AP Physics C

Electricity & Magnetism

Unit 9: Circuits

Section 9.1 – DC Circuits Review……………………………….………………….……….…36

Section 9.2 – Current, Resistance and Power……………………………………….…….……44

Section 9.3 – RC Circuits…………………………………………………..……….………..…48

35
AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 9 - Circuits
9.1 Notes – DC Circuits Review (Chapter 29)
Focus Question: What causes a magnetic field?
A circuit is a way for electric potential (also called voltage) to be transferred from a source of electric potential
energy to a load (something that uses electrical energy to function). The source and load are connected through
a conducting wire that carries electrons. The electrons carry electrical potential energy with them.
Definition of Current
 Current – The flow of charge through a conductor. In conductors, electrons move freely. When electrons
move, charge moves around. Negative charge is due to excess electrons. Positive charge is due to a
deficit of electrons.
 Current flows in a conductor when there is a potential different from one end of a conductor to another.
 The rate of current flow is defined as 𝐶𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡
Current = I=
*units: Amperes (A)

Direction of Current
 Current flows down a “voltage hill”.
Current from high electrical potential (positive charge) to low electrical potential (negative charge).
 In a solid conductor, current is due to the flow of free electrons. As
electrons are negatively charged, they are attracted to flow towards
positive charge. However, in circuit analysis, we pretend that current is
due to the flow of positive charge in the opposite direction of electron
movement. This is called conventional current.
 (Conventional) Current flows from positive charge to negative charge in a conductor.

+high potential -low potential

*Potential (measured in volts) is electric potential energy per unit charge.

 Charge flows from a source to a load in a circuit. A load is an object that uses electrical energy such as a
motor or light. Charge arrives at a load with high energy and leaves with lower energy.

 Charge flows around a circuit repeatedly. Electrostatics will never move conventional current from a
negative charge (lower potential) to positive charge (high potential).

*After leaving a source, current circulates to a load. The load consumes energy but not charge.

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Resistors

 Electrons collide with metal nuclei when traveling

through a conductor. These collisions to transfer
electrical energy to heat. This is analogous to friction in
mechanical motion. Resistors impede current flow by
converting electric energy (voltage) to heat.

*Resistance of a theoretically perfect conductor is zero. *Resistance of a perfect inductor would be infinite.
Resistors are required in circuits to slow down current. Electrons moving too fast will cause a circuit to
become very hot and can burn out circuit elements.
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s Law relates the difference in potential(known as voltage) from one side of a load to another (V), the
resistance of the load (R) and current ( I ).

𝑂ℎ𝑚 𝑠 𝐿𝑎𝑤 - ∆𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹
Series vs. Parallel

 When two elements are in series, they are connected end to end so that there is only one way for current
to flow. When resistors are in series, current has to pass through both resistors.
*Req = Equivalent resistance.

Current is the same in series. Voltage is shared between elements in series; elements with more
resistance drop more voltage. Adding a resistor in series with another resistor will increase the
equivalent resistance and decrease the current.

 Elements that are in parallel are on different paths, so current is divided between the elements.
However, the potential in each path is the same. In parallel, reciprocals of the resistances add up.

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 Voltage is the same in parallel. Current is split between the elements. More current will go down the
path with less resistance. Adding a resistor in parallel with another resistor will decrease the equivalent
resistance and increase the current in the circuit.

 In the circuit below, R1 and R2 are in series since current from the battery has to pass through both
resistors. However, R3 and R4 are not in series since the current flowing through one is equal to the
current in the other. After passes through R2, current can either take the path through R3 or the path
through R4, making these two resistors in parallel. The majority of the current will go through the
resistor with least resistance.

Apply Kirchoff’s Voltage Law to series circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Voltage (Loop) Law

In a closed loop, the vector sum of the potential differences across each
element is 0.

 Current flows from – to + in the source and + to – through the rest of the
circuit. V across the source is positive and negative across the loads.
 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law is consequence of conservation of energy.

Example C: Appreciate the circuit on the right.

a) Find the current in the circuit.

b) Find the voltage drop across each resistor.

