base beneath the pavement
slab being removed. For new construction, the panels
are designed to match the thickness that would be
specified for a conventional concrete pavement design
based on project conditions.
For jointed systems, doweled joints are used similar

to conventional JCP. However, it should be noted
that there is not any significant contribution to load
transfer from aggregate interlock, as is the case for
conventional JCP. Grout or mortar is typically used to
ensure full bedding of the dowel bars in the precast
panels after installation and to fill the joint between
the panels.
Subbase layers, if included in the precast pavement

design, should be designed to provide uniform support. Typical base materials include HMA, crushed
stone, stone dust, and lean concrete.
Construction
Precast pavement construction encompasses prefabrication of the concrete panels and subsequent placement at the jobsite.
The prefabrication process includes setting up the
forms to very strict tolerances, securing reinforcement,
prestressing, and adding other embedments within
the forms. Next in the prefabrication process is placing concrete into the forms (Figure 4-4 and Figure
4-5), screeding, texturing, and curing the concrete.
Finally, removing the panels from the forms, completing any additional steps required before placement,
and stockpiling the panels for shipment to the project
concludes the process.
A primary benefit of prefabrication is the high degree
of quality control that exists in precast concrete facilities along with the controlled environment under
which the panels can be produced. This helps to
ensure uniformity of materials, workmanship, and
adequate curing for the precast panels. Good construction practices recommend that an established
prefabrication facility be used, as opposed to a temporary plant set up near the jobsite.
Delivery of the precast panels to the site is a critical aspect of the installation process, and care must
be taken to ensure that the panels are not damaged
in any way during handling or shipping. Figure 4-6
and Figure 4-7 show typical placement methods for
precast pavement systems. Providing a flat, uniform,
and stable platform for the precast panels to rest on
For prestressed systems, there are two types of joints:

(1) the intermediate joints between the individual
panels, and (2) the expansion joints at the ends of
each posttensioned section of precast panels. The
intermediate joints are nonworking joints that are
posttensioned together and sealed with epoxy applied
to the abutting faces of the precast panels during
construction. The expansion joints are designed to
accommodate or absorb movement due to expansion and contraction of the posttensioned slabs.
Prestressed panels are typically designed with minimal

nonprestressed reinforcement. This is because prestressing helps to minimize or even eliminate cracking through so-called elasto-plastic behavior, which
helps keep any cracks that do form tightly closed.
Jointed precast panels are typically heavily reinforced
with two mats of mild steel reinforcement to prevent
any cracks that may form during handling or from
widening over the life of the pavement.
PRECAST PAVEMENTS
steel in the panels. Aggregates must meet specified

skid- and abrasion-resistance requirements typical for
pavements.
4-3
PRECAST PAVEMENTS
is important, regardless of the subbase material used.

For prestressed precast systems, some form of frictionreducing material is needed between the precast
pavement and underlying subbase material to reduce
frictional restraint stresses that can accumulate during
posttensioning and daily expansion and contraction
cycles. To help ensure full support beneath the panels,
grout or urethane foam is typically injected beneath
the slabs after installation to fill any voids that may
exist.
The construction process varies with each job, but
based on the type of precast pavement system used,
common steps include the following:
Sawcutting and removing existing pavement (repair/
reconstruction) or ensuring the subbase is properly
prepared (new construction)
Figure 4-6. Placement of precast panel for precast

JCP system
4-4
Figure 4-4. Concrete poured into form for precast

panel
Figure 4-5. Vibrators for consolidation of concrete

around reinforcement in precast prestressed panel
Figure 4-7. Placement of a prestressed precast

panel
FHWA-IF-07-019, Federal Highway Administration,

February.
Final leveling and grade adjustment of the subbase
Federal Highway Administration. 2009. Precast

Prestressed Concrete Pavement for Reconstruction and
Rehabilitation of Existing Pavements. Tech Brief, FHWAIF-09-008, www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/pub_details.
cfm?id=632.
Installation of the precast panel(s)

Applying temporary posttensioning to pull adjacent
panels together (prestressed system)
Applying final posttensioning after a full section of
panels have been installed (prestressed system)
Backfilling of the dowel slots (jointed systems) and
posttensioning blockouts (prestressed system)
Grouting of posttensioning tendons (prestressed
system)
Grouting or foam injection beneath the panels
Filling joints around the perimeter of the panels
(jointed systems)
Sealing joints
Diamond grinding for smoothness (as necessary)
Sustainability
Material usage is optimized through minimizing the
thickness of the precast panels.
Construction waste is reduced because the exact
amount of necessary components is delivered to the
sitethere is no additional incidental thickness to
the slab.
Any spare components/panels can be recycled, and

their materials used again in another product.
Mixtures for precast systems use locally derived
materials and can incorporate recycled SCMs like fly
ash and slag cement.

Buch, N. 2007. Precast Concrete Panel Systems for
Full-Depth Pavement Repairs: Field Trials. Report No.
Merritt, D. K., B. F. McCullough, N. H. Burns, and

A. K. Schindler. 2000. The Feasibility of Using Precast
Concrete Panels to Expedite Highway Pavement Construction. Report No. FHWA/TX-01/1517-1, Center for
Transportation Research, February.
Merritt, D. K., B. F. McCullough, and N. H. Burns.
2002. Construction and Preliminary Monitoring of the
Georgetown, Texas Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement. Research Report 1517-01-IMP, Center for
Transportation Research, University of Texas at Austin,
December.
Merritt, D. K., A. J. Miron, R. B. Rogers, and R. O.
Rasmussen. 2007. Construction of the Iowa Highway
60 Precast Prestressed Concrete Pavement Bridge
Approach Slab Demonstration Project. Iowa Highway
Research Board (IHRB) Project HR-1085, The Transtec
Group, July.
Nantung, T., J. Firmansjah, E. Suwarto, and A. Karya.
2010. Design and construction of precast prestressed
concrete pavement in Indonesia. In Proceedings, 2010
fib International Congress and PCI Annual Convention/
Bridge Conference, 21 May2 June, Washington, D.C.
Portland Cement Association. 2010. Precast/Prestressed
Concrete. www.cement.org/buildings/precast_splash,
(15 June 2010).
Tayabji, S. and K. Hall, K. 2010. Precast Concrete
Panels for Repair and Rehabilitation of Jointed Concrete
Pavements. Report No. FHWA-IF-09-003, Federal
Highway Administration, April.
The Transtec Group. 2010. Precast Pavement. The
Transtec Group, www.precastpavement.com (15 June
2010).
There is significant user cost savings includ-

ing fuel consumption and lost work time due to
delays.
PRECAST PAVEMENTS
Sawcutting and jackhammering dowel slots or drilling and epoxying dowels (jointed systems)
4-5

5
Roller-Compacted Concrete
Objectives
Provide a low-cost pavement option.
Provide a strong, durable pavement that will support heavy loads.
Minimize traffic disruption and provide for required
early-opening to traffic.
Widen a lane or add a shoulder in a cost-effective
manner.
Solution
Construct with roller-compacted concrete (RCC).
Benefits
Construction is fast, with no forms or finishing.

