CSEC Physics 2022

Grade level: Form 5 (grade 11)

Laboratory exercise: Practical # 11
Scheduled week for conduction of experiment:

Research/theory:
▪ State Ohm’s Law and the formula associated with it. State clearly the meaning of the
symbols in the equation.
▪ Define resistance.
▪ What is a variable resistor? How does it function in a circuit?
▪ Why does the resistance of a resistor increase with temperature?
▪ How is resistance obtained from a graph of Current (y-axis) against Voltage (x-axis)?
▪ Why does the resistance of a semiconductor decrease with an increase in temperature?
▪ How must ammeters be connected in a circuit?
▪ How must voltmeters be connected in a circuit?

Title: Electricity—Resistance
Aim: to find the resistance of a resistor
Apparatus: Direct current power supply, ammeter, voltmeter, resistor of unknown resistance,
rheostat (variable resistor), switch, connecting wires
Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Collect all the apparatus and set up as shown in the circuit diagram with the rheostat at
maximum and the switch off.
2. Ask supervisor/teacher to check the circuit.
3. Insert the key for the switch and record the current, I, on the ammeter and the voltage, V,
on the voltmeter.
4. Change the current and voltage reading using the rheostat and obtain 8 readings over the
widest possible range.
5. Plot a graph of voltage against current

Results/Observations:
Record you results in a suitable table. You table should include the voltage and current values
measured for the unknown resistance.

Calculations:
• Determine the gradient of the graph, m, along with its correct units
1
• Given that the 𝑚 = 𝑅 , where R is the value of the unknown resistance, find the value of R
along with its correct units
• Find the value of the potential difference which gives a current of 0.35A
• Find the value of the current that would flow through the resistor when there is a voltage
of 5V
Discussion:
✓ Define resistance
✓ What does Ohm’s Law state?
✓ Was the resistor (metallic conductor) ohmic? Justify your answer.
✓ What is the relationship between the gradient and the resistance of the resistor? What was
done to the gradient to obtain the resistance of the resistor?
✓ Why was a small current used in the circuit?
✓ How does temperature affect the resistance of a resistor (metallic conductor)?
✓ Why was the value of the resistance not simply calculated from the table?
Caution: Do not simply answer these questions in a haphazard manner. Ensure that the information
written is coherent, and ordered in a logical sequence which flows.

Sources of error
Identify at least three possible sources of error.
Precautions
Identify at least three precautions taken to minimize experimental errors, relating them to sources
of error where appropriate. Non-standard as well as standard precautions must be included.

Conclusion
Draw a conclusion which answers the aim. You may start with the following: “Within the limits
of the experiment, the resistance was found to be ______.” This should be a short, concise
paragraph, not a single sentence.

Reflections
Comment on how this experiment might relate to you, your family, your class, your community
or the wider Caribbean community. One or two sentences should be enough.

Mark Scheme:
Skills assessed: O/R/R
• Uniform decimal places in table (1)
• Suitable scale for each axis (2)
• Appropriate title (1)
• Finely plotted points/crosses (1)
• Axes with quantity and units (2)
• Line of best fit (1)
• Accurate plotting of points:
− 4 points plotted correctly (1)
− 5 or 6 points plotted correctly (2)
Skill assessed: A/I
• Definition of resistance (1)
• States ohms law (1)
• States how resistance of conductor varies with temperature (1)
• States why temperature of resistor must remain constant (1)
• Determines gradient with correct units (2)
• State relationship between resistance and the gradient (1)
• Source of error (1)
• Precaution (1)
• Conclusion with value of resistance (1)
General information

The following are the variables for this experiment;

Independent/Manipulated variable: Voltage
Dependent/Responding variable: Current

Introduction:
Electrical circuits can be represented by circuit diagrams. The various electrical components in the
circuit are shown by using standard symbols. Components can be connected in series, or in parallel.
The current and potential difference (voltage) are different in series and parallel circuits.

Standard symbols
The diagram below shows some of the standard circuit symbols you need to know.

Closed Switch Lamp Cell

Open Switch

Battery Voltmeter Resistor Ammeter

Variable resistor Thermistor Light dependent resistor (LDR)

Series connections
Components that are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit are connected in
series. The current that flows in each component connected in series is the same. The circuit
diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in series. If one lamp breaks, the other lamp
will not be lit.
Parallel connections

The diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in parallel. If one lamp breaks, the other
lamp will still be lit. Because a parallel circuit has more paths for charges to flow along, the
current is bigger, and the resistance of the whole circuit is smaller.

Current and Potential difference

Current
A current flows when an electric charge moves around a circuit. No charge can flow if the circuit
is broken, for example, when a switch is open.

Measuring current:
• Current is measured in amperes
• Amperes is often abbreviated to amps or A
 • Current flowing in a component in a circuit is measured using an ammeter

The ammeter must be connected in series with the component

Potential difference
A 'potential difference' across an electrical component is needed to make a current flow in it.
Cells or batteries often provide the potential difference needed.
'Potential difference' is often called 'voltage'.

