Chapter 1

Direct-Current Circuits

DEFINATIONS
Linear elements : In an electric circuit, a linear element is an electrical
element with a linear relationship between current and voltage. Resistors are
the most common example of a linear element; other examples include
capacitors, inductors, and transformers.
Nonlinear Elements :A nonlinear element is one which does not have a
linear input/output relation. In a diode, for example, the current is a nonlinear function of the voltage . Most semiconductor devices have non-linear
characteristics.
Active Elements :The elements which generates or produces electrical
energy are called active elements. Some of the examples are batteries,
generators , transistors, operational amplifiers , vacuum tubes etc.
Passive Elements :All elements which consume rather than produce
energy are called passive elements, like resistors, Inductors and capacitors.

In unilateral element, voltage current relation is not same for both

the direction. Example: Diode, Transistors.
In bilateral element, voltage current relation is same for both the
direction. Example: Resistor
Ideal Voltage Source: The voltage generated by the source does not
vary with any circuit quantity. It is only a function of time. Such a source
is called an ideal voltage Source.
Ideal Current Source: The current generated by the source does not
vary with any circuit quantity. It is only a function of time. Such a source
is called as an ideal current source.
Resistance : It is the property of a substance which opposes the flow of
current through it. The resistance of element is denoted by the symbol
R. It is measured in Ohms.

 Electric Current
Resistance and Ohms Law
Energy and Power in Electric Circuits
Resistors in Series and Parallel
Kirchhoffs Rules
Circuits Containing Capacitors
RC Circuits
Ammeters and Voltmeters

Electric Current
Electric current is the flow of electric charge from
one place to another.

A closed path through which charge can flow,

returning to its starting point, is called an
electric circuit.

Electric Current
A battery uses chemical reactions to produce a
potential difference between its terminals. It
causes current to flow through the flashlight
bulb similar to the way the person lifting the
water causes the water to flow through the
paddle wheel.

Electric Current
A battery that is disconnected from any circuit
has an electric potential difference between its
terminals that is called the electromotive force or
emf:
Remember despite its name, the emf is an
electric potential, not a force.
The amount of work it takes to move a charge
Q from one terminal to the other is:

Electric Current
The direction of current flow from the positive
terminal to the negative one was decided
before it was realized that electrons are
negatively charged. Therefore, current flows
around a circuit in the direction a positive charge
would move;
electrons move
the other way.
However, this
does not matter
in most circuits.

Electric Current
Finally, the actual motion of electrons along a
wire is quite slow; the electrons spend most of
their time bouncing around randomly, and have
only a small velocity component opposite to
the direction of the current. (The electric signal
propagates much more quickly!)

2 Resistance and Ohms Law

Under normal circumstances, wires present
some resistance to the motion of electrons.
Ohms law relates the voltage to the current:

Be careful Ohms law is not a universal law

and is only useful for certain materials
(which include most metallic conductors).

2 Resistance and Ohms Law

Solving for the resistance, we find

The units of resistance, volts per ampere,

are called ohms:

2 Resistance and Ohms Law

Two wires of the same length and diameter will
have different resistances if they are made of
different materials. This property of a material is
called the resistivity.

2 Resistance and Ohms Law

The difference between

insulators,
semiconductors, and
conductors can be clearly
seen in their resistivities:

2 Resistance and Ohms Law

In general, the resistance of materials goes up
as the temperature goes up, due to thermal
effects. This property can be used in
thermometers.
Resistivity decreases as the temperature
decreases, but there is a certain class of
materials called superconductors in which the
resistivity drops suddenly to zero at a finite
temperature, called the critical temperature TC.

3 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

When a charge moves across a potential
difference, its potential energy changes:

Therefore, the power it takes to do this is

3 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

In materials for which Ohms law holds, the
power can also be written:

This power mostly becomes heat inside the

resistive material.

3 Energy and Power in Electric Circuits

When the electric company sends you a bill,
your usage is quoted in kilowatt-hours (kWh).
They are charging you for energy use, and kWh
are a measure of energy.

4 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors connected end to end are said to be in
series. They can be replaced by a single
equivalent resistance without changing the
current in the circuit.

4 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Since the current through the series resistors
must be the same in each, and the total potential
difference is the sum of the potential differences
across each resistor, we find that the equivalent
resistance is:

4 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Resistors are in parallel

when they are across the
same potential
difference; they can
again be replaced by a
single equivalent
resistance:

4 Resistors in Series and Parallel

Using the fact that the potential difference
across each resistor is the same, and the total
current is the sum of the currents in each
resistor, we find:

Note that this equation gives you the inverse of

the resistance, not the resistance itself!

4 Resistors in Series and Parallel

If a circuit is more complex, start with
combinations of resistors that are either purely
in series or in parallel. Replace these with their
equivalent resistances; as you go on you will be
able to replace more and more of them.