No steel reinforcement and minimum labor make
RCC economical.
For many applications, joint sawing is optional
for aesthetic purposes resulting in additional cost
savings.
Roller-compacted concrete pavement surfaces reflect
light and help reduce the urban heat island effect.
Considerations
For higher traffic speeds, the surface may need to be

diamond ground or topped with a concrete or HMA
overlay.
Roller-compacted concrete pavement applications
include streets and local roads, highways and shoulders, airfields, heavy industrial, and commercial/
light industrial. Roller-compacted concrete is an ideal
candidate in situations where surface smoothness
and appearance are secondary to high durability, low
maintenance, early trafficking, and low initial cost.
Roller-compacted concrete with a surface treatment
such as diamond grinding or an overlay can be used
for pavements that experience high-speed traffic,
including highways. In such applications, RCC acts as
a base or subbase.
Highways
Shoulders
A mixer with adequate energy is required to mix

RCC.
Airfields
Typically, an asphalt-type paver is used for

placement.
Heavy Industrial
Roller-compacted concrete provides a strong,

dense, and durable material that can be quickly
constructed.
Surface typically is not as smooth or consistent in

appearance as conventional concrete.
5-1
ROLLER-COMPACTED CONCRETE
Description
Roller-compacted concrete has a similar strength to
conventional concrete, yet it can be more economical. Pavements with RCC can resist rutting and span
soft localized subgrades. They will not deform under
heavy, concentrated wheel loads, will resist deterioration from fuel or hydraulic fuel spills, and will remain
rigid under high temperatures. The compressive
strength of RCC is comparable to that of conventional
concrete, ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 psi (28 to 41
MPa), with flexural strength ranging in values from
500 to 1,000 psi (3.4 to 6.9 MPa). The strength makes
it able to withstand high concentrated loads and
impacts from heavy industrial, military, and mining
applications, as well as support light vehicle traffic
shortly after placement.
Roller-compacted concrete can be used as a pavement

surface layer for low-speed roads and industrial facilities where surface smoothness and appearance are not
a major concern as compared to high durability, low
maintenance, and low initial cost (see Figure 5-1).
Diamond-ground RCC had been used successfully on
urban arterials without any additional surface treatment. Roller-compacted concrete can also be a base
or subbase for highways and other high-speed traffic
roadways (see Figure 5-2 and Figure 5-3).
5-2
Roller-compacted concrete combines various aspects

of conventional concrete pavement materials practices
with some construction practices typical of flexible pavements. It has the same basic ingredients as
conventional concrete: cement, water, and aggregates
(such as gravel or crushed stone), but it is typically
RCC
Pavement
PCC
Pavement
Figure 5-1. Typical RCC versus PCC surface
placed with asphalt-type paving equipment and

compacted by vibratory steel drum rollers to a specific
density (see Figure 5-4).
Unlike conventional concrete, RCC is a drier mix
and stiff enough to be compacted by vibratory rollers.
Since the paste content in RCC is lower, less concrete
shrinkage and reduced cracking from shrinkagerelated stresses result. In addition, non-air-entrained
RCC pavements can provide reliable and durable performance in freeze-thaw environments as long as the
mix is properly proportioned with adequate cement
content and sound aggregates. The concrete must also
be thoroughly mixed, adequately compacted, and
properly cured.
RCC
RCC
Subbase
Subbase
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 5-2. Pavement cross-section with RCC
surface
Pavement Surface
Surface
Pavement
RCC
RCC
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 5-3. Pavement cross-section with RCC base
Figure 5-4. RCC construction for commercial and

heavy industrial applications
The goal in selecting the appropriate quantity of materials for RCC is to proportion the mix so that there is
enough paste to cover the aggregates and fill the voids
(see Figure 5-5). Primary differences in proportions
between RCC pavement mixtures and conventional
concrete pavement mixtures are the following:
Roller-compacted concrete is generally not air
entrained.
Roller-compacted concrete typically has a lower
water content.
Roller-compacted concrete typically has a lower
paste content.
Roller-compacted concrete generally requires a
larger fine aggregate content in order to produce a
combined aggregate that is well graded and stable
under the action of a vibratory roller.
Roller-compacted concrete usually has a nominal
maximum size of aggregate not greater than 3/4 in.
(19 mm) in order to minimize segregation and produce a relatively smooth surface texture.
The use of a blended cement, pozzolans, or slag

cement may help improve workability, reduce the
potential for alkali-aggregate reaction, extend the compaction time, and help in freeze-thaw conditions. The
use of fly ash in RCC is an effective means of providing additional fine material needed to ensure adequate
compaction, particularly in those RCC mixtures that
contain standard graded concrete fine aggregate.
Water content should be just enough to ensure even
distribution of the paste but dry enough to support
the vibratory roller (see Figure 5-6). Chemical admixtures can be used. Higher dosages of chemical admixtures than in conventional concrete may be required,
and material compatibility should be established
through trial batches.
Design
Roller-compacted concrete pavements fall into two
main categories: (1) heavy-duty industrial pavements
(e.g., ports and multimodal terminals), and
Percent Total Weight

50
Conventional
concrete
RCC
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Cement
+ Fly Ash
Coarse
Aggregate
Fine
Aggregate
Figure 5-5. Typical mix design constituents
Water
Figure 5-6. RCC material looks drier than

conventional concrete
Aggregate selection is very important. Natural or manufactured aggregates can be used. Mineral aggregates
constitute up to 85 percent of the volume of RCC
and play an influential role in achieving the required
workability, specified density in the field under vibratory compaction, compressive and flexural strengths,
thermal properties, long-term performance, and
durability. Aggregate fines are typically in the range of
28 percent, passing the #200 (75 m) sieve. Silts and
clays, however, should be avoided.
Cementitious materials used in RCC pavement mixtures include portland cement or blended hydraulic
cement and may include pozzolans such as fly ash and
slag cement. Types I and II cements are commonly
used in RCC pavements. Type III can be used when
early strength gain is required, and Type V can be
used in areas that have specific soil conditions calling
for this type of cement.
Materials
5-3
(2) pavements carrying mixed-vehicle traffic (e.g.,

trucks and passenger vehicles). Table 7 shows a list
of design methodologies. Thickness design for RCC
pavements employs the same basic strategy as for conventional concrete pavements; however, there are no
dowels or steel reinforcement in RCC to accommodate
load transfer. The pavement should be thick enough
to allow for flexural stresses and fatigue damage
caused by wheel loads within allowable limits. Fatigue
due to flexural stress is used to calculate the required
pavement thickness. The minimum thickness of an
RCC pavement is typically 4 in. (100 mm). A single
lift should be no thicker than 10 in. (250 mm).
When joints are constructed in RCC, they are fewer in

number and spaced farther apart than in conventional
concrete pavements. Dowels or tie bars are not used
in RCC pavements for load transfer the way they are
used in conventional concrete; therefore, the designer
needs to consider the absence of load transfer devices
in the design. Figure 5-8 shows a typical RCC design
crack.
Where concentrated lane traffic is not common, joints
can be sawed in square patterns using the transverse
spacing of 15- to 20-ft (4.6- to 6.1-m) intervals for
pavements less than 8 in. (200 mm) thick and 3 to 4
times (in feet) the pavement thickness (in inches) for
Base and subbase layer requirements are similar to

those required for conventional concrete; however,
RCC can be more sensitive to the moisture content of
granular subbases.
Historically, RCC is constructed without joints. When

RCC is allowed to crack naturally, aggregate interlock
usually provides adequate load transfer across the
cracks. Cracks typically occur at 20- to 60-ft (6.1- to
18.3-m) intervals, depending on the RCCs properties
and pavement thickness. The primary reason joints
are used in RCC pavements is to initiate crack locations or to improve aesthetics in parking lots, access
roads, or areas of channelized traffic at speeds greater
than 30 mph. Figure 5-7 shows flexural beam testing.
5-4
Table 5-1. List of design methodologies

Property
Heavy
Industrial
Applications
RCC-Pave Computer
Software (PCA)
U.S. Army Corps of

Engineers (USACE)
Conventional
Roadway
Applications
StreetPave (ACPA)
Guide for Design of