All 3 resistors are in series, so they all have the same current. The
current is found by dividing the total voltage by the equivalent
resistance. Once this current is found, it can be used to find the
voltage across each resistor using Ohm’s Law.

*The voltages (3V+18V+9V) add up the battery voltage of 30 V, satisfying Kirchoff’s Loop Law.

38
Circuit Analysis (Current leaves the long side of a
battery) – The battery supplies 30 V to the current
leaving it. When the current gets to the 6Ω resistor, it
uses up 18V, leaving it with 12 V. Current is never
used up so it still have 3 A. The current then loses 9V
in the 3Ω resistor, leaving it with 3V. The 1Ω uses up
the remaining voltage, leaving the current with no
potential.

*Whenever current goes back into the battery, it will

not have any voltage left. All voltage must be used up
in a circuit*

When the current goes back through the battery, it will gain the voltage back and the circuit will repeat.
Batteries do eventually run out of potential over time. (a 9V will eventually have 8V, then 7V,etc.)

*Voltage is potential difference. Therefore, the battery has positive voltage (since it adds voltage) and the
resistors have negative voltage (since they take volts away).

Apply Kirchoff’s Current Law to parallel circuits.

Kirchhoff’s Current (Node) Law

The sum of the current entering a node is equal to the sum of the
current exiting a node.

 Kirchhoff’s Current Law is consequence of conservation of charge.

Example D: The circuit to the right has 3 elements in parallel.

a) Find the current that leaves the battery.

b) Find the current in each resistor.

All 3 resistors are in parallel, so they all have the same potential (voltage). The total current can be found by
dividing the battery voltage by the equivalent current. To find the current in each resistor, divide the battery
voltage by each resistance since each resistor gets the full battery voltage.

39
The currents (10A+16A+8A) add up to the total circuit current, satisfying Kirchoff’s Current Law.

Circuit Analysis – Current leaves the battery with 34 A and carries 80

V. Whenever current splits, each branch gets all the volts that the
current was carrying before splitting (the rate of flow, current will be
different). When the currents meet up again, they once again combine,
so there is still 34 A going back to the battery with 0 V (since all 3
branches used up their voltages in the resistors). Again, the battery
will supply 80 V to the current again.

Measure internal resistance.

Measuring Current - Ammeters have very low resistance and thus are connected in series with the element
whose current is to be measured.
Since the ammeter is in series with the resistor, it will measure the same current as
the resistor.
An ideal ammeter has a very small (negligible) resistance, so it will not drop any
volts or alter the current and will therefore not affect the circuit by it being there.
*A non-ideal ammeter will have resistor, and therefore decrease the current lower
than what it should be.
Measuring Voltage – Voltmeters have very high resistance and thus an accurate voltage reading would not be
recorded if it was connected in series with the element with which current is to be measured. Thus, voltmeters
are connected in parallel with the element that voltage is to be measured in.
Since the voltmeter is in parallel with the resistor, it will measure the same
voltage.

An ideal voltmeter has a very high (infinite) resistance, so only a negligible

amount of current will flow through it.

Example A: Solve for each current in the circuit shown.

There are 3 unknowns, so 3 equations need to be set up using

Kirchoff’s laws using loops or nodes in the circuit.

Loop 1: 0 = +2 − 𝐼 + 5𝐼 − 15 − 3𝐼
→ −4𝐼 + 5𝐼 = 13
*Since the loop goes “backwards” through I2, the conventional signs
were reversed in the set-up for that section.
Loops 2: 0 = +12 − 2𝐼 + 5𝐼 − 15
→ 5𝐼 − 2𝐼 = 3
Node: 𝐼 + 𝐼 + 𝐼 = 0

Solving the equations using a solver: 𝑰𝟏 = −𝟐 𝑨, 𝑰𝟐 = 𝟏 𝑨, 𝑰𝟑 = 𝟏 𝑨

*I1 being negative means current flows opposite of the defined direction.

40
Example B: Solve the circuit shown.

To solve a circuit (find the voltage and current

across each element), find the equivalent circuit
and then work backwards. The equivalent circuit is
a circuit with one source and one resistor (that has
the equivalent resistance of the circuit.

To find the equivalent, combine elements that are

in series and parallel. You cannot do this in one
step, so you need to combine things step by step.