Measuring potential difference:

• Potential difference is measured in volts, V

• Potential difference across a component in a circuit is measured using a voltmeter
• The voltmeter must be connected in parallel with the component

Polarity of components in an electric circuit

Whenever electrical components are assembled in a d.c. circuit it is necessary to take care of the
polarity of the connections. The D.C. voltmeter and ammeter must be connected in such a manner
that their positive polarity must be connect to the positive terminal of the battery and the negative
polarity should be connected to the negative of the battery.
The circuit diagram below represents the assembling of components such as a battery (B), a resistor
(R), an inductor coil (L), an ammeter (A), a voltmeter (V) and a key (k). Certain components such
as coils and resistors are not affect by polarity and reversing the polarity of connection does not
affect the operation of the apparatus. In such components the end through which the current flows
in is always at a higher potential than the point through which the current flow out. Also, the
positive terminal of the battery is at a higher potential than the negative terminal.

Energy in circuits
The potential difference between any two points in a circuit is the energy transferred to, or from,
a given amount of charge as it passes between those points. In the circuit above, the charges gain
electrical energy in the cell (Chemical energy is changed to electrical energy), and then transfer
that same amount of energy into light and heat in the lamp. That is why the potential difference
across the cell is the same as the potential difference across the lamp; it is the same amount of
energy.
Series Circuits: Current and potential difference

Current
When two or more components are connected in series, the same current flows in each
component.
Potential difference
When two or more components are connected in series, the total potential difference of the supply
is shared between them. This means that if you add together the voltages across each component
connected in series, the total equals the voltage of the power supply.
Two identical resistors connected in series will share the potential difference. They will get half
each. For example if two identical resistors are connected in series to a 3 V cell then the potential
difference across each of them is 1.5 V.
If resistors connected in series are not the same then the potential difference is larger across the
larger of the resistors.

Resistance

-- An electric current flows when electrons move through a conductor, such as a metal wire. The
moving electrons can collide with the ions in the metal. This makes it more difficult for the current
to flow, and causes resistance. The resistance of an object is a measure of the how reluctant current
is to flow through that object. It is given the symbol R and has the unit Ω (which is a Greek letter
omega and pronounced 'ohm'). A resistor is an electrical component that restricts the flow of
electric current.
--The current through a certain component depends mainly on two things:
(a) the voltage (potential difference) between its ends
(b) the resistance of the component
Current only flows through a component of a circuit if a potential difference (voltage) is put
across it. The bigger the potential difference across its ends the bigger the current flow. If a small
current flows when a large potential difference is applied across the component, the component
has a high resistance. On the other hand, if a large current flows when a small potential
difference is applied across the component, that component has a low resistance.

-- By definition, the electrical resistance (R) of a conductor is the ratio of the p.d. (V) across it to
the current (I) passing through it (R=V/I). The equation 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 is used to work out the resistance
of a component from measurements of the current flowing through it and the potential difference
across its ends.
V=IR
Where V = potential difference or voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A) and
R = resistance in ohms (Ω)
--To measure the resistance of say a piece of wire or a resistor we must find
the voltage (potential difference) between its two ends and the current
flowing through it. To do this we use the circuit shown in the diagram.

It is important to note that the component may have to be flipped around and reconnected to the
circuit to allow the current to flow through it in the opposite direction. In such a case the voltage
and current are now recorded as negative values. The resulting graph will have both negative and
positive current and voltage axes as shown below.
--A graph of current against potential difference shows you how the current flowing through a
component varies with the potential difference across it. This graph is called the current-voltage
(I-V) characteristic of the component. The current-voltage graphs for each component may be
distinct and thus can be used to identify a particular component.
The I-V graph above shows the current flowing through metallic conductor kept at a constant

temperature is directly proportional to the potential difference across it. This is called Ohm’s law.
The following is the I-V curve for a metallic conductor not kept at constant temperature and shows
that as the current increases, the voltage also increases.

I-V curve for a metallic conductor not kept at constant temperature

Important note: For the filament lamp at low currents the I-V characteristic may be fairly straight
but as the current rises producing more heat, the temperature rise increases its resistance so at a
particular voltage, where the filament temperature has risen the current value is lower than it would
be for the ohmic conductor.

I-V graph for a semiconductor

I-V curve for a diode (semiconductor with a P-N junction)

I-V graph for an electrolyte.

Conduction is by means of positive and negative ions and different characteristics are obtained for
different electrolytes, but the electrodes (i.e. the metal terminal where the current enters and leaves
the solution) determine whether the graph goes through the origin. Conduction through the
electrolyte is ohmic (i.e the graph is a straight line which goes through the origin) but when certain
electrodes are used conduction does not begin until the applied voltages reaches a particular value.
The electrode produces an opposing voltage (e.m.f) which has to be overcome by the opposing
voltage. Copper sulphate solution with copper electrodes is ohmic, but dilute sulphuric acid with
carbon electrodes requires 1.7V in either directions before conduction begins.

Note: For the I-V graphs above, since the inverse of the gradient gives the resistance of the resistor
• A constant gradient shows a constant value for the resistance.
• An increase in resistance will show as a reduction in gradient (it becomes less steep). The
increase in resistance will result in a decrease in current.
• A decrease in resistance will show as an increase in the gradient (it becomes steeper). The
decrease in resistance will result in an increase in current.
•