Jointed Concrete
Pavements for Streets
and Local Roads (ACI
325.12R-02)
Guide for the Design

and Construction of
Concrete Parking
Lots (ACI 330R-08)
Figure 5-7. Flexural beam testing
Aggregate
interlock
Crack
RCC
RCC
Subbase
Subbase
Figure 5-8. Typical RCC design relies on aggregate

interlock at cracks
improving surface smoothness. A high-density paver

is often used to accommodate the relatively large
amount of material moving through the paver. For
pavement thicknesses greater than 10 in. (250 mm),
multiple lifts are used.
Construction
A continuous supply of fresh RCC material to the
pavement placement machinery is necessary for
producing a quality product. Therefore, the rate of
RCC production and transportation capability should
match the speed of construction at the site (see Figure
5-9). An RCC mixing facility must have the efficiency
to evenly disperse the relatively small amount of water
present in the stiff, dry mix. Consequently, the relatively dry RCC requires rigorous mixing energies and
batching times to provide a uniform mixture, which
can reduce the plants mixing capacity when compared
to conventional concrete.
During placement, it is important that the subbase

and/or subgrade be uniformly moist. In general, RCC
pavements are constructed using both asphalt and
conventional concrete pavement construction techniques. Roller-compacted concrete is typically placed
with an asphalt-type paver. When configured with a
high-density screed, rolling compaction is reduced,
thus minimizing variations in surface tolerance and
Figure 5-9. RCC delivered to jobsite
Figure 5-10. Tilt-drum mixer
Figure 5-11 Ready-mix transit trucks dumping into

haul trucks
The right mixing equipment is vital to ensuring a

continuous and consistent quality supply to the paver.
There are two types of mixers for RCC: batch type and
continuous mixers. Most concrete batch-type mixers consist of a tilt (Figure 5-10) or fixed drum and
transit mixers (dry batch ready-mix trucks) (Figure
5-11). These mixers are typically used for smaller
projects because of the reduced mixing capacity and
longer mixing time. Continuous mixers are typically
used for larger projects because they can produce RCC
at a faster rate than batch mixers. Typically, RCC is
blended in continuous horizontal shaft mixers such
as pugmills. High-output pugmills have the mixing
efficiency needed to evenly disperse the cement and
relatively small amount of water used in this drier mix
(see Figure 5-12). Roller-compacted concrete is typically delivered in dump trucks, but transit mixers can
sometimes be used for small projects.
pavements 8 in. (200 mm) thick or greater. In areas

with concentrated lane loading, the longitudinal spacing should be 20 ft (6.1 m) for pavements less than 8
in. (200 mm) thick and 2.5 times (in feet) the pavement thickness (in inches) for pavements 8 in. (200
mm) thick or greater.
5-5
Compaction is the most important stage of construction, as it plays a large role in density, strength, durability, smoothness, and surface texture. Since RCC
mixtures are relatively dry and stiff (zero slump), a
10-ton (10.2-t) vibratory steel drum and rubber-tired
rollers are generally used during placement operations
(see Figures 5-13 through 5-16 for the RCC placement through curing process). When using highdensity pavers, higher compaction is accomplished
primarily by the paver and paving screeds. Rolling
begins soon after placement and continues until the
density of the pavement meets a minimum of 98 percent of the modified Proctor density. Final compaction
is generally achieved within one hour of mixing.
Proper curing and hydration of the RCC mixture is

critical to the long-term durability of the pavement.
Because RCC has a low water content and exhibits no
bleed water, proper curing techniques are important
5-6
to prevent evaporation and premature drying of the

surface. Lack of adequate moisture for curing can
result in scaling, dusting, and raveling of the hardened
surface.
For most projects, a white concrete curing compound
conforming to ASTM C309 (Specification for Liquid
Membrane-Forming Compounds for Curing Concrete) is used. A water cure can also be implemented,
where the pavement is sprayed or irrigated to keep it
moist. However, moisture curing of RCC requires a
continuous application of water for the entire curing
period.
Sustainability
Long service life with minimal maintenance, low
initial costs, incorporation of by-product materials, and improved safety make RCC a sustainable
option.
Figure 5-13. RCC placement
Figure 5-12. Mobile RCC pugmill mixing plant and

mixing chamber
Figure 5-14. Compacting RCC using both vibratory

and pneumatic-tired rollers
Roller-compacted concrete surfaces reflect heat,

which reduces the heat island effect.
Roller-compacted concrete has a high albedo, making for better night visibility and improved safety.

Adaska, W. 2006. Roller-Compacted Concrete (RCC).
Report No. SN2975, Portland Cement Association.
The ability to use some fines allows RCC to incorporate material that would otherwise not be acceptable
for conventional concrete.
Adaska, W. 2008. Applications and Design of RCC Pavements. Portland Cement Association Slide presentation, http://www.secement.org/rcc.htm.
American Concrete Institute. 1999. State-of-the-Art
Report on Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements. Report
No. ACI 325.10R-99, Farmington Hills, Michigan.
Figure 5-15. RCC in-place density measurement
Gauthier, P. and J. Marchand. 2005. Design and

Construction of Roller Compacted Concrete Pavements
in Quebec. Cement Association of Canada, Ottawa,
Canada.
Harrington, D., F. Abdo, W. Adaska, and C. Hazaree.
2010. Guide for Roller-Compacted Concrete Pavements.
SN298, Portland Cement Association and National
Concrete Pavement Technology Center, August.
Piggott, R. 1999. Roller-Compacted Concrete PavementsA Study of the Long Term Performance. RP366.
Skokie, Illinois: Portland Cement Association.
Figure 5-16. Curing RCC
Portland Cement Association. 2010. Integrated Paving SolutionsRoller-Compacted Concrete. http://www.

integratedpavingsolutions.org/RCC.html.
5-7

6
Cement-Treated Base
Objectives
Provide a strong, uniform base/subbase for current and future loading conditions using in-place
or locally available marginal soils and granular
material.
Cement-treated base provides a durable, long-lasting

base in all types of climates. It is often used in highway, street and local road, shoulder, commercial, and
heavy industrial applications. Cement-treated base is
also common in airfield applications, particularly large
airport runway applications. The Federal Aviation
Administration requires CTB for runways that experience high volumes of heavy aircraft traffic.

Stabilize a variety of soils with a single stabilizer.
Reduce rutting and deflections in a flexible pavement surface.
Improve the structural capacity of the existing soil.
Highways
Solution

Shoulders
Benefits
A stiffer base reduces deflections due to traffic loads,

thereby extending pavement life.
Airfields
Subgrade failures, pumping, rutting, joint faulting,

and road roughness are reduced.
Heavy Industrial
Base thickness is reduced compared to unbound

granular base thicknesses.
Marginal aggregates, including recycled materials,
can be used, thus reducing the need for virgin, highquality aggregates.
Considerations
The potential for reflective cracking and increased
friction between the CTB and surface need to be
considered.
Description
Cement-treated base consists of native soils, gravels,
or manufactured aggregates blended with measured
amounts of portland cement and water that hardens
after curing to form a durable paving material. The
versatility of cement is critical to the success of the
stabilization operation, because site conditions can
easily change during a project and the stabilizer needs
A cement-treated base (CTB) using existing soils or

locally available borrow material.
6-1
CEMENT-TREATED BASE
to adapt to the changing conditions. Cement is known

as a universal stabilizer because it works well over a
wide range of different soil types.
Pavements with CTB will be much stronger than an
unstabilized, granular base. Thicknesses for CTB are
less than those required for unstabilized granular
bases carrying the same traffic. Cement-treated base
can distribute loads over a wider area (see Figure 6-1),
reducing the stresses on the subgrade. It has a high
load-carrying capacity, does not consolidate further
under load, reduces rutting in HMA pavements, and is
resistant to freeze-thaw deterioration.
In a pavement system, CTB is generally constructed
over the subgrade (see Figure 6-2). An HMA or concrete wearing surface is placed on the CTB to complete the pavement structure. The design of a concrete
surface layer must take into account increased friction values between the layers. In some instances, an
interlayer is used to reduce restraint stresses and the
potential for reflective cracking. See Figure 6-3 for a
completed CTB section of roadway.
Materials
Cement-treated base is a mixture of aggregate material, portland cement, and water. The mixture should
be designed based on strength and resistance to
freeze-thaw and wet environments.
6-2
The aggregate material used in a CTB mixture can be

a variety of materials or combinations thereof. These
materials include existing or borrowed stone, gravel,
sand, silt, and caliche. Recycled concrete aggregates
(RCA) and recycled asphalt pavement can also be
incorporated. A well-graded sandy and gravelly aggregate material blend typically requires the least amount
of cement for adequate hardening, whereas an aggregate material that is classified as either a poorly graded
sandy material deficient in fines or a silty and/or
clayey material both require more cement for hardening. Many state specifications require that aggregates
used in CTB meet typical gradation and Atterberg
limit requirements.
Any portland cement type can be used, but Types
I and II are the most common. Cement content
depends on the type of aggregate material used;
Figure 6-1. Load distribution of CTB compared to

unstabilized granular base
Concrete
ConcreteSurface
Surface
CTB
Subbase
CTB Subbase
Friction
Reducing
Medium
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
HMA Surface
Surface
HMA
CTB Base
CTB
Subbase
Prepared
Prepared Subgrade
Subgrade
Figure 6-2. Typical pavement cross-sections
showing CTB layers
Figure 6-3. Completed CTB for new pavement

construction in Oklahoma
The engineering properties of the CTB mixture are

dependent on individual constituent materials that
make up the mixture (i.e., aggregate material and
cement type), curing conditions, and age. Age makes
a difference because cement will continue to hydrate
over time, which will increase strength. General
ranges for compressive strength, modulus of rupture,
modulus of elasticity, and Poissons ratio are listed in
Table 6-1.
Table 6-1. Typical CTB properties
Property
7-Day Value
Compressive Strength
300 800 psi