Step 1

-The 2Ω and 8Ω resistors combine in series (2+8)

-The 12Ω, 15Ω, and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel

(1/(1/12+1/15+1/10))

Step 2

-The 40Ω and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel (1/(1/40+1/10))

-The 4Ω and 6Ω resistors combine in series (4+6)

Step 3

-The 7Ω and 8Ω resistors combine in series (7+8)

Step 4

-The 15Ω and 10Ω resistors combine in parallel (1/(1/15+1/10))

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Step 5 (Equivalent Circuit)

-The 3Ω and 6Ω resistors combine in series

-The equivalent current is 9Ω

-The battery current is 5 A.

Much like Bilbo Baggins, we have to go there and back again, so we now go backwards through the
steps to the original circuit. If items are in series when going backwards, they have the same current. If
they are in parallel, they have the same voltage drop. We can then use ohm’s law to find the other
quantity for each element.

Back to Step 4
-The 3Ω and 6Ω were in series so they both have the same current, 5A.

*The voltages are found using Ohm’s Law (V=IR). The calculated
voltages (30+15) add up to 45 V, satisfying Kirchoff’s Loop Law.

Back to Step 3
-The 6Ω resistor splits in parallel, so the two resistors have the same
voltage, 30 V.

*The current is found using Ohm’s Law (I=V/R). The calculate currents
(2+3) add up to 5A, satisfying Kirchoff’s Node Law.

Back to Step 2
-The 15Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is the same for the 7Ω
and 8Ω resistors it splits into.

Back to Step 1

-The 8Ω resistor splits in parallel, so the two resistors have the

same voltage, 16V, that the 8Ω resistor had.

- The 10Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is the same for
the 4Ω and 6Ω resistors it splits into.

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Back to Original Circuit (Answer)
-The 4Ω resistor splits in parallel, the resistors it splits into all have 12 V.

-The 10Ω resistor splits in series, so its current is kept for call elements.

Example B: Appreciate the circuit on the right.

a) Calculate current in bulb A with the switch closed.

b) Which lightbulb is the brightest? Justify your answer.
c) Switch S is opened. Describe what happens to the
brightness of each bulb.
a) The current through A is solved by finding the
equivalent circuit and working backwards.

b) A is the brightest bulb since it gets all the battery current. B and C have to split the current.

c) If the switch is open:

o A gets dimmer. The equivalent resistance goes up, so the total current in the circuit goes down.
o B gets brighter. Even though the current in the circuit decreases, B now gets all the current instead of
splitting it with C.
o C goes out since it is no longer part of the circuit.

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AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 9 - Circuits
9.2 Current, Resistance, and Power (Chapter 28)
Focus Question: How does current move through a conductor?
 Current is any motion of charge within a conductor. It can be expressed at the amount of charge flowing
through a cross section of a conductor per unit time:
𝒅𝑸
𝑰=
𝒅𝒕

Example A: How much charge passes through a conductor in from t = 0 s to = 5.0 s if the current is given by
𝐼(𝑡) = 0.5sin(0.2𝑡)?

𝑑𝑄
𝐼= →𝑄= 𝐼𝑑𝑡 = . 5 sin(.2𝑡)
𝑑𝑡

5
→ 𝑄 = (−2.5 cos(. 2𝑡)| = 1.15 𝐶
0

Drift Velocity

 Current can be expressed in terms of drift velocity.

𝐼= =
/

→ 𝑰 = 𝒗𝑨𝒏𝒆
n – charge volume density
v – electron drift velocity

Example B: The cross-sectional area of a wire is 2.5𝑥10 𝑚 . The density of free electrons is 𝑛 = 5.0𝑥10
electrons/m3. A charge of 60 C passes through the wire in 30 minutes. What is the drift velocity of the electrons
in the wire? How long would it take the electrons to go from a light switch to a bulb 20 m away?

Electron drift velocity is very slow even though electrons move extremely fast. This is because electrons move
very erratically, so they mostly move around randomly, but they move on average in the direction of current
very slowly. As shown in the example, it takes a long time for a single electron to get anywhere, but the entire
circuit starts moving at the same time once a circuit is closed.

