This document discusses several electrical concepts including Ohm's law, current division, voltage division, Kirchhoff's laws, star-delta transformations, and the superposition theorem. Ohm's law is not applicable to nonlinear or unilateral elements. Parallel circuits divide total current according to branch resistances. Series circuits divide total voltage according to resistor ratios.
This document discusses several electrical concepts including Ohm's law, current division, voltage division, Kirchhoff's laws, star-delta transformations, and the superposition theorem. Ohm's law is not applicable to nonlinear or unilateral elements. Parallel circuits divide total current according to branch resistances. Series circuits divide total voltage according to resistor ratios.
This document discusses several electrical concepts including Ohm's law, current division, voltage division, Kirchhoff's laws, star-delta transformations, and the superposition theorem. Ohm's law is not applicable to nonlinear or unilateral elements. Parallel circuits divide total current according to branch resistances. Series circuits divide total voltage according to resistor ratios.
This document discusses several electrical concepts including Ohm's law, current division, voltage division, Kirchhoff's laws, star-delta transformations, and the superposition theorem. Ohm's law is not applicable to nonlinear or unilateral elements. Parallel circuits divide total current according to branch resistances. Series circuits divide total voltage according to resistor ratios.
The limitations of Ohm's law are explained as follows: 1. This law cannot be applied to unilateral networks. A unilateral network has unilateral elements like diode, transistors, etc., which do not have same voltage current relation for both directions of current. 2. Ohm's law is also not applicable for non – linear elements. Non-linear elements are those which do not have current exactly proportional to the applied voltage, that means the resistance value of those elements changes for different values of voltage and current. Examples of non – linear elements are thyristor, electric arc, etc.
1.6 Current Division:
In a parallel circuit, the Current Division in all branches. Thus, a parallel circuit acts as a current divider. The total current entering into the parallel branches is divided into the branches currents according to the resistance values. The branch having higher resistance allows lesser current, and the branch with lower resistance allows more current. Let us find the current division in the parallel circuit shown in Fig. 1.32.
The voltage applied across each resistor is Vs. The current passing through each resistor is given by
If RT is the total resistance, which is given by R1R2/(R1+R2),
Total current
Similarly, From the above equations, we can conclude that the current in any branch is equal to the ratio of the opposite branch resistance to the total resistance value, multiplied by the total current in the circuit. BEEE Page 9 CMRIT
1.7 Voltage Divider:
The series circuit acts as a voltage divider. Since the same current flows through each resistor, the voltage drops are proportional to the values of resistors. Using this principle, different voltages can be obtained from a single source, called a voltage divider. For example, the voltage across a 40 Ω resistor is twice that of 20 Ω in a series circuit shown in Fig. 1.19. In general, if the circuit consists of a number of series resistors, , the total current is given by the total voltage divided by equivalent resistance. This is shown in Fig. 1.20.
The current in the circuit is given by I=Vs/(R1+R2+…+Rm). The voltage across any resistor is nothing but the current passing through it, multiplied by that particular resistor. Therefore,
where Vm is the voltage across mth resistor, Rm is the resistance across which the voltage is to be determined and RT is the total series resistance.
1.8 Source Transformation Technique:
In solving networks to find solutions one may have to deal with energy sources. It has already been discussed before that basically, energy sources are either voltage sources or current sources. Sometimes it is necessary to convert a voltage source to a current source and vice-versa.
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1.9 Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law :
Kirchhoff’s voltage law states that the algebraic sum of all branch voltages around any closed path in a circuit is always zero at all instants of time. When the current passes through a resistor, there is a loss of energy and, therefore, a voltage drop. In any element, the current always flows from higher potential to lower potential. Consider the circuit in Fig. 1.11. It is customary to take the direction of current I as indicated in the figure, i.e. it leaves the positive terminal of the vol- tage source and enters into the negative terminal.
As the current passes through the circuit, the sum of the voltage drop around the loop is equal to the total voltage in that loop. Here the polarities are attributed to the resistors to indicate that the voltages at points a, c and e are more than the voltages at b. d and f respectively. as the current passes from a to f
Consider the problem of finding out the current supplied by the source V in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.12. Our first step is to assume the reference current direction and to indicate the polarities for different elements. (See Fig. 1.13).