(2.1 5.5 MPa)
Modulus of Rupture
(Flexural Strength)
100 200 psi

(0.7 1.4 MPa)
Modulus of Elasticity
600,000 1,000.000 psi

(4,100 6,900 MPa)
Poissons Ratio
0.15
Design
The most common approach for determining CTB

thickness is to follow the American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
Design Guide (1993) procedure for pavement design,
which uses a structural layer coefficient to model
base material. A major effort is currently underway
to regionally calibrate and shift to the new AASHTO Mechanistic-Empirical Pavement Design Guide
(M-E PDG). Another approach is to use the Portland
Cement Association procedure given in the PCA publication Thickness Design for Soil-Cement Pavements.
Construction
Construction includes initial preparation, processing, compaction, finishing, and curing. The following
paragraphs give a brief summary of CTB construction.
Initial preparation includes the following steps: (1)
Shape area to crown and grade; (2) Correct unstable
subgrade areas; (3) If necessary, scarify, pulverize, and
prewet the soil (in general, not much pulverization is
required for CTB); and (4) Reshape crown and grade.
Processing is continuous and accomplished in one
day. There are two methods for processing CTB:
mixed-in-place or central-plant-mixed.
For CTB mixed-in-place, cement is placed dry onto
the surface of the in-place aggregate using a mechanical spreader attached to a dump truck or bulk cement
truck. The cement may also be placed on the surface
in slurry form. The in-place aggregate can be either
the existing material or borrowed material. A singleshaft pulvermixer combines the aggregate and cement.
If necessary, water is applied on the surface or directly
into the mixing chamber. The single-shaft mixer
then mixes the cement, water, and aggregate until a
uniform, thoroughly mixed material is achieved (see
Figure 6-4, Figure 6-5, and Figure 6-6).
The central-plant-mixed method requires mixing
cement, aggregate material, and water in a stationary
plant. Mixing at a central plant is generally done by
pugmills or rotary-drum mixers. Rotary-drum mixers work well for mixing coarse, nonplastic aggregate
material. High-speed rotary shaft pugmills work
well for coarse aggregate material and nonplastic
fine-grained material like sands and silts. For plants
with rotary-drum or batch-type pugmills, material is
A CTB serves as an integral component of the pavement system. It needs to be strong enough to withstand the stress and fatigue caused by the environment in which it is constructed and the loads under
which it must perform over an anticipated lifetime.
Some critical design inputs for calculating CTB thickness include the estimated traffic loading during the
design life, subgrade strength, and CTB strength.
The ability of a pavement base to carry loads depends

on the strength of the base material and the thickness
of the base layer. Although a thin, strong base can
theoretically carry the same load as a thick, weaker
base, the thicker, weaker base is usually preferred.
This is because the thin, stronger base is more brittle
and more likely to crack, resulting in potential reflective cracking in the surface pavement. On major
highways, typical thicknesses range from 6 to 12 in.
(150 to 300 mm).
CEMENT-TREATED BASE
however, it usually ranges from 3 to 8 percent for

most applications. In general, a cement content that
will provide a seven-day unconfined compressive
strength of between 300 and 400 psi (2.1 and 2.8
MPa) is satisfactory for most CTB applications.
6-3
CEMENT-TREATED BASE
batched by weight, mixed, dumped into haul trucks,

and delivered to the site. At plants with continuousflow-type pugmills, the most common type of central
plant, materials are individually metered by weight
or volume and fed into the mixer by an auger screw,
belt, or rotary-vane feeder. After mixing at the plant,
the CTB material is dumped into trucks, hauled to the
site, and spread evenly over the area (see Figure 6-7).
An aggregate spreader is commonly used to place the
CTB mixture over the subgrade.
Figure 6-4. Spreading dry cement on grade prior to

mixing
The CTB mixture should be compacted at optimum

moisture to maximum dry density as determined by
preliminary laboratory testing per AASHTO T134 or
ASTM D558, or as defined by project specifications.
Vibratory-steel rollers, sheepsfoot rollers, or pneumatic-tire rollers are typically used, depending on the
type of aggregate material used in the CTB mixture.
The finishing operations follow immediately after

adequate compaction is obtained. The goal of the finishing process is to produce a high-quality surface that
has adequate compaction and is void of any soft areas
or surface compaction planes. The steps for finishing
CTB also depend on the type of aggregate material
used in the CTB mixture. In general, finishing a CTB
mixture includes a combination of shaping, scratching
the surface, applying a broom drag, lightly applying
water, and rolling with a pneumatic steel roller.
6-4
Figure 6-5. Applying cement slurry on grade prior to

mixing (cement slurry is applied the same way for
FDR and CMS applications)
Figure 6-6. Constructing CTB using mixed-in-place

method
After finishing, the CTB must be adequately cured,

allowing cement to hydrate and the cement-aggregate
Figure 6-7. Placement of plant-mixed CTB on

prepared subgrade
of State Highway and Transportation Officials Design

Guide.
Sustainability
American Concrete Pavement Association. 2007. Subgrades and Subbases for Concrete Pavements. EB204P.
In-situ or local marginal aggregates can be used in

CTB. This will minimize the need to haul in costly
select granular aggregates.
Cement-treated base may require the use of industrial by-products such as fly ash.
Recycled asphalt pavement mixed with cement
makes an excellent CTB.
Cement-treated base provides a stronger base than
unbound granular material; therefore, for the same
load-carrying capacity, less material is required.
Hauling less material reduces the number of trucks
and possible damage to surrounding roads, resulting in fuel savings, lower emissions, and premature
future roadway maintenance.

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). 1993. American Association
American Concrete Institute. 2009. State-of-the-Art

Report on Soil Cement Report No. ACI-230.1R, Farmington, Hills, Michigan: American Concrete Institute.
CEMENT-TREATED BASE
mixture to harden. The newly constructed base should

be kept continuously moist (by lightly watering or
misting) for a 3- to 7-day period, or a moisture-retaining cover or curing compound can be placed over the
CTB soon after completion.
George, K. P. 2002. Minimizing Cracking in CementTreated Materials for Improved Performance RD123.01.
Guthrie, W. S., S. Sebesta, and T. Scullion. 2002.
Selecting Optimum Cement Contents for Stabilizing Aggregate Base Material. Technical Report 7-4920-2, Texas
Transportation Institute.
Halsted G. E., D. R. Luhr, and W. S. Adaska. 2006.
Guide to Cement-Treated Base. EB236. Skokie, Illinois:
Portland Cement Association.
Portland Cement Association. 2001. Thickness Design
of Soil-Cement Pavements. EB068. Skokie, Illinois:
SolutionsCement-Treated Base. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/cement-treatedbase.html.
6-5

7
Full-Depth Reclamation with
Cement (FDR)
Objectives
Considerations
Provide a strong, uniform base/subbase for current

and future loading conditions using existing failed
asphalt surface and base material.
The potential for reflective cracking and increased

friction between the FDR and surface pavement
needs to be considered.
Maintain existing grade with minimum material

removal or addition.
Underground utilities need to be considered during

the design and construction phase.
Reduce or totally eliminate the need for virgin

aggregates.