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Resistivity

 Resistivity – Resistivity is a property of the material. in metals, it is the ratio of electric field to current
density is constant:
𝑬
𝝆=
𝑱
J – current density
*A perfect conductor has zero resistivity. A perfect insulator has infinite resistivity.
*Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity. Conductivity = J/E

 Resistivity and Resistance - Charge drifts in the direction of the force on it. The charge makes inelastic
collisions with stationary particles and transfer energy to them. Thus, conductors get warmer as current
flows.
𝝆𝑳
𝑹= *𝑑𝑅 =
𝑨
R - resistance
L – length of conductor
A – cross sectional area of conductor

Example C: A copper wire (𝜌 = 1.72𝑥10 Ωm) has a cross section of area 5.0 mm2 and carries a current of
5.0 A. The density of free electrons in the wire is 1.0𝑥10 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛𝑠/𝑚 .
a) How many electrons pass through cross section of the wire per unit time?
b) What is the current density in the wire?
c) What is the drift velocity of the electrons?
d) If the wire is 10 cm long then what is its resistance?
e) What is the electric field in the wire?

45
Example D: A coaxial cable consists of two concentric cylindrical conductors. The region between the
conductors is filled with a plastic material. Current leakage through
the plastic, in the radial direction, is unwanted. The radius of the
inner conductor is a a= 0.5 cm, the radius of the outer conductor is
b = 1.0 cm, and the length is L = 10 cm. The resistivity of the plastic
is 1.0𝑥10 Ω𝑚.

𝜌𝐿 𝜌𝑑𝑟 𝜌𝑑𝑟
𝑅= → 𝑑𝑅 = =
𝐴 𝐴 2𝜋𝑟𝐿

𝜌 𝜌 𝑑𝑟
→𝑅= 𝑑𝑟 =
2𝜋𝑟𝐿 2𝜋𝐿 𝑟

𝜌 𝑏 𝜌 𝑏 1.0𝑥10 Ω𝑚 . 01 𝑚
𝑅= ln|𝑟| = ln | | = ln = 𝟏. 𝟏𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟏𝟑 Ω
2𝜋𝐿 𝑎 2𝜋𝐿 𝑎 2𝜋(.10 𝑚) . 005 𝑚

A high resisitance is desirable going across the coaxial cable to prevent current leakage.

 Resistivity and Temperature

∆𝝆 = 𝝆𝟎 𝜶∆𝑻 → 𝝆 = 𝝆𝟎 (𝟏 + 𝜶∆𝑻)
𝛼 −temperature coefficient of resistivity, fractional change of resistivity per degree

∆𝜌/𝜌 – fractional change in resistivity

Since resistance varies directly with resistivity, the following is also true: ∆𝑹 = 𝑹𝟎 𝜶∆𝑻

*Resistivity of a semiconductor decreases rapidly with temperature.

Example E: Another copper wire (𝛼 = .00393 /℃) has a resistance of . 01 Ω at 20℃. What is it resistance at
100℃?

∆𝑅 = 𝑅 𝛼∆𝑇 → 𝑅 = 𝑅 (1 + 𝛼∆𝑇) = (.01 Ω)(1 + . 00393 (80 ℃) =. 𝟎𝟏𝟑 Ω

℃

Power

 A charge moves through an element as shown. The electric field does work
on the charge as it passes through:

𝑾 = 𝑽𝒒
 Power
𝑾𝒐𝒓𝒌 𝑽𝒒 𝒒
𝑷𝒐𝒘𝒆𝒓 = = = 𝑽( )
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒕 𝒕
 𝑷 = 𝑽𝑰
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  Using Ohm’s Law with the power equation above, you can also derive the following two expressions for
power:
𝑽𝟐
 𝑷 = 𝑰𝟐 𝑹 =
𝑹

How power is used

Example F: Describe why a lightbulb will be less bright over time.

Over time, a lightbulb will get hotter, which will increase the resistance of the bulb. As the resistance increase,
the current will decrease. Less current will mean less power and therefore less brightness in the bulb.

Example G: A 90 W stereo is connected to a 120 V source. If energy cost $.10 per kilowatt-hour, find how
much it will cost to leave the stereo on for two days straight playing nothing but “Africa” by Toto on repeat.

