Electric Circuits - Manual - 3h
Electric Circuits - Manual - 3h
Electric Circuits - Manual - 3h
Resistances in circuits
Analogy of water flow and electric current
An electrical circuit consists of a closed loop with a number of different elements through which electric current
passes. This loop may be made up of a number of sub-loops. In order to understand the concepts of voltage,
current, resistance, and conductance, we will use the following analogy.
Consider a water pump as presented in Figure 1 below, which lifts water through a height, 𝐻, up to reservoir A,
from which the water flows down a pipe of diameter, 𝐷, to reservoir B below. The pump then takes the water from
reservoir B and pumps it back up the same height, 𝐻, to reservoir A. This water circuit is a closed loop. The pump
gives potential energy (gravitational) to the water in the same way that a battery in an electrical circuit provides
energy to the electrical charges. The height difference (𝐻) between A and B determines the magnitude of the
water droplets’ potential energy (𝐸 = 𝑚𝑔𝐻), which is released when they fall down the pipe. This is analogous to
the voltage difference between the positive and negative terminals of a battery, or any other source of voltage. It
determines the rate at which the electrical charges move (current).
The amount of droplets passing a given point in one second is analogous to the electrical current, which
corresponds to the number of electrons (with a total charge measured in Coulombs) that pass a given point in one
second. The unit of current is Amperes. The diameter of the water pipe can relate to the resistance of an electrical
component. The larger the diameter of the pipe, the greater the flow rate of water is (the smaller the diameter,
the smaller is the flow rate). Assuming the applied voltage is the same, thicker wires of the same material can carry
more current. The resistance is the ability to restrict the current flow which is measured in Ohms (Ω).
Current convention
In the wires of electrical circuits, negatively-charged electrons carry the current. However, in other devices such as
batteries, positively-charged ions may also contribute to the current. Positive charges move in the opposite
direction to that of the electrons. Historically, the direction of electrical current is taken to be that of positive
charges.
∆𝑉 = 𝑅𝐼 , (eq. 1)
with 𝑅 being the resistance of the element as discussed above. Ohm’s law implies that a plot of voltage as a
function of current in a circuit can be used to determine the resistance (the slope of the straight line graph equals
the resistance). The resistance value of commercial resistor can be obtained from colored bars printed on it (see
the Tutorial - Using a multimeter) or measured using an Ohmmeter. For combinations of more than one resistor,
methods for calculating the total resistance will be investigated during this experiment.
Kirchhoff’s rules
We can analyse a simple circuit using Ohm’s law and the rules for series and parallel combinations of resistors. For
more complex circuits we use Kirchhoff’s rules. These two rules allow one to set up sets of equations which can be
algebraically manipulated to solve for the unknown quantities (usually the current through all parts of a circuit).
The initial step in applying Kirchhoff’s rules is to choose the direction of flow for all the currents of the circuit. In
the example shown in Figure 2, we can be certain of these directions of flow. In more complex circuits the
directions must be “guessed” and if a final result leads to a negative current, then the magnitude is still correct but
we know the direction must be changed. If we apply the junction rule to the example circuit shown, we find at the
junction labelled by point “c” we get;
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 . (eq. 2)
We know that at point “d” the two currents re-join and should be equal to 𝐼1 . Applying the junction rule at point
“d” would just give the same equation and thus no new information. The Loop Rule will be needed to continue.
The second rule is equivalent to the law of conservation of energy. Any charge that moves around a closed loop in
a circuit, on returning to its original point will have the same potential energy or V (voltage) with which it started. It
must gain as much energy as it loses.
A charge’s energy may decrease across a resistor by ∆𝑉 = −𝐼𝑅 or increase by flowing through a power source
such as a battery from negative (–) to positive (+). However, when the charge reaches the starting point of a loop,
its energy will be back to its original level.
In the circuit shown in Figure 2, there are three possible loops that could be used to build conservation of energy
equations. However since we have three unknowns to find (𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 ) and already have one independent equation
(from the Junction Rule, 𝐼1 = 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 ), we only need two additional loops to get two more equations. (i.e. with
three independent equations one can algebraically solve for three unknowns). Thus two loops are chosen as
indicated in the Figure 2 (the loops are shown inside the circuit).