Reduce rutting and deflections in a flexible pavement surface.
Improve the structural capacity of stabilized base
over unstabilized base material.
Provide pavement reconstruction method that is fast
and minimizes traffic disruption.
Recycled materials and recycling techniques are

used in highway, street and local road, commercial/
lightweight industrial, airfield, and heavy industrial
applications.
Description
Highways
Full-depth reclamation with cement to recycle and

reuse the existing pavement material ecycle and
reuse the existing pavement material.
Benefits
The performance of the base layer is improved over
an unbound granular base.
Little, if any, material is hauled off or onto the site,
resulting in less truck traffic, lower emissions, and
less damage to local roads. Work can be completed
quickly compared to removal and replacement
techniques.
Full-depth reclamation process is economical
compared to removal and replacement and thick
overlays.
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Full-depth reclamation with cement is a technique in

which an existing HMA pavement and base material
is reclaimed (pulverized as necessary), combined with
portland cement, and then recompacted to create a
new and improved base. The FDR base is then topped
with a new HMA or concrete surface layer.
Solution
7-1
FULL-DEPTH RECLAMATION WITH CEMENT (FDR)
Full-depth reclamation is appropriate under the following conditions:
dure can be used. Typical thickness values for FDR

range from 6 to 12 in. (150 to 300 mm).
The pavement is damaged and cannot be rehabilitated with simple resurfacing methods.
Construction
The existing pavement distress indicates that a

problem likely exists in the surface, base, and/or
subgrade.
The existing pavement distress would otherwise
require full-depth patching over more than 1520
percent of the surface area.
The pavement structure is inadequate for the current or future traffic.
Materials
7-2
Materials used for FDR include the existing HMA

surface that has been pulverized and blended with the
underlying base, subbase, and/or subgrade, cement,
and water. Laboratory testing and trial mixes allow
selecting the best proportions of cement for the job.
The amount of water and cement required in the mix
will depend upon the project-specified strength and
gradation of the final blend obtained from pulverizing
the HMA during construction and mixing it with the
base material. Typical specifications for pulverizing
call for a minimum of 100 percent passing the 3-in.
(75-mm) sieve, 95 percent passing the 2-in. (50-mm)
sieve, and 55 percent passing the No. 4 (4.75-mm)
sieve. In general, a cement content that provides a
seven-day unconfined compressive strength between
300 to 400 psi (2.1 to 2.8 MPa) is satisfactory for
most FDR applications.
Full-depth reclamation requires a reclaimer mixer,

grader, cement spreader, water truck, and roller. A
reclaimer machine typically makes an initial pass over
the existing flexible pavement, pulverizing the HMA
surface and blending it with the base and/or subgrade
material (see Figure 7-1 and Figure 7-2). Water may
be added during this mixing stage to bring the material up to optimum moisture content. The material is
then graded accordingly. Next, cement is spread either
dry or in slurry form in a controlled manner onto the
surface (see Figure 7-3 and Figure 7-4). The reclaimer
then mixes the cement into the pulverized material.
Figure 7-1. Schematic of the mixing chamber of a

reclaimer machine
Design
Full-depth reclamation design is a process that
involves (1) determining the type of existing pavement
layers and their respective thicknesses, and (2) identifying which material will be combined with cement in
order to create a stable base for a new pavement structure. The thickness design is similar to a CTB and is
calculated based on strength of the material, strength
and stiffness characterizations of additional layers,
anticipated loads, and performance requirements (i.e.,
life, serviceability, reliability). The AASHTO procedure
for pavement design or PCA thickness design proce-
Figure 7-2 Reclaimer pulverizing existing asphalt

pavement and base material
Sustainability
Existing materials are reused, reducing the exploitation of virgin material.
Damage is reduced to surrounding roads from hauling existing base materials out and bringing virgin
materials in.
Costs related to the processing, purchasing, and
transportation of virgin aggregates are minimized.
Truck traffic is reduced, resulting in fuel savings and
lower emissions.

Asphalt Recycling & Reclaiming Association. 2001.
Basic Asphalt Recycling Manual. Annapolis, Maryland:
Asphalt Recycling & Reclaiming Association.
Mixing continues until the material is thoroughly

mixed. This is followed by compaction, final grading,
curing, and surfacing. Smooth-wheeled rollers are
used for compaction. The FDR should be cured for
from three to seven days. Surface treatments include
chip seals, HMA, or concrete. The whole process can
be performed under traffic (see Figure 7-5). Figure
7-6 shows the equipment used for compaction and
finishing.
Figure 7-3. Dry cement placed on pulverized

material
Figure 7-4. Applying cement slurry on grade prior to

mixing (cement slurry is applied the same way for
CTB applications)
Figure 7-6. Equipment for compaction and finishing
Figure 7-5. Mixing the cement into the pulverized

material
7-3

7-4
Brown, Ashley, and Vannoy. 2006. Cement stabilization of aggregate base material blended with reclaimed
asphalt pavement. Masters thesis, Department of Civil
and Environmental Engineering, Brigham Young University, August.
European Concrete Pavement Association. 2010.
EUPAVEIn Situ Pavement Recycling. www.eupave.eu/
documents/activity-areas/in-situ-pavement-recycling.
xml?lang=en.
Luhr, D. R., W. S. Adaska, and G. E. Halsted. 2005.
Guide to Full-Depth Reclamation (FDR) with Cement.
EB234, Portland Cement Association.
Portland Cement Association. 2001. Thickness Design

for Soil-Cement Pavements. EB068. Skokie, Illinois:
SolutionsFull-Depth Reclamation with Cement. http://
www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/FDR.html.
Syed, I. M. 2007. Full-Depth Reclamation with Portland
Cement: A Study of Long-Term Performance. SR016.

8
Cement-Modified Soils (CMS)
Objectives
Reduce the plasticity and high-volume change characteristics of clay soils due to moisture variations.
Cement-modified granular soils can be used as a

treated subgrade and working platform beneath a base
or subbase.
Improve stability of a poorly graded sandy soil.

Improve the properties of a sandy soil containing a
high-plasticity clay.
Provide a method to dry out a wet subgrade.
Provide a firm construction platform to work on.
Solution
Add a small amount of cement to the soil to create a
cement-modified soil.
Benefits
Fatigue failures caused by repeated high deflections

are controlled.
There is a reduction in moisture sensitivity and subgrade seasonal load restrictions.
No mellowing period is needed as required by other
stabilizing agents.
Considerations
Cement-modified soils are not intended to withstand the same CTB durability and compressive
strength requirements.

Shoulders
Airfields
Heavy Industrial
Description
Cement-modified soils are soils and/or manufactured
aggregates mixed with a small proportion of portland
cement. By combining small amounts of cement with
soils, plasticity is reduced, volumetric changes due
to moisture content are minimized, bearing strength
is increased, and stability is improved. As a result, a
weather-resistant work platform for construction operations and a stronger, permanent pavement layer for
enhanced support and capacity can be constructed.
Cement-modified soils provide a weather-resistant

work platform for construction operations.
Highways
8-1
CEMENT-MODIFIED SOILS (CMS)
Cement-modified soils are normally used to improve

material properties in the subgrade. They can eliminate the need for extensive removal and replacement
of existing soils, saving considerable time and money.
The most common application of CMS is as an option
for subgrade material when existing or available soils
are of poor quality (see Figure 8-1).
The primary difference between CMS and CTB is that
CTB typically contains more cement and is required
to meet certain strength values per specifications and
to serve as a durable, freeze-thaw resistant material.
Cement-modified soils typically do not have to meet
the same requirements for strength and durability; instead, small amounts of cement are added to
mitigate expansion due to moisture variations and
improve cohesion caused by poor soils. An additional
benefit is an improvement in strength and stiffness.
Pavement Surface
Base/Subbase
Cement - Modified Soil
Untreated Subgrade
Figure 8-1. Typical cross-section with CMS
8-2
Materials
Design
The design of a CMS layer focuses on creating a working platform for the construction of base/subbase
and, subsequently, the surface layer. The CMS layer,
however, does not contribute appreciably to the structural capacity of the pavement. According to most
state and/or job-specific specifications, a CMS layer is
designed to meet certain Atterberg limit requirements
as determined by proper laboratory testing methods.
Cement-modified soils are typically not designed to
meet a compressive strength requirement, but rather
designed to meet reduced plasticity requirements and
increased CBR values. The design will vary, depending
on existing soil properties. A common thickness of 6
in. (150 mm) has been shown to provide an adequate
working platform for construction of base or subbase
layers.
Construction
Cement-modified soils are produced in place using
existing soils. Cement-modified soils construction
consists of mixing the cement into the soil using
mixed-in-place methods. However, because of the
cohesiveness of the soil some additional effort may
be required for the pulverization and mixing operations. Wet soils may require multiple mixing passes. If
the soil is dry, pre-wetting and allowing the water to
soak in may facilitate pulverization (see Figure 8-2).
In contrast to normal CTB construction, the time limit
between mixing and compacting is not as stringent,
Cement-modified soils are principally used to modify