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47
AP Physics C: Electricity & Magnetism Unit 9 - Circuits
9.3 RC Circuits (Chapter 29)
Focus Question: How does a capacitor work in a circuit?
 Electrons leaves the negative terminal of the battery and flow to
the upper plate of the capacitor. The electrons on the upper plate of the
capacitor repel electrons from the lower plate, so those electrons flow
through the resistor to the battery.
 Charge flows in the capacitor until the voltage in the capacitor
equals V, then no more current flows in the circuit.

Charging capacitor – The charge on the capacitor is initially zero.

o Voltage across the resistor: 𝑉 (𝑡) starts at the V (battery voltage) and decays to zero.
o Current, dq/dt, starts at V/𝑅 and decays to 0.
o Voltage across the capacitor: 𝑉 (𝑡) starts 0 (acts like a wire) and ends at 𝑉 (acts like a short circuit)

By Kirchoff’s Law:
𝑉−𝑉 −𝑉 =0
𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞
𝑉 − 𝐼𝑅 − = 0 → 𝑉 = 𝑅+ =0
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝐶
𝑑𝑞 𝑑𝑞
→ 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅𝐶 + 𝑞 → − 𝑅𝐶 = 𝑞 − 𝐶𝑉
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
Separating the variables: = −𝑑𝑡
The charge on the capacitor goes from 0 to the charge at some time, Q(t).
( )
𝑑𝑞 1
= − 𝑑𝑡
𝑞 − 𝐶𝑉 𝑅𝐶
𝑄(𝑡) 𝑡
ln|𝑞 − 𝐶𝑉| =−
0 𝑅𝐶
𝑡 𝑄(𝑡) − 𝐶𝑉 𝑡
ln|𝑄(𝑡) − 𝐶𝑉| − ln|−𝐶𝑉| = − → ln =−
𝑅𝐶 −𝐶𝑉 𝑅𝐶
𝑄(𝑡) − 𝐶𝑉
=𝑒 → 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝐶𝑉 1 − 𝑒
−𝐶𝑉

Dividing the result by the capacitance, the voltage across the capacitance as a function of time can be found:
𝒕
𝑽𝑪 (𝒕) = 𝑽 𝟏 − 𝒆 𝑹𝑪

This is also commonly written as 𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑉 1 − 𝑒 , where 𝜏 is the time constant, where 𝝉 = 𝑹𝑪.

The voltage in the resistor acts opposite the capacitor as it drops to zero by the opposite function:
𝒕
𝑽𝑹 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒆 𝑹𝑪

𝒕
𝑽
The current also drops to zero: 𝑰(𝒕) = 𝒆 𝑹𝑪
𝑹

48
Graphs for to charging circuit:

Example A: Power is supplied to the circuit on the right

a) What steady current flows in the circuit on the right through the 4
ohm resistor? Justify your answer?
b) What is the charge stored in the capacitor?

a) At steady state, current simply stops flowing through the branch with the capacitor, so the circuit will
be a simple loop through the two resistors.
𝐼= = 𝟏𝟎 𝑨
Ω Ω
b) The capacitor is in parallel with the 8 ohm resistor, so it will only have the voltage of that resistor.
Ω
The voltage of the 8 ohm capacitor is 120 𝑉 = 80 𝑉
Ω Ω
𝑈 = 𝐶𝑉 = (6𝑥10 𝐹)(80 𝑉) =. 𝟎𝟐 𝑱

Discharging Circuit – Suppose the switch in the RC circuit is left closed for a
long time and then opened.

o 𝑉 (𝑡): starts at the 𝑉 and decays to zero.

o Current, dq/dt, starts at 𝑉 /𝑅 and decays to 0.

o 𝑉 (𝑡): starts at 𝑉 and decays to zero.