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By using Ohm’s law, we find the voltage across each resistor as follows.
where VR1,VR2 and VR3 are the voltages across R1,R2 and R3, respectively. Finally, by applying
Kirchhoff’s law, we can form the equation
From the above equation the current delivered by the source is given by
1.10 Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
Kirchhoff’s Current Law states that the sum of the currents entering into any node is equal to the sum of the currents leaving that node. The node may be an interconnection of two or more branches. In any parallel circuit, the node is a junction point of two or more branches.
The total current entering into a node is equal to the current leaving that node. For example, consider the circuit shown in Fig. 1.24, which contains two nodes A and B. The total current IT entering node A is divided into I1, I2, and I3.. These currents flow out of node A. According to Kirchhoff’s current law, the current into node A is equal to the total current out of node A: that is, IT=I1+I2+I3.. If we consider node B, all three currents I1, I2, and I3 are entering B, and the total current IT is leaving node B, Kirchhoff s current law formula at this node is therefore the same as at node A.
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In general, sum of the currents entering any point or node or junction equal to sum of the currents leaving from that point or node or junction as shown in Fig. 1.25.
If all of the terms on the right side are brought over to the left side, their signs change to negative and a zero is left on the right side, i.e.
This means that the algebraic sum of all the currents meeting at a junction is equal to zero.
1.11 Star Delta Control Circuit:
The star delta transformation is another technique useful in solving complex networks. Basically, any three circuit elements, i.e. resistive, inductive or capacitive, may be connected in two different ways. One way of connecting these elements is called the star connection, or the Y connection. The other way of connecting these elements is called the delta (Δ) connection. The circuit is said to be in Star Delta Control Circuit, if three elements are connected as shown in Fig. 3.1(a), when it appears like a star (Y). Similarly, the circuit is said to be in delta connection, if three elements are connected as shown in Fig. 3.1(b), when it appears like a delta (Δ).
The above two circuits are equal if their respective resistances from the terminals AB, BC and CA are equal. Consider the Star Delta Control Circuit in Fig. 3.1(a); the resistance from the terminals AB, BC and CA respectively are
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Similarly, in the delta connected network in Fig. 3.1(b), the resistances seen from the terminals AB, BC and CA, respectively, are
Now, if we equate the resistances of Star Delta Control Circuit, we get
Subtracting Eq. 3.2 from Eq. 3.1, and adding Eq. 3.3 to the resultant, we have RI R2
Thus, a delta connection of R1, R2 and R3 may be replaced by a star connection of RA, RB and RC as determined from Eqs 3.4, 3.5 and 3.6. Now if we multiply the Eqs 3.4 and 3.5, 3.5 and 3.6, 3.6 and 3.4, and add the three, we get the final equation as under:
In Eq. 3.7 dividing the LHS by RA, gives R3; dividing it by RB gives R2, and doing the same with RC, gives R1.
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From the above results, we can say that a star connected circuit can be transformed into a delta connected circuit and vice-versa.
From Fig. 3.2 and the above results, we can conclude that any resistance of the delta circuit is equal to the sum of the products of all possible pairs of star resistances divided by the opposite resistance of the star circuit. Similarly, any resistance of the star circuit is equal to the product of two adjacent resistance in the delta connected circuit divided by the sum of all resistances in delta connected circuit.
1.12 Superposition Theorem:
This theorem states that in any linear network containing two or more sources, the response in any element is equal to the algebraic sum of the responses caused by individual sources acting alone, while the other sources are non-operative; that is, while considering the effect of individual sources, other ideal voltage sources and ideal current source in the network are replaced by short circuit and open circuit across their terminals. This theorem is valid only for linear systems. This theorem can be better understood with a numerical example. Consider the circuit which contains two sources as shown in Fig. 3.7. Now let us find the current passing through the 3 Ω resistor in the circuit. According to Principle of Superposition Theorem, the current I2 due to the 20 V Voltage source with 5 A source open circuited = 20/(5 + 3) = 2.5 A. (See Fig. 3.8)
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The current I5 due to 5 A source with 20 V source short circuited is
The total current passing through the 3 Ω resistor is
Let us verify the above result by applying nodal analysis
The current passing in the 3 Ω resistor due to both sources should be 5.625 A. Applying nodal
analysis to Fig. 3.10, we have
The current passing through the 3 Ω resistor is equal to V / 3
So the Principle of Superposition Theorem is verified. Let us now examine thepower
responses. Power dissipated in the 3 Ω resistor due to voltage source acting alone