For the larger loop, one starts at point “a” at zero potential and travels through the power source from negative (–
) to positive (+), giving a voltage rise of ∆𝑉0 . Passing through the first resistor gives a voltage drop that depends on
𝐼1 namely, ∆𝑉 = −𝑅1 𝐼1 . In this loop the next resistor to go through gives the final voltage drop of ∆𝑉 = −𝑅2 𝐼2
and then we return back to point “a”. Thus the second equation is:
∆𝑉0 − 𝑅1 𝐼1 − 𝑅2 𝐼2 = 0. (eq. 3)
The second loop chosen has no source of potential but if we examine the behaviour of a test charge forced around
this loop, its potential will drop when passing through a resistor in the same direction as the current OR will rise if
going the opposite direction of the current (like going up or down a waterfall). Thus if we pick point “c” as the
starting point then we are traveling with the current through resistor 𝑅2 (voltage drops) and go against the current
through resistor 𝑅3 (voltage rises) and we return back to “c”. This gives the equation:
−𝑅2 𝐼2 + 𝑅3 𝐼3 = 0. (eq. 4)
We now have three equations (eqs. 2, 3, and 4) and three unknowns (𝐼1 , 𝐼2 , 𝐼3 ). You can now choose any way to
solve the three equations and determine the unknown currents.
Suggested reading
Students taking Suggested reading
PHY 1122 Section 24.2, Young, H. D., Freedman, R. A., University Physics with Modern
Chapters 25 and 26 Physics, 13th edition. Addison-Wesley (2012).
PHY 1322 Section 26.3, Serway, R. A., Jewett, J. W., Physics for Scientists and Engineers
Chapters 27 and 28 with Modern Physics, eight edition. Brooks/Cole (2010).
PHY 1124 Section 25.4, Halliday, D., Resnick, R., Walker, J., Fundamentals of Physics, 9th
Chapters 26 and 27 edition. Wiley (2011).
Materials
Computer equipped with Logger Pro
Computer equipped with the National Instrument myDAQ virtual instruments
National Instrument myDAQ data acquisition system
Wire kit and breadboard
Resistors (470 , 1 k and 3.3 k) and capacitors (0.1 F and 0.22 F)
Safety warnings
You should always disconnect your circuit from the power source to use the Ohmmeter. You should also always
double check your circuit before adding the power source. In case of doubt, ask your TA to verify your circuit.
Step 2. Using the resistor colour chart in the Tutorial - Using a multimeter, identify the resistance values of the
three resistors and complete columns 3, 4 and 5 of Table 1.
Step 3. Using the Fluke multimeter (the yellow one), measure the resistance values of the three resistors.
- Select the symbol.
- Connect the black and red cable with alligator clips to both branches of one resistor.
- Record the resistance value and complete columns 6 and 7 of Table 1. Use an uncertainty of
±1% to complete column 7.
Step 4. Compare the colour coded value with your measurement and complete the last column of Table 1.
Step 2. Assemble the circuit below using your 1 k resistor, the Fluke multimeter as a voltmeter and the
myDAQ multimeter as an ammeter. The power supply is the red and black wires labelled AO0 and AGND
coming out of your myDAQ unit. Refer to the tutorials in order to make the proper connections.
Optional: Ask your TA to verify your circuit before going to the next step.
Step 3. Select the DC current ammeter in the myDAQ multimeter window (third button in the Measurement
Settings section). Select Auto in the Mode menu. Click Run to start making measurements.
Step 4. Set the Voltage Level of the power supply to 0.25 V. Make sure the Channel Settings is set to
myDAQ1/ao0. Click Start to turn the power on. Read the voltage and the current using your
multimeters. Enter the values in Table 2.
Step 6. Launch the Logger Pro program. Prepare a graph of the Voltage at the resistor (in V) vs. Current (in A).
This is your Graph 1. Arrange your graph to get a proper display according to the tutorial How to prepare
a graph.
Step 7. Perform a linear fit of Graph 1. Select the graph, click Analyze then Linear Fit.
Step 9. We strongly recommend that you save all the work you do during the lab in case you need to review it
later. Click File/Save As… to save your experiment file (suggested name: Ohm_YOUR_NAMES.cmbl). You
can either send the file to yourself by email or save it on a USB key.
Step 2. Using the ohmmeter, measure the effective resistance of various combinations of resistors in parallel to
complete Table 4. Assemble your resistors in parallel using the breadboard.
Step 3. Using the ohmmeter, measure the effective resistance of resistor 1 in series with resistors 2 and 3 in
parallel (see below). Assemble this mixed circuit using the breadboard.
Step 2. Measure the effective capacitance of these two capacitors connected in series or in parallel. Assemble
your capacitors using the breadboard and complete Table 5.
Step 2. Turn off the Fluke multimeter. Disassemble your circuit and put all wires, the three resistors, and the
two capacitors back in the wire kit.
Step 3. Please recycle scrap paper and throw away any garbage. Please leave your station as clean as you can.
Step 4. Push back the monitor, keyboard and mouse. Also please push your chairs back under the table.