By Kirchoff’s Law:

𝑉 +𝑉 =0

𝑞 𝑑𝑞 𝑞 𝑑𝑞
+ 𝑅=0→ =−
𝐶 𝑑𝑡 𝑅𝐶 𝑑𝑡

Separating the variables: =− 𝑑𝑡

( )
The charge on the capacitor starts at its maximum value, Q, and goes to Q(t): ∫ =∫ − 𝑑𝑡

𝑄(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑡 𝑄(𝑡) 𝑡 𝑄(𝑡)

→ ln|𝑞| =− → ln|𝑄(𝑡)| − ln|𝑄| = − → ln =− → =𝑒 → 𝑄(𝑡) = 𝑄𝑒
𝑄 𝑅𝐶 𝑅𝐶 𝑄 𝑅𝐶 𝑄

49
 𝒕
The voltage across the capacitor is then 𝑽𝑪 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒆 𝑹𝑪

𝒕
The capacitor acts as the battery for the resistor, so 𝑽𝑹 (𝒕) = 𝑽𝒆 𝑹𝑪

𝒕
𝑽
The current also drops asymptotically to zero: 𝑰(𝒕) = 𝒆 𝑹𝑪
𝑹

Graphs for to discharging circuit:

Example B: A circuit with a 9 V battery of negligible internal

resistance is set up with 2 resistors in series with a 10 𝜇𝐹 capacitor.
Two switches exist in the circuit.
a) S1 is closed at time t = 0 s. S2 is kept open.
i. Calculate the time constant.
ii. Calculate the time it would take the capacitor to reach
a potential differenct of 6 V
b) Once the capactior is fully charged, S2 is closed. S1 is opened.
i. Calculate the new constant.
ii. Find the current in the 1 kΩ as a function of time.

a) i. The time constant is based only on the resistors directly in series with the capacitor, in this, both resistors
are in series with the resistor.
𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = (3000 Ω + 1000 Ω)(10𝑥10 𝐹) = 4𝑥10 Ω𝐹
/ )
ii. 𝑉 (𝑡) = 𝑉(1 − 𝑒
→ 6 𝑉 = (12 𝑉) 1 − 𝑒 Ω

𝑡
→ 0.5 = 𝑒 → ln|. 5| = − → 𝑡 = − (4𝑥10 ) ln|. 5| = 2.8𝑥10 𝑠
4𝑥10

b) i. Now, only the 1 kΩ resistor is in series with the capacitor.

𝜏 = 𝑅𝐶 = (1000 Ω)(10𝑥10 𝐹) = 1𝑥10 Ω𝐹
ii. Even though only the kΩ resistor is used for the time constant, the starting current is based on the steady-
state current when both resistors were in series:
𝐼(𝑡) = 𝑒 → 𝐼(𝑡) = 𝑒
Ω

𝐼(𝑡) = .00225𝑒

50
Example C: Here’s a physics problem. V = 100 volts; C1 = 12
microfarads; C2 = 24 microfarads; R = 10 ohms. Initially, C l and
C2 are uncharged, and all switches are open.

a) First, switch S1 is closed. Determine the charge on Cl when

equilibrium is reached.
b) Next S1 is opened and afterward S2 is closed. Determine the
charge on C1 when equilibrium is again reached.
c) For the equilibrium condition of part (b), determine the
voltage across C1.
d) How much energy is lost in the wires connecting the capacitors while steady is being reached?

a) The total charge once 𝐶 is charged is 𝑄 = 𝐶 𝜀 = (12𝑥10 )(100 𝑉) = 𝟏. 𝟐 𝒎𝑪

b) At equilibrium the voltage on each is equal.

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
𝑉 =𝑉 → = → =
𝐶 𝐶 12 𝜇𝐹 24 𝜇𝐹
→ 𝑄 = 2𝑄
The 1.2 mC charge is split between the capacitors:
𝑄 + 𝑄 = 1.2𝑥10 𝐶
Solving the system: 𝑸𝟏 = 𝟒𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝑪, 𝑸𝟐 = 𝟖𝒙𝟏𝟎 𝟒 𝑪

c) 𝑉 = = = 33 𝑉

d) The energy initially stored in C1 is: 𝑈 = (12𝑥10 )(100 𝑉) = .06 J

The energy in C1 after steady state: 𝑈 = (12𝑥10 )(33 𝑉) = .013 J
The energy in C2 after steady state: 𝑈 = (24𝑥10 )(33 𝑉) = .013 J

Energy lost = . 06 𝐽 − (.013 𝐽 + .013 𝐽)

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