fine-grained soils such as silts and clays and granular soils having a high plasticity and/or fine content.
Cement content for each is typically based on identifying the appropriate amount necessary to meet
specifications.
Most CMS involves high plasticity soils such as clays.
Specifications will often require enough cement
content to reduce the plasticity index (PI) to within a
range of 12 to 15. Typically, a cement content of 3 to
4 percent will reduce the PI sufficiently and increase
the California bearing ratio (CBR) and resistance values. The cement-modified soil should provide a firm
foundation for compaction of the base/subbase layer
above it.
Figure 8-2. Cement slurry added to subgrade

material (cement slurry is applied the same way
for CTB and FDR applications)
In general, in-place mixing and construction sequence

follows these steps:
Sustainability
CMS reduces waste by allowing the use of existing
material.
For initial preparation, shape the area to crown and

grade and correct any soft or unsuitable areas.
In-situ marginal subgrade soils can be improved,

minimizing the need to haul in costly select granular
aggregates.
If necessary, prewet dry soils to aid pulverization or

dry back wet soils by aeration with disc harrow or
rotary mixer with its hood open.
CMS provides a stronger more stable subgrade,

which may reduce the quantity of base material
needed.
Distribute cement in dry form with mechanical

spreader or in slurry form from distributor truck.
Mix with pulvermixer, adding water if necessary,

until a homogeneous, friable mixture is obtained
that will meet the specified pulverization requirements (see Figure 8-3).
Compact with tamping (sheepsfoot) roller (see
Figure 8-4).
Complete surface compaction with a steel drum,
pneumatic tire, or other appropriate type of roller.
With grader, shape area to final crown and grade.
Seal surface with pneumatic-tire roller.
Unlike cement-treated bases, CMS is often not cured.
However, curing with a light water spray or bituminous coating will provide the maximum benefit from
the cement.
Bhattacharja, S. and J. Bhatty. 2003. Comparative

Performance of Portland Cement and Lime Stabilization
of Moderate to High Plasticity Clay Soils. RD125. Skokie,
Illinois: Portland Cement Association.
Halsted, G. E., W. S. Adaska, and W. T. McConnell.
2008. Guide to Cement-Modified Soil (CMS). EB242.
Skokie Illinois: Portland Cement Association.
SolutionsCement-Modified Soil. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/CMS.html.
Scullion, T., S. Sebesta, J. Harris, and I. Syed. 2005.
Evaluating the Performance of Soil-Cement and CementModified Soil for Pavements: A Laboratory Investigation.
RD120. Skokie, Illinois: Portland Cement Association.
Figure 8-4. Sheepsfoot roller used for compaction
Figure 8-3. Pulvermizer used for in-place mixing of

CMS
CEMENT-MODIFIED SOILS (CMS)
although all operations, including compaction, should

be completed in the same day.
8-3

9
Recycled Concrete Aggregates
Objectives
Recycle excavated concrete pavement.
Recycled concrete aggregates are used in highway,

street and local road, shoulder, airfield, commercial/lightweight industrial, and heavy industrial
applications.
Minimize construction cost.

Reduce dependence on good quality virgin aggregates, which may be hard to find or expensive to
bring in.
Highways
Solution
Use old concrete as aggregates in new pavement

layers.
Shoulders
Benefits
Recycled concrete aggregates (RCA) are versatile

because they can be used in any pavement layer.
Material costs are reduced.
Pavement suffering from ASR or D-cracking can be

recycled instead of discarded.
The need for old concrete disposal is reduced.
Considerations
If ASR or D-cracking exists in recycled pavement
material, special attention must be given to mixture
design.
Recycled concrete aggregates in HMA may increase
binder content requirements.
Concrete mixture designs will have to be adjusted
for strength.
Additional quality control measures may be necessary to ensure concrete workability.
Heavy Industrial
Description
Recycled concrete aggregates are aggregates produced
from the recycling of existing concrete. Existing concrete is removed, processed into appropriate aggregate
sizes, and reused in various pavement applications.
The benefits of using RCA in pavements include
reduced material costs, minimized use of depleting virgin aggregate sources, and decreased landfill
content.
Recycled concrete aggregates are primarily used in
bases and subbases. According to a 2008 Federal
Highway Administration national review, 84 percent
of states are recycling concrete aggregate. While most
Construction time can be expedited with on-site

recycling plants.
Airfields
9-1
RECYCLED CONCRETE AGGREGATES
states use RCA as a base material, 22 percent use RCA

as aggregate for new concrete pavements.
Recycled concrete aggregates are ideal for the bottom
lift of a two-lift paving mixture design. Two-lift paving is a construction technique that involves placing a concrete surface layer in two consecutive lifts.
The process is sometimes referred to as wet-on-wet
because the top layer is placed immediately after the
bottom layer, before the bottom layer hardens. The
advantage to this kind of construction is that good
quality aggregates are only required in the top lift,
whereas aggregates such as RCA can then be used for
the lower lift.
The quality of RCA is very dependent on the quality of the material from which it was processed. Old
concrete pavement is broken down in-place, removed,
and crushed to produce RCA. Recycled concrete
aggregates produced from all but the poorest quality
original concrete can be expected to pass the same
tests required of virgin conventional aggregates.
Materials
9-2
Recycled concrete aggregates (see Figure 9-1) produced from concrete pavement recycling contains
both the original aggregates and hydrated cement
paste. Recycled concrete aggregates can be processed
to exhibit properties that meet the same gradation
requirements as virgin aggregates used for similar applications. Recycled concrete aggregates may
improve early strength properties in some applications because of the continued hydration of exposed
cement particles in the RCA. There are some material

characteristics specific to RCA in some applications
that should be understood and accounted for in either
design or construction.
Concrete pavements containing RCA can result in
increased porosity and absorption, higher coefficient
of thermal expansion and shrinkage, lower strengths,
and reduced specific gravity when compared to the
use of only virgin aggregates. The chloride content of
recycled aggregates should be investigated if the material will be used in reinforced concrete. To achieve the
same workability, slump, and w/cm ratio as in conventional concrete, mixtures incorporating RCA typically
require higher paste content and/or greater amounts
of water reducer. In an HMA surface and asphaltstabilized base and/or subbase layers, RCA can help to
improve stability and friction but typically requires an
increase in binder content.
As an aggregate in CTB layers, RCA requires no
special consideration and performs similar to virgin
aggregate. Recycled concrete aggregates can be more
susceptible to abrasion. Therefore, when used as an
aggregate in unbound base and/or subbase layers, the
construction process should be adjusted as needed for
proper handling.
Pavements suffering from ASR or D-cracking can
be recycled, but special attention must be given to
concrete mixture design. Supplementary cementitious
materials that mitigate ASR must be incorporated into
concrete mixture designs when ASR-distressed RCA
is used. D-cracked RCA must be processed to proper
aggregate sizes for the prevention of further D-cracking distress.
When designed and constructed appropriately, pavements built with recycled materials can be durable.
The key is to design a mixture with proper material
proportions for the intended application.
Design
Figure 9-1. Recycled concrete aggregates
It is common to combine RCA with virgin aggregate

in mixtures for new concrete or HMA surface layers.
In concrete surface applications, up to 30 percent of
natural crushed coarse aggregate can be replaced with
coarse RCA without significantly affecting any of the
A backhoe or bulldozer with a rhino horn attachment for loosening the crushed material from the
layer beneath it and any reinforcement
Front-end loaders or dump trucks for transporting
(see Figure 9-3)
A recycling plant that can be stationary, portable, or
mobile
Figure 9-4 shows existing concrete recycled in-place
and reused for base material.
mechanical properties of the concrete. As replacement

amounts increase, drying shrinkage and creep will
increase and tensile strength and modulus of elasticity will decrease; however, compressive strength and
freeze-thaw resistance are not significantly affected.
Special care is necessary when using fine RCA in
concrete mixtures. Only a maximum of 10 to 20
percent fine RCA has been shown to be beneficial.
Recycled concrete aggregates content in HMA surface
layers is not limited if the mixture design properties
adhere to all specified performance requirements (e.g.,
abrasion).
When used in new concrete, it is recommended that