5 Kirchhoffs Rules
More complex circuits cannot be broken down
into series and parallel pieces.
For these circuits, Kirchhoffs rules are useful.
The junction rule is a consequence of charge
conservation; the loop rule is a consequence
of energy conservation.

5 Kirchhoffs Rules
The junction rule: At any junction, the current
entering the junction must equal the current
leaving it.

5 Kirchhoffs Rules
The loop rule: The algebraic sum of the potential
differences around a closed loop must be zero (it
must return to its original value at the original
point).

5 Kirchhoffs Rules
Using Kirchhoffs rules:
The variables for which you are solving are the
currents through the resistors.
You need as many independent equations as
you have variables to solve for.
You will need both loop and junction rules.

6 Circuits Containing Capacitors

Capacitors can also be connected in series or in
parallel.
When capacitors are
connected in parallel,
the potential difference
across each one is the
same.

6 Circuits Containing Capacitors

Therefore, the equivalent capacitance is the
sum of the individual capacitances:

6 Circuits Containing Capacitors

Capacitors connected in
series do not have the
same potential difference
across them, but they do
all carry the same charge.
The total potential
difference is the sum of the
potential differences
across each one.

6 Circuits Containing Capacitors

Therefore, the equivalent capacitance is

Note that this equation gives you the inverse of

the capacitance, not the capacitance itself!
Capacitors in series combine like resistors in
parallel, and vice versa.

7 RC Circuits
In a circuit containing
only batteries and
capacitors, charge
appears almost
instantaneously on the
capacitors when the
circuit is connected.
However, if the circuit
contains resistors as
well, this is not the case.

7 RC Circuits
Using calculus, it can be shown that the charge
on the capacitor increases as:

Here, is the time constant of the circuit:

And

is the final charge on the capacitor, Q.

7 RC Circuits
Here is the charge vs. time for an RC circuit:

7 RC Circuits
It can be shown that the current in the circuit
has a related behavior:

8 Ammeters and Voltmeters

An ammeter is a device for measuring current,
and a voltmeter measures voltages.
The current in the circuit must flow through the
ammeter; therefore the ammeter should have
as low a resistance as possible, for the least
disturbance.

8 Ammeters and Voltmeters

A voltmeter measures the potential
drop between two points in a circuit.
It therefore is connected in parallel;
in order to minimize the effect on
the circuit, it should have as large a
resistance as possible.

Transients Analysis

Solution to First Order Differential Equation

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Let the initial condition be x(t = 0) = x( 0 ),

then we solve the differential equation:

dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt
The complete solution consists of two parts:
the homogeneous solution (natural solution)
the particular solution (forced solution)

The Natural Response

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to zero,

dxN (t )
dxN (t )
x N (t ) dxN (t )
dt

x N (t ) 0 or

dt
dt

x N (t )

dxN (t )
dt
,

x N (t )

x N (t ) e t /

It is called the natural response.

The Forced Response

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to F, a

constant for t 0

dxF (t )

xF (t ) K S F
dt
x F (t ) K S F for t 0

It is called the forced response.

The Complete Response

Solve for ,
Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

The complete
response is:
the natural response +
the forced response
x x N (t ) xF (t )

e t / K S F
e t / x ( )

for t 0
x(t 0) x(0) x()

x(0) x()

The Complete
solution:

x(t ) [ x(0) x()]et / x()

[ x(0) x()]et / called transient respon

x() called steady state response

WHAT IS TRANSIENT RESPONSE

Figure 5.1

Transients Analysis
1. Solve first-order RC or RL circuits.
2. Understand the concepts of transient
response and steady-state response.
3. Relate the transient response of firstorder
circuits to the time constant.

Transients
The solution of the differential equation
represents are response of the circuit. It
is called natural response.

The response must eventually die out,

and therefore referred to as transient

response.

(source free response)

Discharge of a Capacitance through a

Resistance

ic

iR

i 0,

iC iR 0

dvC t vC t
C

0
dt
R

Solving the above equa

with the initial condition
Vc(0) = Vi

Discharge of a Capacitance through a

Resistance
1

dvC t vC t
C

0
dt
R

dvC t
RC
vC t 0
dt
vC t Ke

RC

vC t Ke

t RC

vC (0 ) Vi
Ke

st

RCKse Ke 0
st

st

0 / RC

vC t Vi e

t RC

vC t Vi e t

RC

Exponential decay waveform

RC is called the time constant.
At time constant, the voltage is 36.8%
of the initial voltage.

vC t Vi (1 et RC )
Exponential rising
waveform
RC is called the time
constant.
At time constant, the
voltage is 63.2% of the

RC CIRCUIT
t=0

i(t)

+
_

t=0

+
VC

Vu(t)

+
_

0-,

i(t)

R
C

+
VC
-

Vu(t)

for t =
i(t) = 0
u(t) is voltage-step function

RC CIRCUIT
iR iC
vu(t ) vC
dvC
iR
, iC C
R
dt
dvC
RC
vC V , v u (t ) V for t 0
dt
Vu(t)

Solving the differential equation

Complete Response
Complete response
= natural response + forced response
Natural response (source free response) is
due to the initial condition
Forced response is the due to the external
excitation.