RCA be prewetted and close to a saturated surface dry
Recycled concrete aggregates content for base and

subbase applications is not as strict. In general, a wellgraded RCA can result in a very stable subbase, and
RCA content in CTB should be such that it still meets
all performance requirements.
Construction
The steps required for the RCA production process are
crushing and removing existing pavement material,
removing any reinforcement and/or other contaminants, and processing the reclaimed material down
to appropriate aggregate sizes. In general, equipment
used for RCA production includes the following:
Figure 9-3. Broken concrete pavement is removed

for recycling
Figure 9-2. Example of equipment used to break

existing concrete
Figure 9-4. Existing concrete recycled in-place and

reused for base material on the Tri-State Tollway in
Illinois
Hand-operated or vehicle-mounted crushing devices

(e.g., hand-held tools, drop hammers/blades, impact
breakers/hammers, etc.) (see Figure 9-2)
9-3
condition before batching. Additional quality control

measures may be necessary to ensure good moisture
control. Concrete and HMA mixtures containing RCA
can be transported, placed, and compacted in the
same manner as conventional mixtures.
The construction of CTB and unbound base/subbase
layers follows typical standard procedures. If RCA
is used in what is intended to be a drainable base or
subbase layer, it is advised that handling (i.e., shaping) the material is kept to a minimum; the tendency
for fine particulates to break off from the surface of
the RCA is increased, otherwise.
In a drainable layer, increased fines decrease the ability for water to escape out of the layer. It is also recommended that RCA base and subbase drainage layers
are daylighted for this reason.
Recycled concrete aggregates used in unbound base
and/or subbase layers can contain very small percentages of contaminants (such as HMA binder) without
adversely affecting performance.
Sustainability
Existing materials are reused, reducing the exploitation of virgin material and minimizing landfill
material.
Costs related to the processing, purchasing, and

transportation of virgin aggregates are minimized.
9-4
In-place recycling reduces truck traffic and fuel

consumption, and also reduces local road damage
from haul trucks.
Using RCA, particularly in applications that expose
it to the atmosphere (e.g., embankment fill, gravel
roads, and railroad ballast), results in a process
called carbon sequestering. The process essentially
recaptures CO2 from the atmosphere.

American Concrete Institute Committee 555. 2001.
Removal and Reuse of Hardened Concrete. ACI-555R-01.
American Concrete Pavement Association. 2009. Recycling Concrete Pavements. EB043P.
American Concrete Pavement Association. 2010. Recycled Concrete Aggregates Can Be Used in Any Application
in Which Virgin Aggregate Can Be Used, and Even Some It
Typically Is Not. TS043.4P.
Construction Materials Recycling Association. 2006
2010. Economical Good Sense. www.concreterecycling.
org.
Federal Highway Administration. 2008. Recycled Concrete Aggregate. National Review, http://www.fhwa.dot.
gov/pavement/recycling/rca.cfm.
Federal Highway Administration. 2010. Use of
Recycled Concrete Pavement as Aggregate in Hydraulic-Cement Concrete Pavement Technical Advisory,
T 5040.37, http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/pavement/
t504037.cfm.
Resources on Two-Lift Concrete Paving. http://www.
cptechcenter.org/projects/two-lift-paving (accessed
July 2010).
SolutionsRecycled Concrete. http://www.integratedpavingsolutions.org/RecycledConcrete.html
Portland Cement Association. Concrete Technology
Materials: Aggregates, www.cement.org/tech/cct_aggregates_recycled.asp
Taylor, P., S. Kosmatka, G. Voigt et al. 2006. Integrated
Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement. National Concrete Pavement Technology Center,
Iowa State University.

10
Repair and Restoration
Description
The repair and restoration of concrete pavements are
tasks conducted to improve a distressed pavement
by restoring both function and structural capacity.
The various techniques that fall into this category
can be conducted one or more times during the life
of the pavement. The type of repair depends on the
condition of the pavement at the time. Quite often,
prompt repairs are more effective and less expensive
than delayed repairs or rehabilitation. The following
summarizes some of the more common repairs and
rehabilitation techniques used on concrete pavements
in order to extend performance.
Full-Depth Repairs
Full-depth repairs are used to address an area of major
distress in a pavement. This could be a localized event
or extended throughout the pavement section.
In concrete pavements, full-depth repairs most often

consist of cast-in-place concrete that replaces the full
depth of the existing slab. Figure 10-1 shows the
process for full-depth repair of a JPCP panel (from top
to bottom): identify candidate slabs, remove existing
pavement, and replace with new concrete.
A similar technique is used for jointed pavements,
where part or all of a slab panel can be replaced with
the joint reinforcement being replaced at the same
time.
Figure10-1. Full-depth repair of a concrete

pavement slab
A full-depth repair can provide good long-term performance (more than 10 to 15 years) if the quality of
the repair is good and the right materials are used.
10-1
REPAIR AND RESTORATION

10-2
Partial-Depth Repairs
A partial-depth repair consists of the removal and
replacement of small, shallow areas of deteriorated
concrete pavement at spalled or distressed joints. For
a partial-depth repair to be practical, the distress typically had not extended deeper than one-third of the
depth of the slab. However, due to the recent availability of joint milling machines as a U mill, partial
depth repairs have extended to T/2. The load transfer
devices, if present, should be fully functional. Figure
10-2 shows a pavement showing spalling. Spalling can
cause ride and noise problems for the traveling public,
and thus partial-depth repairs can remedy functional

performance. A partial-depth repair begins with
the removal of distressed concrete by sawing, chipping, and/or milling until sound concrete is exposed.
Repair material is then applied and the surface texture
restored. Finally, curing should be conducted per the
recommendations specific for the patch material used.
Stitching
Stitching is a repair method for restoring load transfer
at longitudinal cracks (see Figure 10-3). This type of
repair is an option when slabs are not severely distressed. Holes are drilled at a diagonal from one side
of the crack to the other. The angle of the diagonal
should be consistent and measure between 35 and 45
degrees. Epoxy followed by a tie bar fill the hole. The
tie bar should pass through the crack at mid-depth. It
is important not to damage the surface of the concrete
while performing this type of repair. Surface damage can be avoided by choosing appropriate drilling
equipment such as a hydraulic-powered drill and a bit
that is 0.375 in. (10 mm) greater than the diameter of
the tie bar that will be inserted. The size of the tie bar
depends on slab thickness, angle of hole, and holes
distance from the crack.
Figure 10-3. Cross-section of concrete pavement

showing stitching
Slab Stabilization
Figure10-2. Partial-depth repair process at joint
Slab stabilization is a repair technique for concrete

pavement in which a flowable material is inserted
beneath the pavement slabs in order to restore their
support. During the process, voids are filled that lie
between the slab and the supporting layer. These are
often caused by water infiltration and subsequent
Slab stabilization restores slab support, reduces pavement deflections, and minimizes the progression of
further distress. The success of the repair depends,
in part, on identifying the areas with loss of support.
Furthermore, the injection of material under the
slab must be performed in such a way that the void
is adequately filled, which encourages the use of an
experienced contractor. Figure 10-4 shows typical
tasks during a slab stabilization repair, where holes are
drilled into the concrete slab, which is then filled with
grout material.
Slab Jacking
Joint Resealing
Joint resealing consists of placing a sealing material in
an existing joint or crack to reduce moisture infiltration and minimize intrusion of incompressibles. When
cracks and joints are not properly sealed, water can
sometimes infiltrate and saturate the lower layers of
the pavement. This, in turn, can cause various pavement distresses. Sealing material is typically a liquid
(hot or cold) but can also be an expansion joint filler
(preformed). The joint design typically dictates the
type of sealant to be used. The desired properties of
the sealant are durability to traffic and environment,
extensibility that allows joint/crack movement without
rupture, and adhesiveness that permits adherence to
the crack or joint walls. A joint resealing procedure
follows five basic steps: old sealant removal, joint
refacing, joint reservoir cleaning, backer rod installation, and new sealant installation. The key factors
for the success of this repair are the proper selection
of joints/cracks, selection of sealing material, restoration of the joint reservoir and shape factor, reservoir
preparation, and proper sealant application. Figure
10-5 shows the application of joint sealant.
Dowel Bar Retrofit

Load transfer across transverse joints has always been
a factor contributing to the life of a concrete pavement. Steel dowels are often used to ensure load
transfer. However, problems can sometimes arise over
time, including corrosion and high bearing stresses
that can erode the surrounding concrete. On older
concrete pavements, or those that were designed for
lower traffic, load transfer may be provided by aggregate interlock only. Over time, the loss of load transfer
can manifest itself into joint faulting and slab cracking
and thus should be remedied.
Figure 10-4. Drilling operation as part of slab

stabilization
Load transfer restoration is defined as the installation

of mechanical devices in an existing pavement. Along
Slab jacking is a repair procedure in which a concrete

pavement slab is raised by applying pressurized grout
beneath the slab. Slab jacking is used to fix localized
spots of settlement often found near fill areas, culverts,
and bridge approaches. When done properly, this
technique can restore the ride quality of a pavement,
although it does not correct faulted joints. The grout
mixture or polyurethane used in the repair should be
certified for this purpose. The procedure is similar to
slab stabilization in that the locations should first be
carefully identified. Holes are drilled, and a pumping
sequence is identified to achieve the desired effect.
Material is then injectedin sequenceso that the
slab is raised no more than 0.25 in. (6 mm). This process continues until the slab reaches the desired grade.
Success in slab jacking is more likely when performed
on structurally sound pavement with localized depressions. A proven process and durable materials should
be used.
pumping of fines to the surface. Voids weaken the

structure and without repair can lead to breaking up
of the slabs due to traffic loads. The material that is
inserted should fill the voids but should not lift the
slab.
10-3
retrofit dowel bars. Note that retrofitting is often done

in the wheel paths only.
Diamond Grooving and

Grinding
Diamond grooving and grinding are surface treatments performed to improve the functional characteristics of a pavement. Diamond grinding consists of
removing a very thin layer of the surface using a set of
closely spaced diamond saw blades. The result of this
technique includes improvements to smoothness, friction, and noise. Grinding is recommended when the
pavement is structurally sound, and before conducting this repair the hardness of the concrete aggregate
should be determined so that the diamond blades are
selected, sized, and spaced accordingly. The need for
Figure 10-5. Application of joint sealant
10-4
transverse joints, the load transfer is usually accomplished by installing dowel bars. To define whether or
not load transfer is adequate, a falling weight deflectometer can be used to assess the load transfer efficiency. A good candidate for repair is a pavement in
good structural condition but with poor load transfer
(less than 50 to 60 percent). Pavements with faulting
between 0.12 and 0.5 in. (3 and 13 mm) are also good
candidates, as are those with less than 10 percent of
slabs with multiple cracks.
Dowel bar retrofit begins with slotting, typically by
sawing and chipping. The joint is prepared and the
dowel bar affixed to a joint insert. The repair material
is then placed and cured as needed. Quite often, diamond grinding can be conducted after all dowel bar
retrofits are complete. Figure 10-6 displays a concrete
pavement where slots have been cut and cleaned to
Figure 10-6. Contiguous concrete slabs prepared

for dowel bar retrofitting
Figure 10-7 Diamond grinding concrete pavement

for surface restoration
Fanous, F. S., J. K. Cable. et al. 2006. Laboratory Study

of Structural Behavior of Alternative Dowel Bars (Proj. 7).
Research project, National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State University, April.
Diamond grooving is usually done to minimize the

hydroplaning effect in a pavement. Channels are
grooved onto the surface to accomplish this goal. Diamond saw blades are used to cut these parallel grooves
in either longitudinal (more common) or transverse
patterns. Other benefits of this repair are improved
wet weather friction and the reduction in splash and
spray when the pavement is wet.
Federal Highway Administration. 2008. Concrete Pavement Preservation Workshop. Draft instructor guide.
Candidate pavements for diamond grooving are often

based on historical crash rates. This surface treatment is generally performed at localized areas and
on pavements that are structurally sound. The success of this repair depends on the selection of proper
candidate projects and the proper selection of groove
dimensions.
Texas Department of Transportation. 2008. Pavement Design Guide. TxDOT Construction Division.
November.
Taylor, P. C., S. H. Kosmatka, G. F. Voigt, et al. 2007.

Integrated Materials and Construction Practices for Concrete Pavement: A State-of-the-Practice Manual. National
Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa State
University, October.
associated treatments (e.g., load transfer restoration)

should also be considered prior to this treatment. Figure 10-7 displays the typical appearance of a concrete
pavement that has been diamond ground.
Figure 10-8 illustrates a concrete pavement where

diamond grooving is being performed. In this case,
the grooving pattern is longitudinal.

Figure 10-8. Longitudinal grooving of a concrete
pavement to restore macrotexture
American Concrete Pavement Association. 2008. Concrete Pavement Field Reference: Preservation and Repair.
EB239P. Skokie, Illinois: American Concrete Pavement
Association.
10-5
National Concrete Pavement Technology Center

Institute for Transportation
Iowa State University
2711 South Loop Drive, Suite 4700
Ames, IA 50010-8664
515-294-5798
www.cptechcenter.org
SR035

IPS CTB Cement Treated Base

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

IPS CTB Cement Treated Base

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

IPS CTB Cement Treated Base

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

August 2011

Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

For more information on these applications, please see

CEMENT-BASED INTEGRATED PAVEMENT SOLUTIONS

Roller- Compacted Concrete

Cement- Treated Base

SUSTAINABLE PRACTICE - PRESERVATION OF THE SYSTEMS EQUITY

Dowel Bar Retrofit

Technical Report Documentation Page

2. Government Accession No.

4. Title and Subtitle

3. Recipients Catalog No.

8. Performing Organization Report No.

9. Performing Organization Name and Address

10. Work Unit No. (TRAIS)

12. Sponsoring Organization Name and Address

11. Contract or Grant No.

13. Type of Report and Period Covered

15. Supplementary Notes

17. Key Words

18. Distribution Statement

19. Security Classification (of this

21. No. of Pages

Form DOT F 1700.7 (8-72)

20. Security Classification (of this

Technical Advisory Committee

Sabrina Garber, The Transtec Group, Inc.

Wayne Adaska, Portland Cement Association

Robert Otto Rasmussen, The Transtec Group, Inc.

Tom Cackler, National Concrete Pavement Technology

Greg Dean, American Concrete Pavement Association,

Dale Harrington, Snyder and Associates

Gary Fick, Trinity Construction Management Services

Jerry Reece, North Carolina Concrete Pavement

Carol Gostele, Copyeditor

Matt Singel, Cement Council of Texas

Mina Shin, Graphic Designer

Gordon Smith, Iowa Concrete Paving Association

Leif Wathne, American Concrete Pavement

About This Guide

The photographs on the cover and throughout this

Chicago Department of Transportation

Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

The authors and co-authors, the National CP Tech

For More Information

For technical assistance regarding cement-based concrete paving,

American Concrete Pavement Association

Neither Iowa State University nor this documents authors,

About This Guide ............................................................................iv

Objectives ......................................................... 2-1

Objectives ......................................................... 3-1

Objectives ......................................................... 4-1

Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

Objectives ......................................................... 1-1

6. Cement-Treated Base ............................................................6-1

Objectives ......................................................... 6-1

Objectives ......................................................... 7-1

Guide to Cement-Based Integrated Pavement Solutions

8. Cement-Modified Soils (CMS).............................................8-1