Figure
5.17,
5.18

a).

Complete, transient and

steady state response
b). Complete, natural, and
forced responses of the
circuit
5-8

Circuit Analysis for RC Circuit

iR

iC

R
Vs

Apply KCL

+ VR -

+
Vc
-

iR iC
vs v R
dvC
iR
, iC C
R
dt
dvC
1
1

vR
vs
dt
RC
RC

vs is the source applied.

Solution to First Order Differential Equation

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Let the initial condition be x(t = 0) = x( 0 ),

then we solve the differential equation:

dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt
The complete solution consits of two parts:
the homogeneous solution (natural solution)
the particular solution (forced solution)

The Natural Response

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to zero,

dxN (t )
dxN (t )
x (t )
x N (t ) 0 or
N
dt
dt

x N (t ) e t /

It is called the natural response.

The Forced Response

Consider the general Equation
dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

Setting the excitation f (t) equal to F, a

constant for t 0

dxF (t )

xF (t ) K S F
dt
x F (t ) K S F for t 0

It is called the forced response.

The Complete Response

Solve for ,
Consider the general Equation
dx(t )
The complete
x(t ) K s f (t )
dt

response is:
the natural
response +
the forced
x x N (t ) xF (t )
response

e t / K S F
e t / x ( )

for t 0
x(t 0) x(0) x()

x(0) x()

The Complete
solution:

x(t ) [ x(0) x()]et / x()

[ x(0) x()]et / called transient response

x() called steady state response

Example
iR

+ VR 100 k
ohms

100V
0.01
microF

iC
+
Vc
-

Initial condition Vc(0) = 0V

iR iC
vs vC
dvC
iR
, iC C
R
dt
dvC
RC
vC vs
dt
5
6 dvC
10 0.0110
vC 100
dt
3 dvC
10
vC 100
dt

iR

Example

+ VR iC

100 k
ohms
100V
0.01
microF

+
Vc
-

dx(t )

x(t ) K s f (t )
dt
x x N (t ) xF (t )
e
e

t /

vc 100 Ae

t
103

As vc (0) 0, 0 100 A

and
t /

Initial condition Vc(0) = 0V

3 dvC
10
vC 100
dt

KS F
x ( )

A 100
vc 100 100e

t
103

Energy stored in capacitor

dv
p vi Cv
dt
t
t o

pdt

dv
t
t Cv dt
o
dt

C tt vdv

1
2
2
C v(t ) v(to )
2

If the zero-energy reference is selected at to, im

capacitor voltage is also zero at that instant, th

1 2
wc (t ) Cv
2

RC CIRCUIT
R

Power dissipation in the

resistor is:

pR = V2/R = (Vo2 /R) e -2 t /RC

Total energy turned into heat in

2 2t / RC
the resistor
V
e
dt
o 0

WR 0 p R dt
2
Vo R(

1
2
CVo
2

1
2t / RC
)e
|0
2 RC

RL CIRCUITS
Initial condition
i(t = 0) = Io

i(t)

VR
+

di
vR vL 0 Ri L
dt
+
L di
VL
i 0
R dt
Solving the differential equation

RL CIRCUITS

VR
+

di R
i0
dt L
i(t)
i ( t ) di
di
R
dt,

Io
i
L
i
+
R t
R
L
VL
i
ln i |I o t |o
L
R
ln i ln I o t
Initial condition
L
Rt / L
i(t = 0) = Io
i (t ) I o e

R
dt
o
L

RL CIRCUIT
Power dissipation in the
resistor is:
i(t)

VR
+

2R = I 2e-2Rt/LR
p
=
i
R
Total
energyoturned into heat in

the resistor
2
W

p
dt

I
R
R
oR
+

VL
-

I o2 R(

e 2 Rt / L dt

L 2 Rt / L
)e
|0
2R

1 2
LI o
2
1 2
It is expected as the energy stored in theLIinductor
o
2

i(t)

Vu(t)
+
_

Vu(t)

+
VL
-

RL CIRCUIT

di
Ri L V
dt
Ldi
dt
V Ri
Integrating both sides,
L
ln(V Ri ) t k
R

L
i (0 ) 0, thus k ln V
R
L
[ln(V Ri ) ln V ] t
R
V Ri
e Rt / L
or
V
V V Rt / L
i e
, for t 0
R R

where L/R is the time consta